How Earth Is Shaped By Plate Tectonics

How Earth Is Shaped By Plate Tectonics
Shakes, Quakes, and Moving Plates How Our Planet is Shaped by Plate Tectonics
For our fourth and fifth units of the year, we investigated the interior of Earth and how it affects the
surface, focusing on lithospheric plates and their movements. We also delved into one of the most
infamous of natural disasters, earthquakes, which have impacted our area many times over the years.
And, as always, I concluded the unit with an essay summarizing everything I have learned, from the
layers of our planet to seismic waves and seismographs. What are lithospheric plates? How do they
move? What causes earthquakes, and what do you do when one occurs? Be prepared to find out!
In order to truly understand how Earth's physical features are formed, ... Show more content on
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S–waves, a type of seismic wave which cannot travel through liquids, reflect off of the outer core,
telling us that this layer is liquid. Data from seismic waves and other measurements have also told
us that Earth is structured in order of density, with each layer denser than the one above it. This is
because our planet began as fluid, which allowed less–dense materials to rise above denser ones.
Thanks to this, the crust floats atop the denser mantle. Sure, Earth's interior is structured into layers
sorted by density, but what effect does the inside of Earth have on the exterior? The most important
effect can be found within the concept of lithospheric plates, moving pieces of the lithosphere which
slowly reshape the look of Earth's surface at about the same speed as your fingernails grow. I
learned about these plates in our bathymetric map lab, in which we used evidence of lithospheric
plate movements to create a map displaying them. Later, in our convection currents activity, I found
out how plates move in the first place: through convection currents in the mantle. The process
begins when hot mantle material heated by the outer core rises to the surface at a mid–ocean ridge.
At this boundary, called a divergent boundary, two plates on either sides of the ridge pull apart as the
mantle material reaches the surface and cools
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Internal Structure of the Earth
<center>What is the evidence for our knowledge of the internal structure of the Earth?
</center> As we enter the twenty first century we are beginning to learn more and more
about the composition of the Earth. Early predictions have thrown up some rather strange and
peculiar thoughts as to what is making up our Earth, but now day¡¦s scientists can be confident that
the Earth is made up of what they think. As from experiments and other sources of information a
picture to what is really down there is becoming much clearer. So how do these scientists
know that the Earth¡¦s sections are made up of different compositions, and how do we know that the
physical state of each layer is what it is? The outmost layer of the ... Show more content on
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This time could then be scaled up to give the results of what they though would be the times for the
P and then the S–waves to arrive at other destinations. This theory was correct, further away from
the point of the epicentre, first the P–waves arrived followed by the S–waves a few minutes later. So
then they thought that this would be the case for all over the globe, but they found out something
else. They tried to predict the time they expected the waves to reach a destination on exactly on the
other side of the globe, so they scaled up the time interval between the two waves arriving. First the
P–wave arrived, on time as they expected but the S–wave didn¡¦t, this was because the P–waves can
travel through any physical state. However S–waves can only travel through solids which is why
they can pass through the mantle, so a change of physical state must happen in the middle of the
mantle somewhere. The area where the S–waves enter and do not come back out is called the
shadow zone. The P–waves also have a shadow zone. This would be from about 105¢X to 142¢X
marked from the Focus of the earthquake. This is because when the P–waves enter the core they are
bent downwards, they are then bent down again when they leave the core–mantle boundary. So no
waves can emerge at the surface before 142¢X. From these results scientists are convinced
that inside the mantle there is a molten core that must be blocking out the S–waves. So
scientists have very good

The Lithosphere And The Outer Core
The Earth is made up of four layers, the lithosphere, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core.
The layers are constantly moving, changing the Earth. When plates meet they form boundaries.
Stress also pulls on the Earth's crust, causing faults. All of this movement causes things like
volcanoes and earthquakes.
Earth's Lithosphere is made up of the oceanic and continental crust and the more liquid part of the
upper mantle. The lithosphere is broken up into thirteen large pieces called tectonic plates. They
move around on the mantle. The mantle is the largest layer. It takes up about eighty–four percent of
the Earth. It has circular currents called convection. Underneath the mantle, there is the outer core.
The outer core is made out of liquid iron and nickel, and the inner core is made out of solid iron and
nickel.
Plate tectonics is a theory explaining the structure of the Earth 's crust and many associated
occurrences resulting in the interaction of tectonic plates that move slowly over the molten mantle.
They move because of the force of gravity and the convection currents in the mantle. Convection
currents occur when the deeper part of the mantle heats up, making the molten rock less dense, and
floats up towards the top. From there, the magma cools down, making it denser, and it floats down
towards the bottom. This whole process then starts all over again.
Each plate moves in its own direction, at its own speed. A plate boundary is the place where two
plates meet.

Plate Tectonics Research Paper
Have you ever wondered why our continents are in the positions that they are in today? Plate
Tectonics can be used to explain the movement of the plates and the landforms they make. These
landforms include mountains, volcanoes, rift valleys, and much more that are made by convergent
and divergent boundaries. The plates are moved by the convection currents below the surface which
is caused by a heat source, the mantle. Another landform that is made is a mid–ocean ridge, at which
sea floor spreading is taken place, and allows magma to rise and harden on the ocean floor.
Two different types of landforms that form at convergent boundaries are mountains and volcanoes.
Mountains, such as Mount Everest and K2, are formed when two continental plates collide, which
causes the landforms to rise. Volcanoes, such as Mount Saint Helens and Mount Fuji, forms when
the more dense oceanic plate subducts under the less dense continental plate and is driven down into
the hot asthenosphere. Subducted plate melts due to extreme heat and friction. Melted plate rises up
through the crust, where it reaches the surface and cools. Those weak spots allow the magma to
come out, forming into lava. There are also volcanic island arcs, which form when two oceanic
plates collide, and continental volcanic arcs, which forms when an ... Show more content on
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Mid–Ocean Ridges, such as the Mid–Atlantic Ridge, are formed when two oceanic plates move
away from each other, allowing magma to rise up from inside the Earth. The magma reaches the
bottom of the ocean, turns into lava and cools, forming new rock. This cycle continues constantly
spreading the sea floor and adding new material along this chain of mountains. Rift Valleys, such as
Baikal Rift Valley, are formed when two continental plates move away from each other, stretching
out the crust, until it begins to break. As crust is stretched wider, the valley drops

