A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.
In addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans to bring beauty to their environment, and also as objects of romance, ritual, religion, medicine and as a source of food.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) Flower - Definition & Functions
2) Floral Symmetry
3) Pedicellate & Sessile Flowers
4) Insertion of Floral Leaves on the Thalamus
5) Parts of a Flower
6) Some Important Terms related to Flowers
7) Floral Whorls - Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium
8) Placentation
9) Inflorescenece
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An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed.
Characters of Apiaceae:
Stem fistular, leaves alternate, much dissected mostly decompound, sheathing leaf base; inflorescence umbel or compound umbel occasionally simple; flowers epigynous, pentamerous, regular rarely zygomorphic, hermaphrodite; calyx superior, pentafid or 0; corolla five, polypetalous, often inflexed; stamens 5; carpels 2; syncarpous, bicarpellary with 2 pendulous ovules; honey-disc surrounding the stigmas – stylopodium is present; fruit cremocarp; seeds endospermic and oily.
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:
Plants are mostly herbs which may be annual, biennial or perennial, the herbs may be large (Bupleurum, Heracleum, Agelica) rarely shrubs with aromatic odour due to the presence of oil ducts. Pseudocarum climbs by means of its petioles which are very sensitive to contact.
Pollination in plants is the process where pollen is transferred from the anther, the male part of a flower, to the stigma, the female part of a flower. Pollen can be transferred to one plant or even a nearby plant so that they can get fertilized and make more flowers. This happens in plants that have flowers called angiosperms.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) What is Pollination?
2) Types of Pollination
3) Self-Pollination
- Adaptations for Self-Pollination
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Pollination
4) Cross-Pollination
- Adaptations for Cross-Pollination
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross-Pollination
5) Agents of Cross-Pollination
- Entomophilous
- Anemophilous
- Hydrophilous
6) Artificial Pollination
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An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed.
Characters of Apiaceae:
Stem fistular, leaves alternate, much dissected mostly decompound, sheathing leaf base; inflorescence umbel or compound umbel occasionally simple; flowers epigynous, pentamerous, regular rarely zygomorphic, hermaphrodite; calyx superior, pentafid or 0; corolla five, polypetalous, often inflexed; stamens 5; carpels 2; syncarpous, bicarpellary with 2 pendulous ovules; honey-disc surrounding the stigmas – stylopodium is present; fruit cremocarp; seeds endospermic and oily.
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:
Plants are mostly herbs which may be annual, biennial or perennial, the herbs may be large (Bupleurum, Heracleum, Agelica) rarely shrubs with aromatic odour due to the presence of oil ducts. Pseudocarum climbs by means of its petioles which are very sensitive to contact.
Pollination in plants is the process where pollen is transferred from the anther, the male part of a flower, to the stigma, the female part of a flower. Pollen can be transferred to one plant or even a nearby plant so that they can get fertilized and make more flowers. This happens in plants that have flowers called angiosperms.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) What is Pollination?
2) Types of Pollination
3) Self-Pollination
- Adaptations for Self-Pollination
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Pollination
4) Cross-Pollination
- Adaptations for Cross-Pollination
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross-Pollination
5) Agents of Cross-Pollination
- Entomophilous
- Anemophilous
- Hydrophilous
6) Artificial Pollination
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Introduction to Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants, Flower, Structure of Flower, Male Reproductive Part of Flower (Stamens), Development of Anther walls, Anther Walls, Microsporangium (Pollen Sac)
angiosperms
morphology of a flowering plant
parts of flowering plant.
What are angiosperms? Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers and bear their seeds in fruits. They are the largest and most diverse group within the kingdom Plantae, with about 300,000 species. Angiosperms represent approximately 80 percent of all known living green plant.
The outstanding and most significant feature of the flowering plants (and that which sets them out from other vascular plants) is the flower. Understanding the flower structure and names of the parts is important as it is the most important set of characters for both recognizing and keying species, genera, families, etc.
Floral parts (terms & illustrations)
1. Peduncle / pedicel - floral stalk
2. Receptacle - the modified shoot or floral axis
3. Sepals / calyx - the outer most whorl; collectively all sepals are called the calyx. Sepals are typically green and protect the inner floral parts in buds
4. Petals / corolla -the next whorl, collectively all petals are called the corolla. Petals are typically brightly colored and and assist in attracting pollinators. The sepals and petal combined are called the perianth. If the perianth parts cannot be differentiated into sepals and petals, that is, that look so much alike, then they are called tepals.
