This document discusses thyroid function tests. It provides a classification of thyroid tests based on measuring hormone levels, thyroid function, metabolic effects, and detecting autoimmune diseases. Common tests described include TSH, free T4, T3, thyroid antibodies, radioactive iodine uptake, TRH stimulation, and thyroid scanning. Abnormalities in thyroid function testing can indicate hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism. The document outlines causes and clinical features of each, and how to evaluate results based on hormone levels. Fine needle aspiration cytology of the thyroid is also summarized.
The thyroid gland produces hormones that are essential for normal body metabolism. Blood testing is now commonly available to determine the adequacy of the levels of thyroid hormones. These blood tests can define whether the thyroid gland's hormone production is normal, overactive, or underactive.
The thyroid gland produces hormones that are essential for normal body metabolism. Blood testing is now commonly available to determine the adequacy of the levels of thyroid hormones. These blood tests can define whether the thyroid gland's hormone production is normal, overactive, or underactive.
this is a series of notes on clinical pathology, useful for undergraduate and post graduate pathology students. Notes have been prepared from standard textbooks and are in a format easy to reproduce in exams.
Thyroid Function Tests, NORMAL THYROID PHYSIOLOGY
, Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid AxisNegative Feedback Mechanism, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid AxisPhysiology, PITUITARY-THYROTROPE CELL
, THYROID HORMONES
, FORMATION & SECRETION OF THYROID HORMONES , ION TRANSPORT BY THE THYROID FOLLICULAR CELL
, THYROGLOBULIN SYNTHESIS IN THE THYROID FOLLICULAR CELL
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is a hormone secreted into the blood by Pituitary gland. TSH signals thyroid gland (a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in front of the neck) to release the thyroid hormones into the blood. The Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Test measures the levels of TSH in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/thyroid-stimulating-hormone-1977
Thyroid function test- a detailed medical information martinshaji
Thyroid function tests is a collective term for blood tests used to check the function of the thyroid. TFTs may be requested if a patient is thought to suffer from hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism, or to monitor the effectiveness of either thyroid-suppression or hormone replacement therapy.
this is a detailed study regarding all the aspects of thyroid function test
please comment
thank you..
The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland in the neck consisting of two connected lobes.
The lower two thirds of the lobes are connected by a thin band of tissue called the thyroid isthmus.
The thyroid is located at the front of the neck, below the Adam's apple. Microscopically, the functional unit of the thyroid gland is the spherical thyroid follicle, lined with follicular cells (thyrocytes), and occasional parafollicular cells that surround a lumen containing colloid.
THYROID HORMONES:
The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: the two thyroid hormones – triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) – and a peptide hormone, calcitonin.
The thyroid hormones influence the metabolic rate and protein synthesis, and in children, growth and development.
Calcitonin plays a role in calcium homeostasis.
Secretion of the two thyroid hormones is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland. TSH is regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which is produced by the hypothalamus.
this is a series of notes on clinical pathology, useful for undergraduate and post graduate pathology students. Notes have been prepared from standard textbooks and are in a format easy to reproduce in exams.
Thyroid Function Tests, NORMAL THYROID PHYSIOLOGY
, Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid AxisNegative Feedback Mechanism, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid AxisPhysiology, PITUITARY-THYROTROPE CELL
, THYROID HORMONES
, FORMATION & SECRETION OF THYROID HORMONES , ION TRANSPORT BY THE THYROID FOLLICULAR CELL
, THYROGLOBULIN SYNTHESIS IN THE THYROID FOLLICULAR CELL
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is a hormone secreted into the blood by Pituitary gland. TSH signals thyroid gland (a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in front of the neck) to release the thyroid hormones into the blood. The Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Test measures the levels of TSH in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/thyroid-stimulating-hormone-1977
Thyroid function test- a detailed medical information martinshaji
Thyroid function tests is a collective term for blood tests used to check the function of the thyroid. TFTs may be requested if a patient is thought to suffer from hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism, or to monitor the effectiveness of either thyroid-suppression or hormone replacement therapy.
this is a detailed study regarding all the aspects of thyroid function test
please comment
thank you..