Connections To World History Explanation
Connections to World History Explanation
Archaeology
Archaeology helps us understand world history by showing us how the ancient groups of people
lived before us. They do this by reviewing artifacts left behind by the people of the past. This special
branch of study helps us grasp a vast majority of the events that happened before us. Remains left
behind are evaluted and preserved to be showcased for future refrences and to give us a look in on
who they were.
Geography
Geography helps us understand world history by teaching us about the Earth and all of its many
wonders. This science includes how the earth is divided into continents and countries, the climate,
animal and plant life, people's resources, industries and products these topics go

Plate Tectonics
pg. 1
Plate tectonics is the theory that has been studied for over thirty years that states that the outside
layer of Earth are actually large plates, approximately forty kilometers thick, that slide across the
magma beneath the exterior of the planet. The theory of plate tectonics explains the enormous
amount of volcanic and seismic activity surrounding certain areas of the world, stating that the
sliding of these plates either away from each other, sliding past each other, or sliding into each other
and causing one of the plates to slide beneath the other. When the plates slide away from each other,
new ocean floor is formed. When the plates slide past each other, minor earthquakes will occur.
When the plates slide toward each other and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The famous Canadian geologist, J. Tuzo Wilson, was the first to speculate why there was volcanic
activity in the middle of a tectonic plate in 1963. Wilson was the first to speculate about the hot
spots, or thermal plums. The theory of hot spots is supported by the Hawaiian islands which are
located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean plate, also known as the Ring Of Fire due to the increased
volcanic activity surrounding the plate. Because the plate has been shifting since the beginning of
time, the plate has gradually slid by the hot spot, slowly forming islands across the ocean. One of
the earliest islands, Kauai, has magma sediment from over 5.5 million years old, and the newest
island, Loihi, which is still submerged beneath the ocean and has yet to reach the surface but still is
8,000 feet tall from the bottom of the ocean. The comparison of these islands shows the gradual
movement of plates above the hot spot due to the gradual aging of the sediment rock on the islands,
gradually decreasing in age starting with Kauai.
The difference between volcanoes formed through hot spots compared to those formed by
submerging tectonic plates is that the magma released in volcanoes from hot spots has different
characteristics than other volcanoes. For instance, the magma is released due to its ability to
continually break through the lithosphere, rather than being pressured by the sliding of the tectonic
plates. Both types of volcanoes are similar because of the fact that they both are temporary features
on the planet due to the constant motion of the plates and the cooling of the lithosphere beneath the
tectonic

Seafloor Spread Research Paper
Alfred Wegener produced evidence in 1912 that the continents are in motion, but because he could
not explain what forces could move them, geologists rejected his ideas. Almost 50 years later Harry
Hess confirmed Wegener's ideas by using the evidence of seafloor spreading to explain what moved
continents. The theory of plate tectonics is what brings together continental drift and seafloor
spreading. Plates are made of lithosphere topped with oceanic and/or continental crust. The plates
are moved around on Earth's surface by seafloor spreading. convection in the mantle drives seafloor
spreading. Oceanic crust is created at mid–ocean ridges. The crust moves outward from the ridge
over time. The crust may eventually sink into the mantle and be

Bathymetry Plate Tectonics
Discuss how are knowledge of bathymetry has increased our understanding of plate tectonics?
Bathymetry is the study of Floor Ocean. The earth is covered by 70.8% of water; this includes
oceans, lakes, and seas. Bathymetry is created to know information on water behavior for safety
when navigating on the surface or below the water. One of the methods being used today is the echo
sounders which makes use of sound beneath the water; and together with the GPS is it possible to
give a report of the features of underwater. Also maps are important to scientist to learn more about
the climate change on the environment. The ocean begins, of course, at the shore, the irregular
boundary where the surface of a continent descends first to sea level and

Avalanche Research Paper
What is the new avalanche warning system? The federal government launched a new system four
days after two snowmobilers died in a slide. This new system features an easy, five–level danger
scale scheduled to travel across North America next winter. This scale tells you the likelihood of
avalanches being triggered, the size of the avalanche, how the avalanche will affect other
surrounding areas, and the best recommended action for backcountry travel. The scales of low,
moderate, considerable, high, and extreme are designed to make it clear what the avalanche danger
is in a certain area. This scale is similar to the previous system but it includes icons borrowed from a
European system and makes clear what they mean. How do tectonic plates move

Plateaus In The Appalachian Mountains
The Appalachian Mountains spans from the state of Georgia all the way through the maritime within
the provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Eastern
portions of Quebec. The land is primarily made up of sedimentary rock that was lifted up and
folded, because of the collision of North America with Europe and northern Africa during the
formation of Pangaea, creating mountains. These sheets of sedimentary rock are wealthy in non–
metallic minerals such as coal. In addition, volcanic action and faulting formed igneous and
metamorphic rock in specific space in the Appalachians. Plateaus made of this rock carry metallic
material, because of this such as iron and zinc. Many land forms that may located here are

Vertical Datum
A surface or level which is regarded as a base from which other levels can be counted. For example,
sea level is often used as a datum level against which the height of land and depth of the sea bed are
measured. A geodetic datum is an abstract coordinate system with a reference surface (such as sea
level) that serves to provide known locations to begin surveys and create maps. In this way, datum
act similar to starting points when you give someone directions. For instance, when you want to tell
someone how to get to your house, you give them a starting point that they know, like a crossroads
or a building address. Geodesists and surveyors use datum to create starting or reference points for
floodplain maps, property boundaries, construction surveys, levee design, or other work requiring
accurate coordinates that are consistent with one another. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Horizontal datum measure positions (latitude and longitude) on the surface of the Earth, while
vertical datum are used to measure land elevations and water depths. The horizontal datum can be
accessed and used through a collection of specific points on the Earth whose latitude and longitude
have been accurately determined by NOAA's National Geodetic Survey. One application of the
horizontal datum is monitoring the movement of the Earth's crust. This type of monitoring is often
used in places like the San Andreas Fault in California where many earthquakes occur. The vertical
datum is similarly "realized" through a collection of specific points on the Earth with known heights
either above or below a nationally defined reference surface (e.g., mean sea level). Geodetic vertical
datum are generally used to express land elevations. However, water level datum are a slightly
different vertical datum, and are used as a reference level to which bathymetric soundings are
referenced for nautical charts. Conversion between these two can be done through geodetic surveys
at tide