5. Stamens (androecium) - the next whorls, each stamen has two parts: filament and anthers. Androecium or "male house", the name for all the stamens. The anthers house the microsporangia which undergo meiosis and produce pollen grains.
6. Nectaries - are often associated with flowers, they are found at the receptacle and offer a reward to animal pollinators.
7. Carpels (gynoecium) - The innermost and final whorl is composed of all the carpels and is the site for pollination and fertilization. Collectively all carpels are called the gynoecium: "female house". Carpel has three parts: stigma which receives pollen, the style which is the a slender region specialized for pollen tube growth and the ovary which is an enlarged basal portion and surrounds and protects the ovules. The structure(s) in the center of the flower are often referred to as the pistil(s). Pistil is a layman's term for "flask-shape" structure, so anything with that structure is called a pistil. This is one of the more confusing parts of the flower; more on this below.
NCERT Solutions | Class IX | Science (Biology) | Chapter 15 | Improvement in ...Biswarup Majumder
NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Biology is available in PDF format which you can download easily. Here is the most accurate and detailed Biology NCERT solutions for Class 9th CBSE textbook for free of cost.
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NCERT Solutions | Class IX | Science (Biology) | Chapter 7 | Diversity in Liv...Biswarup Majumder
NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Biology is available in PDF format which you can download easily. Here is the most accurate and detailed Biology NCERT solutions for Class 9th CBSE textbook for free of cost.
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NCERT Solutions | Class IX | Science (Biology) | Chapter 6 | TissuesBiswarup Majumder
NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Biology is available in PDF format which you can download easily. Here is the most accurate and detailed Biology NCERT solutions for Class 9th CBSE textbook for free of cost.
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NCERT Solutions | Class IX | Science (Biology) | Chapter 5 | The Fundamental ...Biswarup Majumder
NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Biology is available in PDF format which you can download easily. Here is the most accurate and detailed Biology NCERT solutions for Class 9th CBSE textbook for free of cost.
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He's a pirate (Pirates of the Caribbean) | Let's Play Ukulele | Free e-GuideBiswarup Majumder
"He's a Pirate" is a 2003 track composed by Klaus Badelt and Hans Zimmer for the 2003 Disney film Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. It is featured on the soundtrack album of the film and is used at the beginning of the credits for the film...
In this "e-Guide" you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your Ukulele following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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"Alouette" is a popular French-speaking Canadian children's song, commonly thought to be about plucking the feathers from a lark, in retribution for being woken up by its song. Although it is in French, it is well-known among speakers of other languages.
In this "e-Guide" you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your Ukulele following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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The Godfather Theme | Speak Softly, Love | Let's Play Ukulele | Free e-GuideBiswarup Majumder
"Speak Softly, Love" is a popular song published in 1972, with music by Nino Rota and lyrics by Larry Kusik. The song was first introduced as an instrumental theme in the 1972 film The Godfather that was simply known as "Love Theme from The Godfather".
In this "e-Guide" you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your Ukulele following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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"Für Elise" is one of Ludwig van Beethoven's most popular compositions. It is usually classified as a bagatelle, but also sometimes referred to as an Albumblatt. The composition was not published during Beethoven's lifetime, having been discovered by Ludwig Nohl 40 years after the composer's death...
In this "e-Guide" you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your Ukulele and Guitar following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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Fertilization is the process of fusion of the female gamete, the ovum or egg and the male gamete produced in the pollen tube by the pollen grain. Fertilization in flowering plants was discovered by Strassburger in 1884.
Flowers are the reproductive structures of angiosperms. They vary greatly physically and are of great diversity in methods of reproduction. The process of fertilization in plants occurs when gametes in haploid conditions meet to create a zygote which is diploid.
The male gametes of the flower are transferred on to the female reproductive organs through pollinators. The final product of this process is the formation of embryo in a seed.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) What is Fertilization?
2) The Pollen Grain (Male Gamete)
3) The Ovule (Containing Female Gamete)
4) Microsporogenesis and Megasporogenesis
5) Germination of Pollen Grain
6) Double Fertilization
7) Post Fertilization Events
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In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Broadly tissues can be classified into two major groups : Plant tissue and Animal tissue.
In animals, organs are made up of four basic types of tissues - epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nerve tissue. These tissues have distinctive features and specific functions which combine to form functioning organs.
In this lesson you will learn about different types of animal tissues :
1) Epithelial Tissue
2) Connective Tissue
3) Muscular tissue
4) Neural Tissue
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In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Broadly tissues can be classified into two major groups : Plant tissue and Animal tissue.
