This document discusses semantics and linguistic analysis. It explains that semantics is the study of meaning in language. There are different levels of linguistic analysis, including phonology (sounds), syntax (word combinations), and semantics (meaning of words and sentences). Semantics examines how words, phrases, and sentences combine in ways that are acceptable to language users. It also discusses topics like denotation (core meaning), connotation (personal associations), idioms, tone, style, and diction (word choice).

1. Tools of Communication
BC Mod. 2

2. Semantics is the study of meaning
communicated through language. A person’s
linguistic abilities are based on knowledge
they have.

3. Linguistic description has different levels of
analysis:
Phonology is the study of what sounds a
language has and how these sounds combine
to form words.

4. Syntax is the study of how words can be
combined to form other words.
Semantics is the study of the meanings of
words and sentences.

5. It is the study of interpretation of signs or
symbols as used by agents or communities
within particular circumstances and contexts.

6. Within this view, sounds, facial expressions,
body language, proxemics have semantic
content. In written language, such things as
paragraph structure and punctuation have
semantic content.

7. Semanticists examine how words, phrases
and sentences combine in ways that are
acceptable to language users, observing that
appeals to grammaticality alone cannot
explain these.

8. For example, the sentence Mary will arrive
tomorrow is both grammatically and
semantically acceptable, but !Mary arrived
tomorrow is semantically nonsensical
while syntactically grammatical.

9. The study of semantics includes the study of
how meaning is constructed, interpreted,
clarified, obscured, illustrated, simplified
negotiated, contradicted and paraphrased.

10. Denotation
This is the core or central meaning of a word.
It is therefore sometimes known as the
cognitive or referential meaning.

11. It is possible to think of lexical items that have
a more or less fixed denotation ex. sun,
denoting the nearest star.

12. Connotation
Connotation is connected with psychology
and culture, as it means the personal or
emotional associations aroused by words

13. When these associations are widespread and
become established by common usage, a new
denotation is recorded in dictionaries.

14. A possible example of such change would be
vicious. Originally derived from vice, it meant
“extremely wicked”. In modern British usage it
is commonly used to mean “fierce”, as in the
brown rat is a vicious animal.

15. Idiom and Phrase
An idiom is a combination of words that has
a figurative meaning owing to its common
usage. An idiom's figurative meaning is
separate from the literal meaning

16. 1. She is pulling my leg. - to pull someone's
leg means to trick them by telling them
something untrue.
2. You should keep an eye out for that. - to keep
an eye out for something means to maintain
awareness of it.

17. 3. I can't keep my head above water. - to keep
one's head above water means to manage a
situation.
4. It's raining cats and dogs. - raining cats and
dogs means it's raining really hard (a
downpour).

18. Tone and Style
Once one has mastered grammar, punctuation,
and sentence structure, one can continue to
improve the writing by considering the more
elusive issues of style.

19. Style is the way in which something is written,
as opposed to the meaning of what is written

20. Style includes diction and tone. The main goal
in considering style is to present your
information in a manner appropriate for both
the audience and the purpose of the writing.

21. Diction
Diction is word choice. When writing, use
vocabulary suited for the type of assignment.
Words that have almost the same denotation
(dictionary meaning) can have very different
connotations (implied meanings).

22. Besides the level of formality, also consider
positive or negative connotations of the words
chosen.

23. Tone
Aside from individual word choice, the overall
tone, or attitude, of a piece of writing should
be appropriate to the audience and purpose.

24. The tone may be objective or subjective,
logical or emotional, intimate or distant,
serious or humorous. It can consist mostly of
long, intricate sentences, of short, simple
ones, or of something in between.

25. One way to achieve proper tone is to imagine
a situation in which to say the words being
written. A journal might be like a conversation
with a close friend where there is the freedom
to use slang or other casual forms of speech

26. A column for a newspaper may be more like a
high-school graduation speech: it can be more
formal, but it can still be funny or familiar. An
academic paper is like a formal speech at a
conference: being interesting is desirable, but
there is no room for personal digressions or
familiar usage of slang words.