The document discusses various diagnostic aids and methods used to detect cancer such as imaging studies, biopsies, blood tests, urine tests, and tumor markers. It also discusses the nomenclature used to describe benign and malignant tumors based on their tissue of origin. Screening guidelines are provided for several common cancer types based on age, gender, and screening method and frequency. The management of cancer is summarized including surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and nursing care associated with these treatments. Key aspects of chemotherapy are outlined such as goals of treatment, undesirable side effects, and types of antineoplastic drugs.
A basic approach towards carcinoma of prostate , symptoms, investigations , diagnosis, staging, treatment and follow up along with recent advances in surgeries, vaccines and immunotherapy.
Pancreatic cystic neoplasm: Definition, Classification, Diagnosis and treatment.Marco Castillo
A brief description of the different pancreatic cystic neoplasms and the pseudocyst, including, eidemiology, classification, risk of malignancy, histology, imaging techniques for diagnosis and treatment.
Sites of the highest risk are the duodenum, for adenocarcinomas, and the ileum, for carcinoids and lymphomas.
In industrialized countries, small bowel cancers are predominantly adenocarcinomas;
In developing countries, lymphomas are much more common.
The incidence of small bowel cancer rises with age and has generally been higher among males than among females.
The risk factors for small bowel cancer include
Dietary factor
Cigarette smoking,
Alcohol intake,
Medical conditions -Crohn's disease, familial adenomatous polyposis, cholecystectomy, peptic ulcer disease, and cystic fibrosis.
The protective factors may include rapid cell turnover, a general absence of bacteria, an alkaline environment, and low levels of activating enzymes of precarcinogens.
CLASSIFICATION
CAUSES
MECHANISUM OF CA SPREAD
TREATMENT
PREVENTION
PALLIATION
CHEMOTHERAPY
RADIATION
SURVEY AND RESEARCH
BY STEPHIN GEORGE THOMAS, MANIPAL HOSPITAL, GOA
A basic approach towards carcinoma of prostate , symptoms, investigations , diagnosis, staging, treatment and follow up along with recent advances in surgeries, vaccines and immunotherapy.
Pancreatic cystic neoplasm: Definition, Classification, Diagnosis and treatment.Marco Castillo
A brief description of the different pancreatic cystic neoplasms and the pseudocyst, including, eidemiology, classification, risk of malignancy, histology, imaging techniques for diagnosis and treatment.
Sites of the highest risk are the duodenum, for adenocarcinomas, and the ileum, for carcinoids and lymphomas.
In industrialized countries, small bowel cancers are predominantly adenocarcinomas;
In developing countries, lymphomas are much more common.
The incidence of small bowel cancer rises with age and has generally been higher among males than among females.
The risk factors for small bowel cancer include
Dietary factor
Cigarette smoking,
Alcohol intake,
Medical conditions -Crohn's disease, familial adenomatous polyposis, cholecystectomy, peptic ulcer disease, and cystic fibrosis.
The protective factors may include rapid cell turnover, a general absence of bacteria, an alkaline environment, and low levels of activating enzymes of precarcinogens.