A plant tissue can be defined as a cell or a group of cells dividing, to give rise to large number of cell, which is collectively referred as tissues. They are structurally and functionally similar to these cells. Plants do have a higher level of structure called plant tissue systems. A plant tissue system can be defined as a functional unit, which connects all organs of a plant. Like animal tissue system, plant tissue system is also grouped into various tissues based on their functions.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) Tissues - "The Teams of Workers"
2) Types of Plant Tissues
3) Plant Tissue Systems
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All living things are made from one or more cells. A cell is the simplest unit of life and they are responsible for keeping an organism alive and functioning. This lesson to cells is the starting point for the area of biology that studies the various types of cells and how they work.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) What is a Cell?
2) The Invention of the Microscope and the Discovery of Cell.
3) Cell Theory.
4) Cells - Number, Size, Shape and Function.
5) Structure of a Cell
6) Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells.
7) The Plant and Animal cells.
8) Stem Cells.
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Locomotion is movement of an organism from one place to another while movements can be performed at any particular space also. Bending of limbs, peristaltic movements, blinking of eye lids etc are some examples of movements. Locomotion is related with movements. Together, our bones, muscles, and joints - along with tendons, ligaments, and cartilage - form our musculoskeletal system and enable us to do everyday physical activities.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) Functions of Human Skeleton
2) Parts of Skeletal System
3) Bone - Composition, Structure, Classification
4) The Human Skeleton
5) Joints
6) Lever Mechanism
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Biology is the study of life. As humans are living things, we have an natural sense of curiosity and affection towards life and how has come to be.This section of "Introduction to Biology" takes the form of an asynchronous learning trail or link maze which participants seeking knowledge of fundamentals can follow seeking information and enlightenment at their own pace.
In this lesson you will learn about :
1) What is Biology?
2) The Scientific Method
3) Characteristics of Life
4) Levels of Organization
5) Branches of Biology
6) Importance of Biology
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"Happy Birthday to You" is a song that is traditionally sung to celebrate the anniversary of a person's birth...
In this e Guide you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your guitar following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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"Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat" is a popular English language nursery rhyme...
In this e Guide you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your guitar following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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"Jingle Bells" is one of the best-known and commonly sung American songs in the world. It was written by James Lord Pierpont and published under the title "One Horse Open Sleigh" in the autumn of 1857...
In this e Guide you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song (Full Version)...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your guitar following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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"Jingle Bells" is one of the best-known and commonly sung American songs in the world. It was written by James Lord Pierpont and published under the title "One Horse Open Sleigh" in the autumn of 1857...
In this e Guide you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song (Easy Version)...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your guitar following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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Frère Jacques is a nursery rhyme of French origin (English: "Are You Sleeping"). The song is about a friar who has overslept and is urged to wake up and sound the bell for the matins, the midnight or very early morning prayers for which a monk would be expected to wake...
In this e Guide you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your guitar following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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"London Bridge Is Falling Down" (also known as "London Bridge") is a traditional English nursery rhyme and singing game, which is found in different versions all over the world...
In this e Guide you will find "Complete TAB & Staff Notation" + "Chord Progression & Chord Diagram" of this song...You can easily play the song (Lead & Accompaniment) in your guitar following the Notation and Chord Progression...
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
2. Introduction
A flower is a reproductive part of an angiospermic plant. It
is considered to be a modified shoot having nodes and
internodes and the leaves are modified into floral
structures.
Functions of Flower :
Biswarup Majumder | Bio-World
It helps in the sexual reproduction of the plant by
producing male gametes (pollen grains) and the female
gametes (egg cell). The union of the two gametes
results in fertilization.
It helps in the process of pollination, i.e., transference
of pollen grain from the anthers to the stigma of the
same or of the different flower.
It help in the development of seeds and fruits.
It also helps in the dispersal of seeds and fruits.
Asymmetrical
Flower
In this type, the
flower cannot be
divided into similar
halves along any
vertical plane.
3. The flower is commonly borne on short or long stalk called
the pedicel (stalked or pedicellate flower). Some flowers
may be without stalk (sessile flower).
Biswarup Majumder | Bio-World
Receptacle
Stalk
The tip of flower stalk may be expanded to form a cup-
shaped receptacle (thalamus).
Introduction
4. Hypogyny :
When the thalamus is convex or elongated, the carpel occupies
the top most position on it. The other floral members (sepals,
petals, and stamens) are placed below them. This mode of
arrangement is called hypogyny. The flower is described as
hypogynous. The ovary is known as superior.