Plate Tectonics Theory Change
Theory Change Essay
The plate tectonics theory is the theory that the outer rigid layer of the earth is divided into several
plates that move around across the earth's surface. There are many topics that support this theory,
but I think that continental drift and seismic activity help support it the best. Theories can change
over time because people get new understandings of things as time goes by, new knowledge is
gained with new technology, and new discoveries can be made.
Continental drift is the gradual movement of the continents across the earth's surface over time. It
explains that at one point, all the continents were stuck together as one big continent and have since
drifted apart, forming the seven continents we have today. It shows how the continents have shifted
position on Earth's surface. Continental drift supports the theory of plate tectonics because the plate
boundaries are where each of the continents split apart. For example, where South America broke
off of Africa, there is a plate boundary that has moved around across the surface of the Earth. This is
why ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are several reasons for this. The first reason they change over time is because knowledge
builds on itself causing people to have new understandings of concepts which can change a theory.
Also, new technologies and tools can help scientists discover new things which leads to changing
theories. It is important to continue testing theories because they have the potential to change over
time and scientists need to make sure it is accurately explaining a concept. Validating theories is also
important because scientists need to confirm that their theory is accurate and not incorrect.
Sometimes scientists need to revise their theories. They need to do this because something may have
changed within their theory, so they have to revise it to make it correct again. Most of the time, the
modification of these theories is initiated by somebody asking a

Dry Tortugas Research Paper
Home to hundreds of marine life species off the coast of Florida's blue waters and accessible only by
boat, the seven small islands are known as the Dry Tortugas provide the country with an
aesthetically pleasing National Park. This picturesque landscape provides visual amenities such as
coral reefs, bird habitats, and the great Fort Jefferson. However, it took a considerable amount of
time, weathering, and human intervention to shift and shape the park to its modern day structure.
Starting some millions of years ago with the late Paleozoic era, and evolving into the modern day
Holocene epoch, the area of and around the Dry Tortugas has experienced significant geological and
chemical changes. This paper examines research conducted to assess ... Show more content on
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Scientist Walter Adey has collected analysis's and created models discussing the change in coral reef
morphogenesis. In his research, Adey explains today's modern Dry Tortugas coral reef distribution
conforms with the idea of "sea level rising resulting from Holocene crustal adjustment" (Adey,
1978, p. 831). Researcher Gary Davis further supports Adey's claims with his discussion of the
natural change in coral distribution. Davis explains the form and structure of Dry Tortugas reefs
have been determined by geologic and environmental conditions. Specifically, "atoll–like structures,
determined by western currents," while the "occurrence of bank reefs reflects the moderate wave
energy generated by summer 'trade winds'" (Davis, 1982, p.

Analysis: The Permian Period
The Permian Period was the final period of the Paleozoic Era. This period lasted from 299 to 251
million years ago. The transition from the Paleozoic Era and the Mesozoic Era was the Permian
Period. During the end of the Permian Period, Earth's largest mass extinction occurred. The time
period was named as it was by a British geologist named Roderick Murchison in 1841. He went on a
tour to Imperial Russia to include the, "vast series of beds of marl, schist, limestone, sandstone, and
conglomerate" overlay the Carboniferous formations in the eastern part of Russia. Murchison named
it after the kingdom of Permia, and the present city of Perm near the Ural Mountains of Russia.
During this period, Gondwana and Euramerica formed Pangea. The collision of tectonic plates
caused volcanic activity. This ended up forming the Urals, Alps, Appalachians, and Rocky
Mountains. Pangea was shaped like the letter "C". The northern landmasses would become Europe
and Asia. North and South America formed from the curved part of the "C." India, Australia, and
Antarctica made up the lower part of the land mass. In this landmass was the Tethys Ocean. There
were also glaciers in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Synapsids had a skull with a single temporal opening that is believed to have developed into
mammals. Sauropsids had a skull with two openings and were the ancestors of reptiles, including
birds and dinosaurs. During the early period, Synapsids were the dominant group. The earliest
Synapsids were the Pelycosaurs; it included a genus called Dimetrodon. The animal had a large
lizard like body with a bony "sail" on it's back. However the skulls, jaws, and teeth are closer to
mammals than reptiles. Lystrosaurus was another genus of the Synapsids; it was 3 feet long and
looked like a cross between a lizard and a hippopotamus. A Lystrosaurus had a flat face with two
tusks and legs angled away from the body (similar to the typical reptilian

Mount St Helen Research Paper
Mount Saint Helen
The theory of the continental drift is that the continents have slowly drifted to their current location.
Alfred Wegener believed that all the seven continents were once a supercontinent known as Pangea.
A discovery that came from climate clues like glacial deposits in South America, Africa, Australia
and India. Rock and fossils matching evidence found in South America and Africa.
The theory of plate tectonics states that Earth's outer shell is divided into plates. The crust and upper
mantle is broken into plates that move around on the mantle, changing in size throughout time. The
lithosphere makes up the crust and upper mantle and the asthenosphere a plastic like layer beneath
the lithosphere. There are three types of plate boundaries. Divergent boundaries where two plates
move away from each other. The ocean widens and new crust forms at the mid–oceanic ridge.
Convergent boundaries has three types of converging, moving two plates towards each other. First
we have an ocean floor plate that collides with a less dense continental plate. Next an ocean floor
plate collides with another ocean floor plate. Finally a continental plate collides with another
continental plate. Transform boundaries were two plates slide past one another. The resulting effects
of plate tectonics is landforms such as rift valleys, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mount Saint Helen is located on The Ring of Fire, a zone of active volcanoes. In 1980 Mount Saint
Helen erupted due to its location on a destructive plate boundary where a continental plate (North
American) meets an oceanic plate (Juan de Fuca). Since the oceanic plate is denser it will submerge
under the continental plate. The plate melts because of friction between moving plates. The melted
plate is now magma which rise through the gaps in the continental plate, forming a volcano once it
reaches the

Subduction Methods Answers
1. Describe the rock cycle in your own words.
The rock cycle is the process in which rocks are created, change their shapes, and eventually are
destroyed.
2. Tell what subduction is, and describe what occurs along subduction zones.
Subduction is what occurs when two tectonic plates collide and one plate slips under the other
tectonic plate. When this happens the bottom tectonic plate fall into the mantle of the earth and be
melted to make room for new tectonic plates.
3. Describe in your own words the New Madrid/Reelfoot fault system (ie location, quake history,
recent activity). Why has the New Madrid fault zone also been referred to as the Reelfoot fault
zone?
The New Madrid fault system stretches from Illinois, through Missouri, down