CLASSIFICATION
CAUSES
MECHANISUM OF CA SPREAD
TREATMENT
PREVENTION
PALLIATION
CHEMOTHERAPY
RADIATION
SURVEY AND RESEARCH
BY STEPHIN GEORGE THOMAS, MANIPAL HOSPITAL, GOA
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
2. DIAGNOSIS
Imaging studies
Excision or Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy with
microscopic histologic examination
Pap smear
Blood tests – for example PSA for prostate
carcinoma, CEA or AFP for HCC or testicular,
CEA for colorectal carcinoma, CA-125 for ovarian
carcinoma, ALP for HCC or bone
Cytologic examination of blood cells – for
leukemia
15. DIAGNOSTIC AIDS USED TO DETECT
CANCER
Nuclear medicine imaging – bone, liver, kidney,
spleen, brain, thyroid cancers
PET – lung, colon, liver, pancreatic, head and
neck cancers; Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin
lymphoma and melanoma
PET fusion – see PET
Radioimmunoconjugates – colorectal, breast,
ovarian, head and neck cancers; lymphoma and
melanoma
20. Site Gender Age Evaluation Frequency
Breast F 20-39 Clinical breast Every 3 years
examination
(CBE)
Self breast Every month
examination
(SBE)
>40 CBE Every year
SBE Every month
Mammogram Every year
Colon and F/M >50 Fecal occult Every 5 years
rectum blood and
flexible Every 10 years
sigmoidoscopy
or colonoscopy
or double- Every 5 years
contrast
barium enema
21. Site Gender Age Evaluation Frequency
Prostate M >50 (or 40-45 if PSA and DRE Every year
at high risk)
Cervix F >21 or within 3 Pap smear Every year if
years after regular Pap;
starting to have every 2 years if
intercourse liquid Pap test
Cancer-related M/F >20-39 Pelvic Every year
check ups examination
Examination for Every 3 years
cancers of the
thyroid,
testicles,
ovaries, lymph
nodes, oral
cavity and skin
as well as
counseling about
health practices
40+ and risk factors Every year
Same as 20-39
22. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Surgery surgical removal of the entire cancer
remains the ideal and most frequently used
treatment method
b. Diagnostic surgery – biopsy
c. As primary treatment
d. Prophylactic treatment
e. Palliative treatment
f. Reconstructive surgery
23. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Nursing management in cancer surgery
b. The nurse completes a thorough preoperative
assessment for factors that may affect the patient
undergoing the surgical procedure
c. The patient and family require time and
assistance to deal with the possible changes and
the outcomes resulting from the surgery
d. The nurse provides education and emotional
support by assessing the needs of the patient and
family and by discussing their fear and coping
mechanisms with them
24. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Nursing management in cancer surgery
b. After surgery, the nurse assesses the patient’s
responses to the surgery and monitors the patient for
possible complications, such as infection, bleeding,
thrombophlebitis, wound dehiscence, fluid and
electrolyte imbalance, and organ dysfunction
c. The nurse also provides for the patient’s comfort.
Postoperative teaching addresses wound care,
activity, nutrition, and medication information
d. Plans for discharge, follow-up and home care, and
treatment are initiated as early as possible to ensure
continuity of care from hospital to home or from a
cancer referral center to the patient’s local hospital
and health care provider.
25. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Radiation therapy
b. External radiation
c. Internal radiation or brachytherapy
d. Radiation dosage – dependent on the sensitivity
of the target tissue to radiation and on the tumor
size
e. Toxicity – localized to the region being irradiated
26. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Nursing Management in Radiation therapy
b. The nurse can explain the procedure for
delivering radiation and describe the equipment,
the duration of the procedure (often minutes
only), the possible need for immobilizing the
patient during the procedure
c. The nurse informs the family about restrictions
placed on visitors and health personnel and other
radiation precautions, for radioactive implants
27. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Chemotherapy
b. Antineoplastic agents are used in an attempt to
destroy tumor cells by interfering with cellular
functions, including replication
c. Used primarily to treat systemic disease rather
than localized lesions that are amenable to
surgery or radiation
d. May be combined with surgery, radiation
therapy, or both, to reduce tumor size
preoperatively, to destroy any remaining tumor
cells postoperatively, or to treat some forms of
leukemia
e. Goals: cure, control and palliation
29. UNDERSIRABLE EFFECTS
Undesirable Effects:
Bone marrow depression
Alopecia
Retching-nausea/vomiting
Fear and anxiety
Stomatitis
30. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR
ANTINEOPLASTIC DRUGS
CBC, platelets - monitor
Antiemetics before taking drug
Nephrotoxicity - undesirable effect
Counseling regarding reproduction issues
Encourage handwashing, avoid crowds
Recommend a wig for alopecia
31. PRIMARY GOALS OF CHEMOTHERAPY
Achieve a complete cure; permanent removal of
all cancer cells from the body.
Control or manage the disease, cancer is not
eliminated, preventing the growth and spread of
the tumor may extend the patient’s life
Palliation - reduce the size of the tumor, easing
the severity of pain and other tumor symptoms,
thus improving the quality of life.