The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland in the neck consisting of two connected lobes.
The lower two thirds of the lobes are connected by a thin band of tissue called the thyroid isthmus.
The thyroid is located at the front of the neck, below the Adam's apple. Microscopically, the functional unit of the thyroid gland is the spherical thyroid follicle, lined with follicular cells (thyrocytes), and occasional parafollicular cells that surround a lumen containing colloid.
THYROID HORMONES:
The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: the two thyroid hormones – triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) – and a peptide hormone, calcitonin.
The thyroid hormones influence the metabolic rate and protein synthesis, and in children, growth and development.
Calcitonin plays a role in calcium homeostasis.
Secretion of the two thyroid hormones is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland. TSH is regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which is produced by the hypothalamus.
2012 Clinical Practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: American Asso...Jibran Mohsin
This is presentation format of 2012 Clinical Practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) / American Thyroid Association (ATA)
It Gives Information about Thyroid disease(its type), Thyroid Gland & Thyroid System. The Presentation also Give information on Hyperthyroidism ( like its Etiology, Symptoms, Diagnostic Evaluation and Treatment.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
4. CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS BASED ON FUNCTIONS OF THYROID
Tests measuring blood levels of thyroid hormones:
•Sr PBI
•Circulating T3 and T4 level
•Circulating TSH level
•Plasma tyrosine level
Tests based on primary function if thyroid viz substrate input &
hormone synthesis:
• RIU(Radioiodine uptake studies)
•PBI131
•T3 suppression test
•TSH stimulation test
•TRH stimulation test
Tests based on metabolic effects of thyroid hormones
•BMR
•Sr cholestrol
•Sr creatine level
•Sr uric acid level
•Sr CK enzyme
5. Scanning of thyroid gland
Immunological tests to detect autoimmune diseases of thyroid gland:
•Agar gel diffusion test(PPT test)
•TRCH test: tanned red cell haemagglutination test
•Complement fixation test
6. Indications of TFT
• Diagnosing thyroid disorder in symptomatic person
• Screening newborns for hypothyroidism
• Monitoring thyroid replacement therapy in
hypothyroidism patients
• Diagnosis & monitoring female infertility patients
• Screening adults for thyroid disorders
9. Clinical Features of Hypothyroidism
Tiredness
Forgetfulness/Slower Thinking
Moodiness/ Irritability
Depression
Inability to Concentrate
Thinning Hair/Hair Loss
Loss of Body Hair
Dry, Patchy Skin
Weight Gain
Cold Intolerance
Elevated Cholesterol
Family History of Thyroid
Disease or Diabetes
Puffy Eyes
Enlarged Thyroid (Goiter)
Hoarseness/
Deepening of Voice
Persistent Dry or Sore Throat
Difficulty Swallowing
Slower Heartbeat
Menstrual Irregularities/
Heavy Period
Infertility
Constipation
Muscle Weakness/
Cramps
10. TSH/FT4
TSH TSH TSH
T4 N FT4 F T 4
Thyoid Subclinical Sec/tertiary
microsomal Ab Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism
Increased normal Little or Delayed
TSH response TSH response
Hashimoto`s Cong T4
Thyroiditis synthesis
Secondary Tertiary
(pitutary)