A Short Note On ' Cheddar '
"Just need to screw this in, then attach this... DONE!" Cheddar() said as he showed the first ever
T.A.T.I.E (Time and Teleportation in Earth) to the three other greatest cheeses (and one popsicle) of
Cheeselandia: Mozzarella, Swizz, Brie, and Mr. Pops(the popsicle).
Cheddar inquired "Are you sure, Mr. Pops, that we should put the motor there next to the hypro–
stabilizer?" Cheddar was very dramatic and loved to ask questions. Sometimes he was shy. He was a
great builder and machinist.
Mr. Pops bragged, "Of course it goes there! I got close to building a functional T.A.T.I.E you
know?" Mr. Pops always shouted, always made mistakes, and had a very high ego, so he thought
very highly of himself.
Brie snatched the screwdriver from Cheddar and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He opened up the chesseopedia and read out some facts about the Earth. "Did you know that the
Earth is 2900 kilometers deep and has a low enough density to float on the outer core. Also it is
divided into three parts, the upper mantle which is 395 km deep, the asthenosphere which is 100 km,
and the lower mantle which is the remainder of the mantle or," Swizz did a quick calculation, "2405
km or 1494 miles! Wow even I am surprised!"
"Swizz! Shut your mouth! The T.A.T.I.E. is about to MELT! MELT! We're all going to be nacho
dipping sauce!" exclaimed Mozzarella. "I'm going to hit this button!" He points to the blue button
and quickly teleports to the inner core.
"Wow the mantle was awesome!" exclaimed Mr. Pops. "Yeah it sure was amazing!" agreed
Mozzarella. "Well it was meh, in my opinion. I didn 't quite like it." Brie disagreed "Don 't be so
negative Brie! Other people liked it! Anyway, where are we heading next?" asked Cheddar. "Well,
we will be heading towards earth's burning, iron, inner core right now!" With that said, they were
soon speeding towards the center of the earth, the inner core. "Wow the inner core is so much more
interesting than the mantle!"squealed Mozzarella, "I know we are in a T.A.T.I.E, but I can feel the
burning sensation against my chekin. (It is skin for cheese.)" "That 's the heater , Mozzarella! If you
were burning in the inner core, you 're going to melt because it is 2000 degrees celsius to

Shawangunk Mountain Formation
Abstract: Determining the location of the Shawangunk Mountain formation from our position on the
outcrop can demonstrate a lot about the upbringing of this formation. The Shawangunk Formation,
consisting of quartz pebble conglomerate from the Middle Silurian age, extends from south of the
Hudson Valley down south until Virginia. The vanishing of the formation within the area of
Rosendale, NY has led to investigations of tectonic events. Due to the Taconic orogeny, we see the
formation of the Shawangunk Mountains being formatted. Through the transgression of fluvial
system, the Shawangunk Mountain formation rose southeast as the result of the tectonic
deformation. The coarse–grained beds in the lower portion of the outcrop demonstrate a very ...
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The black color comes from Mnganeese dioxide that has been dissolved in the water and
participates out. This process has nothing to do with the primary process of disposition. However, it
is very similar to how detriots react. Notice the orange tints to the beds towards the top of the
outcrop are due to the oxidation of iron. It began dissolving iron into the rock formation that
oxidizes as the air hits. Green coloring is also exposed due to the algae, and moss growing. This
displays the terrestrial life forms due to the Mollase

Pangaea Research Paper
Pangaea
We believe that earth was one and all the continents were all together together then something
happened that split them up.About 300 million years ago, Earth didn't have seven continents, but
instead one huge supercontinent called Pangaea, which was surrounded by a single ocean called
Panthalassa. Beyond that, the details get fuzzy. While the heat formed in the mantle likely comes
from the when a radioactive substance breaks down of unstable elements, such as uranium, scientists
don't agree on whether there are mini–pockets of heat flow within the mantle, or if the whole shell is
one big heat conveyor belt.
The supercontinent began to break apart about 200 million years ago.
The explanation for Pangaea's (creation and construction/ group of objects) brought in the modern
explanation of plate (the study of Earth's surface plate movement), which suggests says that the
Earth's outer shell is broken up into (more than two, but not a lot of) plates that slide over Earth's
rocky shell, the mantle. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The current setup of continents is unlikely to be the last. Supercontinents have formed more than
two, but not a lot of times in Earth's history, only to be split off into new continents. Rightnow for
instance, Australia is slowly moving toward Asia, and the eastern part of/amount of Africa is slowly
peeling off from the rest of the continent. Land and rock experts have seen have heard have become
aware of that there is an almost–regular cycle in which supercontinents form and break up every 300
to 400 million years, but exactly why is a mystery, Murphy said. But most scientists believe that the
supercontinent cycle is mostly driven by circulation patterns of relationships, movement, or sound in
the mantle, according to a 2010 article in the Journal of

Plate Tectonics: Birth Of A Theory
Based on the information in the textbook and the instructor note, plate tectonics is the Earth's
surface divided into several plates that move slowly and change in size. I found the video Plate
Tectonics: "Birth of a Theory" in session 13 very useful. It helps me understand the material easily
by using the animation to illustrate the process of plate tectonics. It is amazing about the fact that the
continents can be made to fit together like pieces of a picture puzzle. About 225 million years ago,
the Earth seemed to contain only one piece of continent. However, as time goes by, the plate
boundaries have happened. The plates that move away from one another are called divergent plate
boundaries. The plates that move toward each other are called