Biswarup Majumder | Bio-World
Insertion of Floral Leaves on the Thalamus
Perigyny :
In this condition, the receptacle is flat or slightly cup-shaped.
The carpels are situated at its centre and other floral
members are inserted on its margin. This mode of arrangement
is called perigyny. The flower is known as perigynous. In this
case, the ovary is still described as half inferior.
Epigyny :
When the thalamus is cup shaped, the lower part of the ovary
is situated at the bottom of the cup and also fused with the
inner wall of thalamus. The other floral members appear to be
inserted upon the ovary. This mode on arrangement is
called epigyny. Then the flower is said to be epigynous. the
ovary is said to be inferior.
5. A typical angiospermic flower consists of four whorls of floral
appendages attached on the receptacle :
✓ Calyx : It is the outermost whorl of the flower. It is composed
of leaf like green sepals. The sepals are essentially green in
colour but in some cases they are coloured like petals. Such a
condition of calyx is called petaloid.
✓ Corolla : This is the second whorl of the flower and consists of
a number of petals. Petals are generally brightly coloured and
sometimes fragrant which make the flower to become
attractive.
✓ Androecium : It is the third whorl of flower and is the male
reproductive organ consisting of stamens. Each stamen is made
of filament and anther. The filament supports anther at its tip.
✓ Gynoecium : This is the last and the fourth whorl of flower
and is the female reproductive organ of the flower. It occupies
the central position on the receptacle and composed of ovary,
style and stigma and the component parts are called carpels.
Biswarup Majumder | Bio-World
Parts of a Flower
A complete (or perfect) flower is one
which contains all four floral structures.
If one or more sets of floral structures
are missing, the flower is called
incomplete (or imperfect).
6. Essential & Non-essential Parts of a Flower
Biswarup Majumder | Bio-World
Essential (reproductive) parts of a flower are those that are
directly associated with reproduction.
E.g., Stamen and Carpel (or Pistil).
Non-essential (accessory) parts are those which either
protect the reproductive parts of the flower or make the
flower attractive for pollination.
E.g., Sepals and Petals.
In some flowers calyx and corolla are undifferentiated and
cannot be distinguished. They are termed perianth.
When the perianth is non-green it is described as petaloid.
When the perianth is green like the sepals, it is described as
sepaloid perianth.
7. Other Important Terms
Biswarup Majumder | Bio-World
In a flower, if all the four whorls, i.e., calyx, corolla,
androecium and gynoecium are present, the flower is said to be
complete.
Complete flower :
If one or more floral whorl is lacking in the flower, the flower
is said to be incomplete.
Incomplete flower :
Pistillate – If the staminate whorl (androecium) is absent or
non-functional, the flower is said to be pistillate. The non-
functional stamens are called staminodia.
Staminate – In this type of flower, the pistil or carpel
(gynoecium) is either totally lacking or non-functional. The non-
functional gynoecium is known as pistillode.
Neuter – When both, the staminate and pistillate whorls are
lacking, the flower is called neuter, for example, ray floret of
sunflower.
Bisexual or Hermaphrodite :
These are flowers having both the essential whorls, i.e., the
androecium and the gynoecium.
Unisexual :
If either of the essential whorls (i.e., androecium or gynoecium)
is lacking, the flower is said to be unisexual.
Monoecious – The male and female flowers are borne on the
same plant, for example, gourd, maize, cucumber.
Dioecious – The male and female flowers are borne on separate
plants, for example, mulberry, palm, papaya.
Naked :
This condition arises when the flower is completely devoid of
petals and sepals, for example, betel.
8. Calyx
The calyx composed of sepals is usually green (sepaloid) and
sometimes otherwise coloured (petaloid). It forms the
outermost non-essential whorl of the flower and protects the
flower in the bud stage. Being green, it also manufacture food
by photosynthesis.
The calyx may be :
Gamosepalous – the sepals are more or less united.
Polysepalous – the sepals are free.
Generally, the calyx withers off when the fruit is formed.
Sometimes it remains attached as in tomato and brinjal. Such a
calyx is called a persistent calyx.
Functions of the calyx :
Protects the flower in the bud stage.
Prepares food for the plant by photosynthesis.
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In some plants a whorl of green
sepals like structure is present at
the base of calyx called epicalyx.
Epicalyx is considered a whorl of
the bracteoles and mostly found
in the flowers of family Malvaceae.