32. REASON FOR MULTIPLE DRUG USE AND
SPECIAL SCHEDULING
Rapid cell division,
Tumor cells express a high mutation rate
Tumor changes its genetic make-up as it grows
hundreds of different clones with different growth
rates and physiological properties
Drugs affect cells in different ways and at
different times in their life cycle
37. ANTIMETABOLITES
Action: Interferes with the building blocks of DNA
synthesis
Indications: Myelocytic leukemia; acute lymphocytic
leukemia; Cancer of the breast, cervix, colon, liver, ovary,
pancreas, stomach and rectum
Adverse effects: GI disturbance, oral and anal
inflammation, bone marrow depression, alopecia, renal
dysfunction, thrombocytopenia
Drugs: Capecitabine; cytarabine
38. GENERAL GUIDELINES IN GIVING
ANTIMETABOLITES
Monitor CBC and platelets weekly
Evaluate renal function test
Temperature assessment q4-6 hours
Asepsis (strict)
Bleeding, anemia, infection, and nausea - report
Oral hygiene - brush with soft toothbrush
Lots of fluids (2-3 L/day)
Intake and output, nutritional intake - monitor
The protocols for handling and administering - follow
Emphasize protective isolation
39. ANTITUMOR ANTIBIOTICS
Action: binding to DNA making it unable to
separate (2) inhibiting ribonucleic acid (RNA),
preventing enzyme synthesis.
40. PLANT EXTRACTS
VINCA ALKALOIDS
Inhibits mitotic division
TAXANES
Inhibits mitotic division
TOPOISOMERASE INHIBITORS
Breaks the DNA strands therefore altering the
integrity of the genome
41. Biologic Response Modifiers
Interferons (IFNs)
Cytokines secreted by lymphocytes and
macrophages
Slow the spread of viral infections
Enhance the activity of existing leukocytes.
42. Biologic Response Modifiers
Interleukins
Levamisole (Ergamisole) stimulate B cells, T cells,
and macrophages in patients with colon cancer
Bacille Calmette-Guéin (BCG) vaccine (TICE,
TheraCys) is an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, used for the pharmacotherapy of
certain types of bladder cancer.
45. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Nursing management in chemotherapy
b. Assess fluid and electrolyte imbalance
c. Modify risks for infection and bleeding
d. Administering chemotherapy
e. Protecting caregivers
46. Lab Values
Patients with cancer require regular monitoring
of lab values by nurses who will anticipate their
health care needs.
Nursing interventions can include prophylactic
measures if abnormal lab values are noted and
addressed quickly.
47. Leukopenia
Chemotherapy and radiation therapy can
decrease a patient's white blood cell (WBC) count
and lead to leukopenia .
Because neutrophils act as phagocytes, a
significant decrease in the neutrophil count
places a patient with cancer at high risk for
infection.
48. Neutropenia
A measure used to assess a patient's risk for infection is
the absolute neutrophil count (ANC).
ANC less than 500 places the patient at severe risk for
infection, and a count less than 100 constitutes extreme
risk.
The patient may receive medications on a daily basis to
stimulate WBC production.
The nurse should know the ANC prior to medication
administration and take appropriate measures to prevent
infection
49. Anemia
Anemia occurs when the patient's red blood cells
(RBC) are lost or the production rate is decreased; low
hemoglobin and hematocrit result.
Any abnormal values should be discussed with the
primary care provider because the patient with cancer
may require blood transfusions before reaching
critically low levels.
Critical values for hemoglobin and hematocrit are less
than 5.0 g/dl.
50. Thrombocytopenia
Thrombocytopenia occurs when platelet counts
fall below 100,000.
Spontaneous bleeding can occur when platelet
levels fall below 20,000.
To avoid an emergent situation, the nurse should
report platelet count at 40,000.
The patient with elevated platelets can also
develop bleeding if the platelet function is
abnormal.
51. Hematopoietic Growth Factors or Colony-
stimulating factors
Medications that help improve these hematologic
conditions are hematopoietic growth factors or
colony-stimulating factors.
These agents stimulate red and/or white blood
cell production and maturation.
The nurse should be aware of administration
techniques, expected therapeutic outcomes, and
potential adverse effects.
52. Colony Stimulating Factors
Filigastrim (Neupogen) and sargramostim (Leukine) are
used to enhance the WBC count.
Pegfiligastrim (Neulasta) for patients with a decreased
WBC.
These medications may be needed if the patient is
receiving antineoplastic agents that suppress the bone
marrow.
Epoetin alfa recombinant (Procrit) is administered to
maintain or increase the patient's RBC level.