11. Hyperthyroidism
Causes:
PRIMARY HYPERTHYROIDISM
Grave`s disease
Toxic MNG
Toxic Adenoma
Functioning thyroid carcinoma mets
Activating mutation of TSH receptor
Struma ovarii
Drugs: iodine excess(Jod basedow phenomenon)
SECONDARY HYPERTHYROISM
TSH secreting pitutary adenoma
TRH syndrome
Chorionic gonadotropin secreting tumors
Gestational thyrotoxicosis
THYROTOXICOSIS WITHOUT HYPERTHYROIDISM
Subacute thyroiditis
Silent thyroiditis
Other causes of thyroid destruction: amiodarone,radiation,infarction of adenoma
Ingestion of excess thyroid hormone
12. Signs and Symptoms of Hyperthyroidism
Nervousness/Tremor
Mental Disturbances/
Irritability
Difficulty Sleeping
Bulging Eyes/Unblinking Stare/
Vision Changes
Enlarged Thyroid (Goiter)
Menstrual Irregularities/
Light Period
Frequent Bowel Movements
Warm, Moist Palms
First-Trimester Miscarriage/
Excessive Vomiting in Pregnancy
Hoarseness/
Deepening of Voice
Persistent Dry or Sore Throat
Difficulty Swallowing
Palpitations/
Tachycardia
Impaired Fertility
Weight Loss or Gain
Heat Intolerance
Increased Sweating
Sudden Paralysis
Family History of
Thyroid Disease
or Diabetes
13. Evaluation of hyperthyroidism
TSH, fT4
Low TSH,high fT4 Low TSH,normal fT4
High TSH,highfT4
Primary
hyperthyroidism
TRAb +ve
Diffuse uptake
TRAb –ve
Nodular uptake
TRAb-ve
Irregular uptake
Grave`s
disease
Toxic
adenoma
Toxic MNG
Measure FT3
Normal High
T3
thyrotoxicosis
•Subclinical/mild
•NTI
•Drugs
Pitutary adenoma
(secondary hyperthyroidism
Thyroid hormone resistance
TRH test
response
Resistance to
thyroid hormone
No response
Pitutary
adenoma
14. TSH
•First line test in Thyroid function tests
•Normal TSH level excludes thyroid dysfunction
Uses:
•Screening for euthyroidism
•Screening of hypothyroidism in newborns
•Diagnosis of 1 & 2 hypothyroidism
•Diagnosis of clinical & subclinical hyperthyroidism
•Follow up of T3 & T4 replacement therapy in hypothyroidism
16. Methods of TSH estimation
•Radioimmunoassay
•Immunometric assay
•Chemiluminiscent & flourescent techniques(3rd gen)
•Normal values: TSH 0.4 to 4mU/L
17. Total thyroxine
•Total thyroxine includes free as well as protein bound
thyroxine.
•Normal levels:5 to 12.5ug/dL, largely bound to transport
protein espTBG.
• T4 combined with TSH gives the best measurement of thyroid
function.
19. Free T4
•Small fraction of total T4 unbound to protein
•Metabolically active form
•0.05% of total T4
•Do not get affected by TBG levels or NTI
•Measurement useful in conditions where TBG levels
are affected
•Normal levels:0.89- 1.76ng/dL
20. TBG(Thyroid binding globulin)
Main sr.carrier protein for both T4 & T3
(13-39ug/dL)
Increase
• Drugs:Clofibrate,estrogen,O.c
Pills,Heroin.methadone
• Genetic
• Acute & chronic hepatitis
• Pregnancy
• Acute intermittent porphyria
• Angioneurotic edema
• Hyperproteinemia
Decrease
• Drugs:Androgens
,glucocorticoids,phenytoin,larg
e doses of salicylates
• Malnutrition
• Hypoproteinemia,nephrotic
syndrome
• Acromegaly,cushing`s
syndrome
• Liver failure
• Sepsis
21. Free and Total T3
•T3 levels not routinely done
•Normal plasma level T3 are very low
•Metabolically more active, shorter half life,faster turn over
•Free T3 0.5% of total
•Free T3 measurement useful with altered protein level
•T3 level:80 to 180ng/dl
•fT3 level:1.5 – 4.1pg/mL
•Measured by immunoassays
Uses:
•Diagnosis of T3 thyrotoxicosis
•Early diagnosis of hyperthyroidism
22.