How Planetary Differentiation Affected The Layers Of The...
Have you ever wondered what the inside of the earth looks like? How it functions? How it was
formed? Unit 2 has been all about the interior Earth. We learned many things like how planetary
differentiation affected the layers of the earth. How people use seismic data to find the depth of the
layers. And what convection currents from inside the earth, create. We learned about the interior
Earth for Unit 2.
Planetary differentiation happened when the Earth first formed. The formation of this planet
generated heat from gravitational energy and the decay of radioactive elements. Scientists think that
earth may have become so hot that it melted. Denser materials sank toward the center, forming
Earths dense, iron core. Less dense material hardened over time to form Earth's outer layers – the
crust and mantle. Planetary differentiation created the layers of the Earth. ... Show more content on
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We learned that in 4th grade. We went more in depth with that this year. There are two types of
Crust; oceanic and continental. Oceanic is thinner and is mostly made of out basalt. Continental
crust is mostly made out of granite. This layer drifts slowly and is solid. The Earth has sub–layers.
The lithosphere is part of the crust and uppermost Mantle. Next down is the Asthenosphere, where
all the tectonic plates are. Then the lowest part of the Mantle is called the Mesosphere. The Mantle
is semi–solid and has convection currents that move the tectonic plates. It contains more iron than
the layer above. The outer core has convection currents that create the magnetic field. It's the swirly
hot iron that really causes it. This is the only layer that is liquid. The inner core is solid because of
the great pressure on it. It is extremely hot. The deeper you go the hotter it gets and iron increases.
Two out of the four main layers have convection

Comparing Seafloor Spreading And Plate Tectonics
There are many similarities and differences between continental drift, seafloor spreading and plate
tectonics. All three of these theories have yet to be proved correct. But the evidence is sound so
therefore it is regarded as the truth. Plate tectonics is a more recent and detailed theory than
continental drift. Seafloor spreading is caused mostly because of what occurs in the other two
theories. All three theories work together to help us understand the Earth. The three theories all have
many similarities, but only a few stand out specifically. They all involve tectonic plates and use the
mantle in the theories. Seafloor spreading occurs because magma erupts and the old floor is always
being subducted. Continental drift and plate tectonics

Essay on Jessica Shawcross Week 3 Lab
Associate Level Material
Plate Tectonics Worksheet
Answer the lab questions for this week and summarize the lab experience using this form.
Carefully read Ch. 8 of Geoscience Laboratory.
Complete this week's lab by filling in your responses to the questions from Geoscience Laboratory.
Although you are only required to respond to the questions in this worksheet, you are encouraged to
answer others from the text on your own.
Questions and charts are from Geoscience Laboratory, 5th ed. (p. 133–150), by T. Freeman, 2009,
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Reprinted with permission.
Lab Questions:
8.4 Which has the greater proportion of Iron, Magnetite, or Hematite?
Magnetite has the higher content of iron out of the two.
8.7 When the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Attoll, fringing and Barrier
8.18 What explains the shrinking of ocean crust as the crust moves away from volcanoes?
As the crust moves away from the volcanoes and cools and becomes less dense and breaks up.
8.20 Does it appear in figure 8.29 that the reversals in Earth's magnetic field are separated in equal
periods of time, or are they random in their occurrences?
Yes it does appear that the earth's magnetic fields are separated in equal periods of time.
8.21 What were the three observations that Vine and Mathews made about the stripes?
1. Directional trends– They followed the pattern of the magnetic fields
2. Order of the color coding on sides of the ridges–
3. Widths of stripes compared to the duration of stripes–
8.25 Why doesn't the South American plate descend beneath the Nazca plate?
Because the South American plate is of the harder continental crust and not the softer oceanic crust.
8.26 How many years will it be until Los Angeles and San Francisco are side by side?
About 12 Million
8.27 What is the average rate of northward movement of India during the past 71 million years (in
centimeters per year)?

Around about 7cm a yeat
8.28 In centimeters per year, calculate the rate at which the Pacific plate is moving northwestern to
the hotspot (which is marked by present day volcanoes).
About 5cm a year.
8.30 Describe the direction of movement of the Pacific plate during the development of the volcanic
islands that comprise the

Plate Tectonics: Why The Continents Look The Way They Do?
Have you ever wondered why the Earth looks the way it does today? Well, you are not the only one.
Not too long ago was it that scientist asked themselves the same question and were able to come up
with an answer. Now, lets take a quick look back at that question. Why do the continents look the
way they do? Well, the short answer is basically plate tectonics. What is that you say? Plate
tectonics is a theory that describes the formation, movements, and interactions of the Earth's
lithosphere with its' asthenosphere. The lithospheric layer of Earth's crust is broken into plates that
move on the asthenosphere, the layer located under. This theory is what basically explains how
continents, volcanoes, and mountains got where they are today. Now,

The Devonian Era
The Devonian period initiating approximately 416 Mya and culminating 359 Mya represents a
geologic time period, which characterizes a major part of the Paleozoic Era. Traversing between the
Silurian period (444 – 416 Mya), and Carboniferous period (359 – 299 Mya) the Devonian period
epitomizes substantial modifications in the world's ecology and geography.
In the early Devonian period, also known as the Lochkovian, Pragian and Emsian epoch, due to
substantial tectonic activity, resulted in the convergence of numerous continental land masses,
forming into two supercontinents known as Euramerica and Gondwana. Both these supercontinents
assembled comparatively close to each other in a single hemisphere near the equator and were
surrounded by massive oceans which resulted in the formation of subduction zones. (Sites with a
high rates of earthquakes, volcanism and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The plates colliding together produced considerable seismic activity, thus leading to the formation of
the Acadian Mountain range. "The Acadian orogeny is the third of the four orogenies that created
the Appalachian orogeny and subsequent basin." (Faill, 297) Orogeny describes any event that leads
to enormous structural deformation of the Earth's lithosphere due to the interaction between tectonic
plates. This series of Appalachian orogeny resulted in the formation of the Appalachian Mountains
of eastern North America. The formation started in the early Devonian period, however reached its
pinnacle during the mid to late Devonian period. As a result of the newly formed mountain range,
there was extensive erosion, which produced prodigious amounts of sediment, which was then
deposited in lowlands and shallow seas nearby during the mid to late Devonian period. This created
a large amount of new low line continental