Calyx
Epicalyx
Epicalyx
9. The corolla forms the whorl inner to calyx. Together with the
calyx, it protects the inner essential whorls, the stamens and
pistil. The petals of the corolla, like the calyx, may be united to
each other or may be free.
The corolla may be :
Gamopetalous – the petals are united.
Polypetalous – the petals are free.
The corolla is generally large and showy and assumes various
shapes adapted to attract insects and bring about pollination.
Functions of the corolla :
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Corolla
They attract insects for pollination as they are generally
bright and showy.
In the bud stage, the corolla together with the calyx,
protects the inner essential whorls.
Bracts Nectaries
A modified leaf or scale, typically small,
with a flower or flower cluster in its axil.
Bracts are sometimes larger and more
brightly coloured than the true flower.
The nectaries make nectar.
They are in the centre of the flower.
Nectar is a sweet substance, which
insects drink to give them energy.
10. The androecium is the male reproductive whorl of a flower,
inner to the corolla. It is composed of a number of stamens,
each of which consists of a filament and anther.
The anther is usually two lobed. Each lobe has two pollen sacs.
Within the pollen sacs are contained pollen grains. When fully
matured the pollen sacs rupture to liberate pollen grains.
The pollen grains are generally powdery particles of different
shapes and sizes. Each pollen has two coats – the exine (tough,
cutinized outer protective coat) and the intine (thin delicate
cellulose layer lying internal to the exine).
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Androecium
The filaments may be free from each other and other
structures or they may be fused with each other or fused with
the petals or gynoecium. They may also vary in size.
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Types of Androecium
According to the length of the filament :
According to the number of stamens :
12. How to remember the above three terms ?
Mono-,Di- and Poly- respectively mean single, two and several.
Adelphous literally means “group of brothers”, here referring to the part from which the anthers
grow out in bundles. Thus the bundle of anthers arising from a single part (monadelphous), the
bundles from two parts (diadelphous) and from several parts (polyadelphous).
Adelphous :
The stamens are fused by their filaments only. The anthers are
free. Fusion of filaments may produce a single group
(monadelphous, e.g., china rose), two groups (diadelphous, e.g.,
pea) or many groups (polyadelphous, e.g., citrus).
Syngenesious (= Synantherous) :
Stamens are fused by anthers only. The filaments are free. The
fused anthers form a ring around the gynoecium, e.g., sunflower.
Synandrous :
Stamens are fused by both their filaments as well as anthers,
e.g., pumpkin.
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Forms of Cohesion (Fusion) of Stamens
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Insertion and Adhesion of Stamens
Fixation of Anthers
Basifixed – Filament attached to the base of the anther.
Dorsifixed - Filament attached to the dorsal (back) side of
the anther.
Adnate - Filament attached along the entire length of anther.
Versatile – Filament attached to a point on the back or base of
anther so as to let it swing freely.
Divergent – When two anther lobes separate due to enlarged
connective.
Distractile – When two anther lobes are far apart.
14. Gynoecium
The gynoecium or pistil is the female reproductive part of the
flower and forms the innermost whorl. The pistil is composed of
one or more carpels.
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Stigma
Terminal knob-like
part of the carpel.
Style
Tubular stalk
connecting the stigma
and the ovary.
Ovary
Swollen basal portion.
The inner cavity may
contains one or more
chambers. Each
chamber contains one
or more ovules.
Parts
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Placentation
The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as
placentation.
Marginal – The placenta forms a ridge along the ventral
suture of the ovary and the ovules are borne on this ridge
forming two rows. e.g., pea.
Axile – When the placenta is axial and the ovules are
attached to it in a multilocular ovary. e.g., china rose,
tomato and lemon.
Parietal – the ovules develop on the inner wall of the ovary
or on peripheral part. Ovary is one-chambered but it
becomes two chambered due to the formation of the false
septum(replum) e.g., mustard and Argemone.
Basal – the placenta develops at the base of ovary and a
single ovule is attached to it. e.g., sunflower, marigold.
Free Central – When the ovules are borne on central axis
and septa are absent. e.g., Dianthus, Primrose.
Ovules turn into seeds in the mature fruit
(transformed ovary). their different
arrangements can be seen in fruits such as
those of pea, tomato, mango, lotus, etc.
Types of Placentation :
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Inflorescence is the mode of arrangement of flowers on the
axis of the plant.
Types of Inflorescence :
Inflorescence
The flowers may be arranged in several different ways in different plants, this manner
of arrangement is termed as inflorescence.