23. Thyroglobulin
Synthesised & secreted by thyroid follicles(30ng/ml)
Reflects throid mass,thyroid injury & TSH receptor stimulation
Tg Grave`s disease
Thyroiditis
Nodular goitre
Indications :Monitoring recurrence of certain variants of thyroid Ca
Thyroid dysgenesis in Congenital hypothyroidism
Follow up of patients with thyroid malignancy
24. Thyroid Autoantibodies
•Diagnosing autoimmune diseases
•Autoantibodies :Tg,Thyroid microsomal Ag, TSH receptor, non
Tg colloid antigen,TSH,T4
Anti Tg antibodies
Methods: Agar gel diffusion precipitation test
Tanned red cell haemagglutination tests(TRCH test)
ELISA
Immunoflourescence of tissue section
RIA
Positive: Hashimoto`s thyroiditis,Grave`s
disease,myxedema,nontoxic goitre,thyroid ca,pernicious anaemia
25. Antimicrosomal Abs
•Methods: CFT,Immunoflourescence tests,TRCH
assay,ELISA,RIA
•Positive in grave`s disease & Hashimoto`s thyroiditis
•More frequently positive for autoimmune diseases than
Tg Ab
Thyroid receptor antibody
Types:
•TBI (Grave`s disease)
•TSIgs ( Grave`s disease,predicting relapse or remission
in hyperthyoid, development of neonatal
hyperthyroidism)
26. Radioiodine uptake studies
Correlates with functional activity of thyroid gland
•Tracer dose of I131 orally followed by measurement of amount
of radioactivity over thyroid gland at 2 hrs and again at 24hrs
•Normal radioactive uptake 20 to 40 % of administered dose
at 24 hr
•Increased Uptake :
•hyperthyroidism due to
grave`s disease,
•toxic MNG,
•toxic adenoma,
•TSH secreting tumor
Decreased uptake:
•hypothyroidism
•subacute thyroiditis,
•large I 2 doses, thyroid
hormone
•factitious hyperthyroidism
27. TRH stimulation tests
Uses: Confirms diagnosis of secondary hypothyroidism
Evaluation of suspected hypothalamic disease
Procedure:
TRH injected iv(200 0r 500ug) followed by measurement of
serum TSH at 20 & 60 min
Interpretation:
Peak response in normal 4 times elevation of TSH
Primary hypothyroidism: exaggerated & prolonged
response
Secondary hypothyroidism: blunted response
Tertiary hypothyroidism: response is delayed
28. T3suppression test
Use: differentiates boderline high normal from primary
hyperthyroidism(grave`s disease)
Procedure: After 24 hr RIU studies & obtaining basal value
and serum T4 values,20 ug of T3 four times a day is
given for 7 to 10 days
RIU is repeated after administration & serum T4 values are
also determined
Interpretation:
A suppression is indicated by the 24 hrs RIU falling to <
50% of initial uptake & totalT4 to approx 2ug/ml or less
Non suppression indicates autonomous thyroid
function.(Grave`s disease)
29. TSH stimulation test
Use:Differentiates primary from secondary hypothyroidism
Procedure: After 24hr RIU studies,3 injections of TSH, each 5
USP units are given at 24 hrs interval
24hr RIU is measured after 42 hrs after final TSH dose.
Interpretation:
In primary hypothyroidism, failure of stimulation of gland
In secondary hypothyroidism, stimulation of gland showing
increased RIU.