The Valdivia Earthquake
Earthquakes, also referred to as temblors, are one of the world's most powerful occurrences. The
Earth has four layers: the crust, mantle, inner and outer core. Earthquakes occur in the crust and
upper mantle (Refer to Figure 1). The mantle is made up of semi–molten rock called magma. The
upper mantle rock is hard. The crust is the outer layer of the earth. Together, the crust and upper
mantle make up the lithosphere. The lithosphere is 20–50 km thick and is cracked. The
asthenosphere sits below the lithosphere. The lithosphere consists of tectonic plates (lithospheric
plates). Tectonic plates is the theory that the Earth's outer shell is divided by slabs of solid rock.
When these two tectonic plates make frictional contact the outcome may be deadly.
Sometimes there can be smaller shocks that occur, one's before called the foreshock, and one's after
called the aftershock and the main earthquake called the main shock.
The richter scale, developed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Megathrust earthquakes are the most powerful earthquakes in the world and can produce tsunamis
through a variety of structures. The Valdivia earthquake, in theory, is a convergent the earthquake
was caused by the Nazca plate releasing tension and descending underneath the South American
Plate.The Great Alaska earthquake also appears to be a convergent boundary earthquake as the
Pacific Plate lurched underneath the North American Plate causing the earthquake.
Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers as a result of earthquakes.
During an earthquake, the waves released may be "P" or "S" depending on the way and speed of the
wave (Refer to Figure 3 and 4). P–waves, or primary waves are longitudinal waves. Their vibrations
are along the same direction as the direction of travel. P–waves are faster than S–waves. S–waves,
or secondary waves are transverse waves. They travel at right angles to the direction of

Earth's Crust Research Paper
Day Three (40 minutes)
Prepare the Learner:
Remind the class that with divergent plate tectonics, plates are moving away from each other and
new crust is being made, then ask the question: Why is the earth not getting larger? Poll some of the
answers from the learners and begin the session.
Convergent Boundary:(20 minutes)
Explain to the class that another type of plate tectonics, when the plates crash into each other, is
called convergent, and that this causes the Earths crust to be pushed into the interior where it is
remelted at the same rate the new crust is being made. Discuss the two kinds of surface features
associated with them, then describe to them that with oceanic convergence, a deep ocean trench is
formed along a line of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Further explain when hot spots are formed, they remain constant as the plate moves over it and
results in the formation of volcanoes. Describe to the learners that as the plate moves over a hot
spot, a trail of volcanoes is left behind. The older volcanoes move, new volcanoes will form over the
hot spot. Provide the most well known example of hot spot volcanism, the Hawaiian Islands. Now
play the video "Hawaii's Hotspot". Further discuss that the Hawaiian Islands have been forming for
millions of years, and that the oldest islands in the Hawaiian Island chain are now dead volcanoes.
Be sure to note that the biggest island is also the newest island, with two active volcanoes. Instruct
the learners that these new volcanoes are being fed by the same hot spot that created the older dead
ones, and eventually the big island will also become dormant as the plate moves away forming a
new island fed by the same hot spot.
Ask your students if any examples on the blackboard represent a hot

Boundaries In The United States And The Galapagos Islands
A constructive boundary is a boundary that seems to add to the surface of the earth, one example
would be mountains. These plate boundaries include continental–oceanic boundary, oceanic–oceanic
boundary, and continental–continental boundary. For continental–oceanic convergent the oceanic
sinks under the lighter continental plate and then melts into magma, this magma rises through the
crust to form volcanoes. An oceanic–oceanic convergent boundary creates volcanic island chain, by
the subduction and melting of one plate then magma rises through the crust to form islands and
volcanoes. A continental–continental convergent boundary is where two continental plates collide
and neither of them are dense enough to subdue so the wrinkle up to form mountains. One example
of this is the Himalayan mountains which are formed from the Indian continental plate pushing into
the Eurasian plate causing the to ruffle up into mountains.
One great example of this the Galapagos Islands which is a chain of volcanic islands located off the
coast of Ecuador. Theses islands are formed from two oceanic plates pushing against one another.
The two plates that formed this island chain are the South American and Pacific plates, the Pacific
plate subdue underneath the South American plate and melted, this magma rose to ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some examples of this kind of plate boundary are, oceanic–oceanic or oceanic continental
convergent boundaries which can both lead to the formation of trenches in the ocean. Continental–
Continental divergent plates happen when two continental plates pull apart from another causing
rock in between them to drop deeper and deeper and if it drops low enough it may be filled with
water. Oceanic–oceanic divergent two plates are pushed apart by the continual expansion of magma
at the mid–ocean ridge causing it to expand and subdue underneath another plate and

Dr. Phil's Short Story
Dr. Phil loved the earth's layers. He spent every minute of his life reading theories and watching
videos about them and he always wanted to see the layers. One day, he finally made his drill that
could drill down into the earth and see all the layers as well as learn about them. Dr. Phil put on his
special pressure and cooling suit and set out. As he drilled down he could feel the pressure getting
stronger and stronger.
He got deeper and deeper and came down right in front of Crusty's face. Crusty was in the middle of
his daily walk so he was raged. Dr. Phil could hear him screaming and said "Sorry." Crusty said "it's
ok." "why are you here?" "to learn about earth's layers" said Dr. Phil "Oh" said Crusty "i'll tell ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Phil got to the last layer of the Earth, the Inner Core.
"Wow! The last layer!" exclaimed Dr. Phil, very excited.
"Oh... hello. I wasn't expecting any visitors." said the mysterious blob of solid iron.
"Hi! My name is Dr. Phil and I was here to learn more about the layers of the Earth! I also brought
Crusty, Monica, and Spike with me!" Dr. Phil happily told the blob.
"Oh, hello my friends! Welcome to the last layer, the Inner Core. Since you told a little about
yourself I will tell a little about myself. This layer is the last and smallest. It is 1,250 kilometers
thick and 5000 to 6000 degrees celsius. this place is pretty hot if I do say so myself. Its also made of
Nickel and Iron. Though I am small, I am slowly growing larger and larger." The blob informed
them.
"I guess that's all I need to know about you."
"Yep. By the way, my name is Boba"
"Thanks for telling Boba! Well, I have to get back to the surface."
"Have a great trip back, Dr. Phil and the others."
"Thanks!" Dr. Phil got back into the drill, turned around, and left.
"That was amazing!" Dr. Phil shouted as he took of his heavy suit. It was already night when he was
back from his adventure, but he still took the time to write down all what he saw and heard in his
blue scientific journal. By midnight, he was already asleep, dreaming about what he would do the
next time he went down into the

Continental Drift
One line of evidence used to support continental drift is the discovery of similar fossils on different
continents. Both fossil plants and animals found in India, South Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and
South America are very similar. This supports the idea that the continents were once one because it
suggests that the animals roamed the land, were fossilized where they were when they died, and then
we discovered the fossils after the supercontinent had separated. Another line of evidence that
supports the drifting of continents is geological similarities between western Africa and eastern
South America. Mountain ranges in Buenos Aires, Argentina and mountain ranges in western Africa
are similar. There are also mountain ranges that extend