Positive results with this medication can decrease the
need for blood transfusions.
53. Colony Stimulating Factors
Oprelvekin (Neumega), also known as interleukin 11, is a growth
factor that is used to prevent thrombocytopenia following
chemotherapy infusion.
This medication allows hematopoietic stem cells and the
progenitor cells to proliferate, increasing platelet production.
As the plasma volume increases, the nurse may see decreased
hemoglobin, decreased serum albumin, and decreased gamma
globulins.
The nurse must review lab values and administration routes
associated with the use of colony-stimulating factors prior to
their administration.
54. Electrolyte Imbalance
Electrolytes, essential for normal physiologic function of nerves
and muscles, are monitored closely in the patient with cancer.
Elevated or decreased electrolyte levels can have life-threatening
effects.
The nurse must anticipate problems such as cardiac
dysrhythmias or uncontrolled bleeding and intervene quickly.
Intravenous fluids, oral electrolyte supplements, and/or total
parenteral nutrition (TPN) can influence electrolyte balances.
The nurse must be able to report current lab values and all
sources of ingested or parenteral electrolytes to oncology
specialists.
55. Neutropenia Precautions
Neutropenia could be related to the cancer
pathology or the result of receiving
chemotherapeutic agents.
Individuals with an absolute neutrophil count of
less than 1,000 cells are considered neutropenic
and are at moderate risk for infection.
ANC less than 500 creates a severe risk for the
patient, and ANC less than 100 places the
patient in an extreme risk category.
56. Nadir
The term nadir represents that period of time
when blood levels are at their lowest point.
The nadir period varies for each antineoplastic
agent.
Most nadir periods occur approximately 10 to 14
days after the beginning of chemotherapy
treatment or several weeks following radiation
therapy, depending on the treatment agent and
life span of the particular blood cells
57. Reversed Isolation Precautions
An immunocompromised state makes it difficult
for the patient with cancer to combat even minor
colds; sepsis can result.
When assigned to care for a patient who is
neutropenic, the nurse must review guidelines
regarding care of an immunocompromised
patient.
58. Common Adverse Effects of Chemotherapy and Radiation
Fatigue
Nausea
Pain
Vomiting
Oral stomatitis
Bone/Joint Pain
Anorexia
Constipation
Diarrhea
Impaired skin integrity
Alopecia
All patients do not experience these adverse effects; however, the nurse
should be aware of assessment criteria and early intervention strategies
59. Fatigue: Nursing Intervention
Occurs greater than 70%
It can occur when the patient reaches the nadir
period.
Clustering patient care activities can reduce
fatigue and provide uninterrupted rest periods.
A sign on the patient's room door can prompt
visitors to check with the nurse before entering.
60. Nausea and Vomiting: Nursing Intervention
Nausea and vomiting occur frequently with the use of
chemotherapeutic agents.
Some chemotherapy drug regimens include antiemetics prior to
administration to promote patient tolerance of the treatment.
Specific food choices such as gelatin, popsicles, and soft bland food
may minimize queasiness
The patient should be encouraged to experiment with his or her diet
to increase calories.
The patient must consume an adequate number of calories to
maintain nutrition balance and enhance quality of life.
A dietary consult may be helpful in identifying the patient's caloric
needs and identifying which foods would be best.
61. Oral Stomatitis: Nursing Intervention
Rapidly dividing cells in the mouth are affected by chemotherapy and
radiation treatments, leading to painful mouth sores and chapped lips.
Candida albicans (yeast) may occur on the tongue and oral mucosa. Often,
excess oral secretions make it difficult for the patient to speak clearly or to
eat a substantial amount of food.
The patient may find relief from sucking on ice chips or popsicles.
Several combinations of mouth rinses are available, depending on the
patient's need - excess secretions may require diphenhydramine (Benadry)
in a mouth rinse, for increased pain may need lidocaine or water and baking
soda rinses.
Frequent oral care is vital to preserve mucosal integrity.
Individual needs and the extent of the stomatitis should be discussed with
the primary care provider to determine the best intervention.
62. Bone/Joint Pain: Nursing Interventions
Bone and joint pain increases as cancer advances
and as an adverse effect of colony-stimulating
factors.
Analgesics and anti-inflammatory medications,
as well as alternative pain relief measures, can
be used.