30. Tests based on metabolic effects of
thyroid hormones
BMR:
Between 5% & 20% normal
Euthyroid state : -10% to 10% of normal
Hyperthyroidism:50% to 75%
Hypothyroidism: < -20%
Sr. CHOLESTROL LEVEL:
260mg% hypothyroidism
Sr. CREATINE LEVEL
0.6mg% hyperthyroidism
Sr. URIC ACID LEVEL:
Myxedema 6.5 to 11mg%
Sr. CK LEVELS & HYPERCALCEMIA
32. Advantages /Uses of scintiscan
Distinguishes diffuse glandular activity from patchy
pattern seen in goitre
Functional classification of nodules: warm,hot,cold
In association with thyroid suppression regimes, TSH
dependent or autonomous nature of hot nodules
Information regarding size, shape, position of gland
Identification & localisation of functioning thyroid tissue in
ectopic or metastatic sites
Helps on differentiating various causes of thyrotoxicosis
33. Indications:
1.Thyroid nodule(s)
2. Diffuse or multinodular goiter
3. Clinical hyper- or hypothyroidism
4. Evaluation of substernal mass
5. R/O Ectopic thyroid tissue
6. Subacute thyroiditis, early phase
7. Patient with previous Hx of H & N radiation
Contraindications:
1.Pregnancy
2.Lactation
43. Whole body scan I131
1.Post-operative evaluation for thyroid remnant or
functioning metastasis
2. Follow up patients after I-131 ablation or I-131 treatment
3. Serum Tg rising
4. Suspected tumor recurrence
5. Suspected functioning metastases, either local or distant
metastases
44. FNAC thyroid
Indications:
Diagnosis of diffuse non toxic goitre
Diagnosis of solitary or dominant thyroid nodule
Confirmation of clinically obvious malignancy
To obtain material for special laboratory investigations aimed at
defining prognostic parameters.
Main limitation: Inability to distinguish between between follicular
adenoma & carcinoma.
45. Contraindications: No
Complications:
Local h`age & haematoma.
Transient laryngeal nerve paresis.
Tracheal puncture
Rarely,needling causes formation of a hot nodule
49. Smearing, fixation & staining
Rapid smearing
Air dried stained with
giemsa
Alcohol fixed smears
stained with Pap
50. Sample adequacy
Six groups of follicular cells, each containing 10 to 20
cells on two separate slides
Presence of colloid indicates benign nature
51. Bethesda system of reporting FNAC thyroid
1.Non diagnostic/Unsatisfactory
Cyst fluid only
Virtually acellular specimen
Other(obscuring blood,clotting artifacts)
2.Benign
Consistent with Benign follicular nodule(adenomatous,collloid nodule)
Consistent with lymphocytic(hashimoto`s thyroiditis) with proper clinical context
Consistent with granulomatous (subacute thyroiditis)
Other
3.Atypia of undetermined significance/Follicular lesion of undetermined
significance
4.Follicular neoplasm or suspicious for follicular neoplasm
Specify if hurthe(oncocytic type)
5.Suspicious for malignancy
Suspicious for papillary,medullary,metastatic,lymphoma,other
6.Malignant
Papillary thyroid Ca,poorly differentiated ca,medullary thyroid ca,undifferentiated
ca,Squamous cell ca,Ca with mixed features,metastatic carcinoma,NHL,other
70. References
Fauci,Braunwald,Kasper et al.Harrison`s principles of Internal Medicine.17th
ed.Boston:Mc Graw Hill;2008;p2224 to 2246.
Richard .A.McPherson,Mathew R Pincus.Henry`s Clinical Dignosis
AndManagement by Laboratory methods.21ed.USA:Saunders An imprint of
Elsevier,2008p.263 to 279.
Leopald G.Koss,Myron R.Melamed`s Koss` Diagnostic Cytology and its
histopathologic bases.5th ed.New York:Lippincott & Williams &
Wilkins;2006;p1148-1185.vol 2.
Svante R Orell,Gregory F Sterrett,Darell Whitaker`s Fine Needle Aspiration
Cytology.4th ed.Australia:Churchilll Living An Imprint of Elsevier,2005;p125-
164.
Edmund S.Cibas & Syed Z.Ali.The bethesda system for reporting thyroid
cytology.American journal of clinical pathology 2009;132:658-665.
Chatterjee MN & Rana Shinde, Textbook of medical biochemistry,7th
ed.JAYPEE;2009 p638-646.