GEO 151 WA1 Essay examples
1. What are the relationships among Earth's mantle, crust, asthenosphere, and lithosphere?
The lithosphere is basically the strong outer shell of earth. It is roughly 100km thick depending on
its age, and is broken into plates, known as the tectonic plates. Within the lithosphere is the crust as
a portion of the upper mantle.
The crust is the outer most portion of the earth and takes up less than 1% than the total volume of
the earth. It is commonly compared to the skin of an apple, whereas the apple represents the earth.
The temperature of the crust varies from the air on top, to upward of 1600 at the deepest parts. The
tectonic plates are part of the crust of the earth, moving and shifting on the softer mantle or ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thanks to static electricity ice, dirt, rocks and other grains of solid material slowly began to gather
together forming bigger pieces, those pieces formed bigger pieces, having a snowball effect. They
eventually became big enough to have their own gravitational field which then collected more
material, eventually creating a planet. More material meant more mass, which gave the forming
planet even more gravity. With tons and tons of material, and gravity pushing it together, intense
pressure causes intense heat. This combination of pressure and heat gives the earth its molten
interior.
The Jovian (gas) planets formed by a similar process but with less solid materials and with much
more gas that was blown further out by the solar winds. Jupiter and the rest of the gas giant probably
contain a solid core, of rock and other metals. Although none of the gas planets have a solid surface
like we do on earth, only a thicker and thicker atmosphere until reaching the core. It's important to
note, that because Jupiter is so large (317 times the mass of the earth, 1321 times bigger by volume),
and has such large pressure on the interior, elements found as gases on earth could possibly be a
solid or vice versa. For example, metallic hydrogen (which is a state where hydrogen behaves as an
electrical conductor) is only still a theory since we are unable to create the pressures needed here on
earth. Metallic hydrogen is known as the Holy Grail in high pressure physics.

Why Are Some Earthquakes Stronger Than Others?
Before answers: What Causes Earthquakes? Earthquakes are caused when two tectonic plates
collide with one another Why Are Some Quakes Stronger Than Others? Because, I guess the
strength of the tectonic plates. My 5th Grade Presentation! (It has almost none of the info in the
textbook.) (Plus, Mason Suida owns it, not me) (R.I.P Interlochen) I luv this. Tectonic plates rubbing
against each other at the fault line! Fault lines are ends of rocks/plates. Things that are altered by
plates Roads Rocks Streams (Not those live streams) Buildings Ground Homes Neighborhoods
+10,000 more Wait, there's something called Marsquakes??? (Earthquakes on Mars :3) 9.0
magnitude realises 20,000,000,000,000,000,000 erbs of energies!! Bruh, how much longer

Mid-Atlantic Ridge Research Paper
magnetic stripes along the seafloor, with stripes getting older as you move away from the mid–
Atlantic ridge, thus proving that the plates are moving apart. REVISION GUIDE
The mid–Atlantic ridge:
The mid–Atlantic ridge runs like a spine along the ocean floor between the North and South Atlantic
Ocean. It is a constructive plate boundary where crust is created and not destroyed. In the north
Atlantic it separates the North American plate from the Eurasian plate and in the south–Atlantic it
separates the African and south–American plates. It breaches the surface of the water at several
different points along the length, both in the northern and southern hemisphere, but most notably
where you find Iceland, the largest land mass to breach the surface at 102,775km2, with the highest
point recorded at the top of the Oraefajokull volcano at 2109.6m. This however is not the highest
point of the mid–Atlantic ridge, which is found on the Island of Pico, Portugal, at 2351m high, the
lowest being Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, at 22.5m. (ALL WIKI) ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
An example of this can be seen on the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the south–west coast of
Iceland, which continues to create islands. The most recent of these being the creation of Surtsey,
the eruption of which lasted four years, beginning in 1963 and finishing in 1967. The most notable
island on this chain is that of Heimaey, which saw its last eruption of the volcano Eldfell in 1973.
This island has a population of 4500 people and an area of 13.4km2. Eruptions like this and the
creation of islands on the archipelago show that the country is still growing, and show the high
tectonic activity of the

Plate Tectonics: Theoretical Aspects and the Geological...
The chapter presents different theoretical aspects on Plate Tectonics, which help understand how
Earth is built and its internal functioning mechanisms. Central to this theory is the fact that Earth's
surface is made up of several large tectonic plates and a few smaller ones, which can be either
continental or oceanic, and do not necessarily have the same boundaries as the continents or oceans.
These plates shift over long periods of time, movements caused by a force resulted from the planet's
internal heat energy convecting mantle. There are three main types of tectonic plate boundaries:
divergent (when the movement of plate tectonics causes plates to separate, which can lead, on the
long term, to the separation of continents), convergent (plates sink beneath each other forming
subduction zones) and transform plate boundaries (one plate scrapes past the other producing no
new plate material; e.g. the San Andreas Fault in California). The movement of plate tectonics can
be either very smooth, going unnoticed, or more violent, leading to earthquakes. The chapter then
follows with a short geological history of North America, in order to illustrate how the discoveries
regarding the movement of plate tectonics have led to new ways of thinking about the formation of
continents and about the Earth's surface, the development of mountains, oceans and valleys.
In relation to this chapter, it is interesting to know how the discussion about plate tectonics emerged.
Initially,

Convergent Plate Tectonics: Why Is The Earth Getting Larger?
Prepare the Learner:
Remind the class that with divergent plate tectonics, Plates are moving away from each other, and
new crust is being made, then ask the question Why is the earth not getting larger? Poll some of the
answers from the learners and begin the session.
Convergent Boundary:(30 minutes)
Another type of plate tectonics (when the plates crash into each other), is called convergent. This
causes the earths crust to be pushed into the earths interior where it is remelted at the same rate the
new crust is being made. Convergent boundaries have two kinds of surface features associated with
them. With oceanic convergence a deep ocean trench is formed along a line of the two colliding
plates. The narrow and deep trench is formed under ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(5 minutes), Then summarize the main points of the lesson. (5 minutes).
Plate tectonics is a theory that the earths outer rigid layer, the lithosphere, is divided into plates that
are constantly moving across the earths surface, much like ice does on the surface of a lake. When
the plates pull away from each other, it creates what is known as a divergent boundary. When the
plates crash into each other, it creates what is known as a convergent boundary. Finally, When the
tectonic plates have hot spot, or holes that allow hot magma to rise through the crust to the surface
of the earth it is called a hot spot.
Lab: ( 60 minutes)
Materials