Alternative pain relief measures can include
guided imagery, music therapy, relaxation
exercises, and massage, if appropriate.
63. Constipation and Diarrhea: Nursing Interventions
The disease process, lack of activity, and frequent use of opioids may
result in constipation.
High fiber food choices, adequate fluid intake, and stool softeners are
used to promote regular elimination and help prevent bloating.
Diarrhea can result from frequent use of antibiotics and antiemetics.
Dehydration and the loss of electrolytes, minerals, and nutrients can
result. Stool specimens may he collected to determine if an infection has
occurred. If no infection is detected, antidiarrheal medications may be
ordered.
It is important to replace lost fluids, maintain electrolyte levels, and
prevent sepsis.
In either constipation or diarrhea, the nurse should anticipate the
patient's needs and initiate preventive measures.
64. Delirium: Nursing Intervention
Agitated behavior requiring sedation, also described as delirium,
terminal restlessness, mental anguish and agitation, are common
problems in cancer patients.
Factors such as cachexia, hypoalbuminemia, advanced age, and prior
dementia can contribute to this condition.
Identification and treatment of delirium may involve such interventions
as discontinuation or dose reduction of psychoactive medications,
adjustments in fluid administration, or treatment of infections,
dehydration, or electrolyte imbalances.
Ongoing monitoring and reassessment are critical especially when
sedatives, opioids, or other psychoactive medications are required to
control patient's symptoms.
Changes in the patient's health and mental status, in laboratory values,
and symptoms that suggest drug toxicity should be reported promptly to
the oncology specialist.
A psychosocial intervention for family caregivers of patients with
advanced cancer may be beneficial.
65. Skin Integrity: Nursing Intervention
Maintaining skin integrity is a priority during the treatment and
healing process of cancer.
Irradiated tissue, at risk for skin breakdown and delayed wound
healing, should be assessed at least every shift.
Chemotherapy and radiation injure the rapidly dividing cells of the skin.
A patient with cancer may remain in bed for long periods of time due to
fatigue and pain.
The underlying effects to the skin may not be visible immediately, and
recovery will depend on the patient's response to treatment
Adequate nutrition is also an important component in maintaining skin
integrity.
Cancer-associated cachexia, related to inadequate caloric needs and
decreased protein intake, can delay wound healing
A skin assessment instrument, such as the Braden Scale, should be used
to evaluate the patient each shift and determine specific interventions.
66. Anorexia: Nursing Intervention
Chemotherapy and radiation treatments affect rapidly
dividing cells and can alter taste sensation.
Mouth rinses with baking soda and water can be used to
soothe the mucosa prior to meals.
Megestrol acetate (Megace) has been used for appetite
enhancement in the patient with advanced cancer.
Liquid nutritional supplements, such as health shakes,
can also be offered.
The use of TPN may be necessary if other means for
nutritional support are exhausted.
67. Chemotherapy Precautions
The nurse needs to be familiar with chemotherapy precautions, which are
followed for a period of 48 hours after the patient's last dose of an
antineoplastic agent.
Antineoplastic agents are excreted from the body through fluids such as
sweat, vomitus, stool, and urine.
The nurse should use personal protective equipment (PPE) for each patient
contact.
PPE includes masks with face shields or goggles, chemotherapy gloves, and a
fluid-resistant gown.
Handwashing before and after working with the patient is essential.
The nurse should cover the commode or toilet with a disposable drape to
prevent fluids from splashing while flushing twice.
Specified receptacles for linen and trash disposal must be used.
Family members must be instructed on and follow the necessary precautions.
The facility should have a policy that stipulates precautions and supplies
used to protect the staff, patient, and visitors.
68. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Bone Marrow Transplantation
b. Allogenic (from a donor other than the patient);
either a related donor or a matched unrelated
donor
c. Autologous (from patient)
d. Syngeneic (from an identical twin)
69. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Nursing Management in Bone Marrow
Transplantation
b. Implementing pretransplantation care
c. Providing care during treatment
d. Providing posttransplantation care
70. MANAGEMENT OF CANCER
Hyperthermia
Targeted therapies
c. BRM
d. Gene therapy
e. Growth factors
Photodynamic therapy
Cancer rehabilitation
71.
72. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
SCC
The second most common tumor arising on sun-
exposed sites in older people, exceeded only by
basal cell carcinoma
Except for lesions on the lower legs, these tumors
have a higher incidence in men than in women
The most important cause of cutaneous SCC is
DNA damage induced by exposure to UV light
Is invasive, can recur and metastasize
73. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
Other Risk Factors
2. Age older than 50 years
3. Light skin; blonde or light brown hair; green,
blue, or gray eyes
4. Skin that sunburns easily (Fitzpatrick skin types
I and II)
5. Geography (closer to the equator)
(http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1101535-
overview)
74.
75. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
Immunosuppression may contribute to
carcinogenesis by reducing host surveillance and
increasing the susceptibility of keratinocytes to
infection and transformation by oncogenic
viruses, particularly HPV subtypes 5 and 8
Other risk fatcors include industrial carcinogens
(tars and oils), chronic ulcers and draining
osteomyelitis, old burn scars, ingestion of
arsenicals, ionizing radiation, and (in the oral
cavity) tobacco and betel nut chewing
76.
77.
78.
79.
80. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
History
A new and enlarging lesion that concerns the patient
Most lesions are slow growing, while others rapidly
enlarges
Symptoms such as bleeding, weeping, pain, or
tenderness may be noted, especially with larger
tumors
Numbness, tingling, or muscle weakness may reflect
underlying perineural involvement, and this history
finding is important to elicit because it adversely
impacts prognosis.
May be asymptomatic
(http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1101535-
overview)
81.
82.
83.
84.
85. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
Imaging studies like CT scan are done for
patients with neurologic symptoms and with (+)
lymphadenopathy
FNAB or excision biopsy of palpable lymph nodes
Small biopsies of the lesion suspected to be SCC
(http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/110153
5-overview)
91. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
Surgical treatment options:
2. Cryotherapy – for in-situ lesions; makes use of
liquid nitrogen
3. Electrodesiccation and curettage – for low-risk
carcinomas of the trunk and extremities
4. Excision with conventional margins
(http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/110153
5-overview)
95. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
BCC
The most common invasive cancer in humans
Slow-growing tumors that rarely metastasize
Have a tendency to occur in sun-exposed areas
and in lightly pigmented people
Incidence rises sharply with immunosuppression
and in people with inherited defects in DNA
repair
96. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
Tumors present clinically as pearly papules often
containing prominent dilated subepidermal blood
vessels
Advanced lesion may ulcerate, and extensive
local invasion of bone and facial sinuses may
occur after many years of neglect (rodent ulcers)
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
Treatment
2. Electrodessication and curettage involves destroying
the tumor with an electrocautery device then scraping
the area with a curette
3. Surgical excision of the lesion including a margin of
normal skin. This method is preferred for larger
lesions (>2cm) on the cheek, forehead, trunk, and legs
4. Radiation therapy - may also be used where tumors
are difficult to excise or where it is important to
preserve surrounding tissue such as the lip. Its use is
declining.
5. Cryotherapy - involves destroying the tissue by
freezing it with liquid nitrogen. This may be effective
for small, well-defined superficial tumors
106. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
Prevention
2. Avoid UVB radiation from sun exposure
especially midday sun
3. Use protective clothing
4. Use sunscreen with an SPF of at least 15. This is
especially important for children.
5. Have suspicious lesions checked out - If you have
a question, get it checked out. Treating
premalignant lesions prevents their
transformation to potentially metastatic cancers.
107. MELANOMA
A relatively common neoplasm that remains
deadly if not caught at its earliest stages
Can occur in the oral and anogenital mucosal
surfaces, esophagus, meninges, and the eye
Melanomas evolve over time from localized skin
lesions to aggressive tumors that metastatize and
are resistant to therapy
Early recognition and complete excision are
critical
108.