The Crust Research Paper
The crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically
distinct from the underlying mantle. The crust of the Earth is very thin compared to all of the other
layers, measuring only three to five miles deep under oceanic crust. The temperature of the crust can
vary from air temperature to 1600 degrees Fahrenheit. One example of how the crust relies on the
other layers because the seven continents and ocean plates practically float across the mantle which
is composed of much hotter and denser material than the crust. Katherine Kelley, an assistant
professor at the University of Rhode Island, stated The cycling of oxygen at the Earth's surface is
central to the life and activity that takes place at ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lithosphere is important because it sits on top of the asthenosphere which is made up of hot
magma. If we did not have the lithosphere, we would be sitting on the asthenosphere, which would
be impossible conditions for humans to live in. After the lithosphere, there is the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere is the upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere. There is relatively low
resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur. It is semi solid molten metal that
causes the movement of tectonic plates. The magma is ejected from this layer during volcanic
eruptions. The asthenosphere is important to the other layers because since convection occurs there,
it drives plate tectonics. Following the asthenosphere is the mantle. The mantle is about 1,800 miles
deep and can vary in temperatures anywhere from 900 to 1700 degrees Fahrenheit. The mantle
makes up eighty–five percent of the total weight and mass of the earth. The mantle is an important
layer of the Earth because it adds to the gravity of the planet. The Mantle is also responsible for the
movement of the Tectonic Plates over the Earth which comes from the decay of radioactive elements
in the Mantle that cause the convection currents. This causes the movement of the tectonic plates.
Therefore, this convection is responsible for shaping the Earth's

Discussion Questions
Sukhsharn Kaur Johal
GEOL 3500
Roger Putnam
23 September 2015
Week 4 Learning Questions
1. What is the difference between body and surface waves?
There are two types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves travel through
the body of the Earth while surface waves travel along the surface of the Earth.
2. What differences are there between P and S waves?
There are two types of body waves: P–waves and S–waves. P–waves are primary waves. They travel
the fastest and are longitudinal waves. A longitudinal wave is when the particle moves parallel to the
direction of the wave velocity. For example, sound waves are P–waves. P–waves can travel through
both solids and liquids. S–waves are secondary waves. They are slower and are transverse ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When the fault ruptures, a P–wave comes first. Then comes the S–wave. The S–wave is more
destructive. There are sensors that can identify the P–wave. This information is sent to an
earthquake alert center. The earthquake alert center starts to determine where the earthquake is
happening and how big the earthquake is. Then this information is sent to your phone or your
computer as a message. This will give you a warning and notify you of the intensity of the
earthquake and when it will arrive in your location. Geologists still can't predict when an earthquake
will happen but they are able to send you a warning when the earthquake does

Rio Grande Rift
The Rio Grande rift is superimposed on a region with a long and complex history of deformation
and heating, which affects the location and com– position of the subsequent rift–related magmatism
(Mack, Seager, Kieling, 1994).. The development of the Rio Grande rift formed part of a series of
Cenozoic extensional events that affected the whole of the western USA. These events were
contemporaneous with changes in motions of the Farallon and North American plates at the Pacific
margin and are widely thought to be genetically related to them by processes such as back–arc
spreading. Alternative hypotheses re– late extension to thermal relaxation and gravity spreading of
Laramide thickened crust and magmatism to active asthenospheric upwelling.
The Rio Grande rift lies just to the east of the continental divide between the Great Plains and the
Colorado Plateau and essentially ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Following the end of Laramide crustal shortening and Palaeogene magmatism, the initiation of the
development of the Rio Grande rift occurred between 31–28 million years ago in southern New
Mexico (Berglund et al., 2012).. This rifting propagated northward to northern New Mexico (27–25
million years ago) and Colorado (27–26 Million years ago) (Crow, et.al., 2011). Early crustal
extension involved low–angle faulting that formed broad basins and predates magmatism at the rift
axis. This early– phase development of the Rio Grande rift lasted for 10 to 12 million years and was
followed by a lull in volcanic activity between 17 and 14 Million years ago. This period of
quiescence is apparent throughout the whole of the western USA, and it marks a change from
volcanism that was dominated by calc–alkaline rhyolites and andesites to bimodal assemblages of
basalt and rhyolite. It also marks a change in direction of crustal extension from WSW–ENE to E–
W, that was accompanied by a decrease in the width of the zone of

Wandilla Terrane Formation
INTRODUCTION
The New England Fold Belt (NEFB) of eastern Australia is composed of variably deformed
terranes, going in age from Early Palaeozoic to Late Triassic. These different terranes are for the
most part understood to reflect an alternate tectonic component, or different orogenic events.
However, is mostly believed to have developed within an extensively convergent plate margin
setting (Day et al., 1978, 1983; Henderson, 1980; Fergusson et al. 1988).
Exposures that reveal the complete subduction complex rocks can be seen in the Wandilla and
Shoalwater formation of the Gladstone–Yeppoon area of central Queensland.
The aim of this short review is to present the character and interpretation of the Wandilla terrane in
the New England Fold ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1988, 1990). The presences of fossils in its formation are nearly not present. However, the presence
of large number of sedimentary ooids and oval–shaped crinoids' fossils implied its age to be Early
Carboniferous (Fleming et al. 1975). Figure 2. Show the Structural map of the Wandilla(Wt) and
Shoalwater terranes (St) in the Rockhampton–Gladstone district. Image is source from (fergusson,
Henderson and Leitch, 1990).
Detailed studies by Fergusson et al. (1988, 1990a, b) has documented three stages of deformation
for the structure of the Wandilla terrane. These are summarized as D1, D2, and D3 deformation. For
this review, a quick summary of these deformation are as follow.
 D1 developed extensive mélange of lenticular features in which platter particles of greywacke and
tuff emerge in a mudstone matrix with scaly fabrics (S1 ).
 D2 Developed complete cleavage (S2 ) with related folds (F2 ) as show in figure 3.
 D3 Structures are conjugate network of strike– slip faults that are steeply dipping developed by
NE– SW aligned compressing and related fault breccias and

How Earth Is Shaped By Plate Tectonics

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How Earth Is Shaped By Plate Tectonics