109. MELANOMA
Usually asymptomatic
Itching or pain may be an early manifestation
Majority of lesions are greater than 10 mm in
diameter at diagnosis
Most consistent clinical signs (in pigmented
lesions):
5. Changes in color
6. Changes in size
7. Changes in shape
110. MELANOMA
Unlike benign tumors, these tumors show
variations in color (shades of black, brown, red,
dark blue, and gray)
There may be areas of hypopigmentation
Borders are irregular and often notched, not
smooth, round, and uniform
Important warning signs (ABCs):
Asymmetry
Irregular borders
Variegated color
111. MELANOMA
Other features:
2. Diameter greater than 6 mm
3. Any change in appearance
4. New onset of itching
5. Or new onset of pain
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117. MELANOMA
Prognostic factors:
2. Tumor depth - <1.7mm (favorable)
3. Number of mitoses – no or few mitoses
(favorable)
4. Evidence of tumor regression – absence
(favorable)
5. The presence and number of tumor infiltrating
lymphocytes – brisk (favorable)
6. Gender – female (favorable)
7. Location – location on an extremity (favorable)
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123. MELANOMA
The two most important predisposing factors are
inherited genes and sun exposure
Treatment is by stage
124. Stage 0 melanoma. Abnormal melanocytes are in the epidermis
(outer layer of the skin).
125. Stage I melanoma. In stage IA, the tumor is not more than 1 millimeter thick,
with no ulceration (break in the skin). In stage IB, the tumor is either not more
than 1 millimeter thick, with ulceration, OR more than 1 but not more than 2
millimeters thick, with no ulceration. Skin thickness is different on different parts
of the body.
126. Stage II melanoma. In stage IIA, the tumor is either more than 1 but not more than 2
millimeters thick, with ulceration (break in the skin), OR it is more than 2 but not more
than 4 millimeters thick, with no ulceration. In stage IIB, the tumor is either more than 2
but not more than 4 millimeters thick, with ulceration, OR it is more than 4 millimeters
thick, with no ulceration. In stage IIC, the tumor is more than 4 millimeters thick, with
ulceration. Skin thickness is different on different parts of the body.
127. Stage III melanoma. The
tumor may be any
thickness with or without
ulceration. It has spread
either (a) into a nearby
lymph vessel and may
have spread to nearby
lymph nodes; OR (b) to 1
or more lymph nodes,
which may be matted
(not moveable). Skin
thickness is different on
different parts of the
body.
129. MELANOMA
Stage 0 (Melanoma in Situ) - Treatment of stage 0 is
usually surgery to remove the area of abnormal cells
and a small amount of normal tissue around it.
Stage I Melanoma
3. Surgery to remove the tumor and some of the normal
tissue around it.
4. A clinical trial of surgery to remove the tumor and
some of the normal tissue around it, with or without
lymph node mapping and lymphadenectomy.
5. A clinical trial of new techniques to detect cancer cells
in the lymph nodes.
6. A clinical trial of lymphadenectomy with or without
adjuvant therapy.
130. MELANOMA
Stage II Melanoma
2. Surgery to remove the tumor and some of the
normal tissue around it, followed by removal of
nearby lymph nodes.
3. Lymph node mapping and
sentinel lymph node biopsy, followed by surgery
to remove the tumor and some of the normal
tissue around it. If cancer is found in the
sentinel lymph node, a second surgery may be
done to remove more nearby lymph nodes.
4. Surgery followed by high- dose biologic therapy.
5. A clinical trial of adjuvant chemotherapy and/or
biologic therapy.
6. A clinical trial of new techniques to detect cancer
cells in the lymph nodes.
131. MELANOMA
Stage III Melanoma
2. Surgery to remove the tumor and some of the normal tissue around
it.
3. Surgery to remove the tumor with skin grafting to cover the wound
caused by surgery.
4. Surgery followed by biologic therapy.
5. A clinical trial of surgery followed by chemotherapy and/or biologic
therapy.
6. A clinical trial of biologic therapy.
7. A clinical trial comparing surgery alone to surgery with biologic
therapy.
8. A clinical trial of chemoimmunotherapy or biologic therapy.
9. A clinical trial of hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion using
chemotherapy and biologic therapy.
10. A clinical trial of biologic therapy and radiation therapy.
132. MELANOMA
Stage IV Melanoma
2. Surgery or radiation therapy as
palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and
improve quality of life.
3. Chemotherapy and/or biologic therapy.
4. A clinical trial of new chemotherapy, biologic
therapy, and/or targeted therapy with
monoclonal antibodies, or vaccine therapy.
5. A clinical trial of radiation therapy as palliative
therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality
of life.
6. A clinical trial of surgery to remove all known
cancer.