The Edge of Linguistics lecture series from Prof. Fredreck J. Newmeyer
During Oct 7 to Oct 17, Prof. Newmeyer offered a lecture series on a wide range of linguistic topics in Beijing Language and Culture University.
Lecture 1: The Chomskyan Revolution
Lecture 2: Constraining the Theory
Lecture 3: The Boundary between Syntax and Semantics
Lecture 4: The Boundary between Competence and Performance
Lecture 5: Can One Language Be ‘More Complex’ Than Another?
Background:
Fredreck J. Newmeyer is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of Washington and adjunct professor in the University Of British Columbia Department Of Linguistics and the Simon Fraser University Department of Linguistics. He has published widely in theoretical and English syntax.
The Edge of Linguistics lecture series from Prof. Fredreck J. Newmeyer
During Oct 7 to Oct 17, Prof. Newmeyer offered a lecture series on a wide range of linguistic topics in Beijing Language and Culture University.
Lecture 1: The Chomskyan Revolution
Lecture 2: Constraining the Theory
Lecture 3: The Boundary between Syntax and Semantics
Lecture 4: The Boundary between Competence and Performance
Lecture 5: Can One Language Be ‘More Complex’ Than Another?
Background:
Fredreck J. Newmeyer is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of Washington and adjunct professor in the University Of British Columbia Department Of Linguistics and the Simon Fraser University Department of Linguistics. He has published widely in theoretical and English syntax.
Well known linguists such as De Saussere, F. and Bloomfield, L. main representative theoretician of a school of language called Structuralism. De Saussere, F. belongs to the group of European linguistics who developed studies on the language field at the end of the 19th century and beginning of 20th century while Bloomfield, L. belongs to the group of the North American ones.
The Edge of Linguistics lecture series from Prof. Fredreck J. Newmeyer
During Oct 7 to Oct 17, Prof. Newmeyer offered a lecture series on a wide range of linguistic topics in Beijing Language and Culture University.
Lecture 1: The Chomskyan Revolution
Lecture 2: Constraining the Theory
Lecture 3: The Boundary between Syntax and Semantics
Lecture 4: The Boundary between Competence and Performance
Lecture 5: Can One Language Be ‘More Complex’ Than Another?
Background:
Fredreck J. Newmeyer is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of Washington and adjunct professor in the University Of British Columbia Department Of Linguistics and the Simon Fraser University Department of Linguistics. He has published widely in theoretical and English syntax.
Well known linguists such as De Saussere, F. and Bloomfield, L. main representative theoretician of a school of language called Structuralism. De Saussere, F. belongs to the group of European linguistics who developed studies on the language field at the end of the 19th century and beginning of 20th century while Bloomfield, L. belongs to the group of the North American ones.
[ESP] Definitions, Characteristics, and Principles of English for Specific Pu...Miyu Hoshizora
My Task of ESP Class...
This ppt is about definitions, characteristics, and principles of english for specific purposes...
I did it with my partner, Novi
The Edge of Linguistics lecture series from Prof. Fredreck J. Newmeyer
During Oct 7 to Oct 17, Prof. Newmeyer offered a lecture series on a wide range of linguistic topics in Beijing Language and Culture University.
Lecture 1: The Chomskyan Revolution
Lecture 2: Constraining the Theory
Lecture 3: The Boundary between Syntax and Semantics
Lecture 4: The Boundary between Competence and Performance
Lecture 5: Can One Language Be ‘More Complex’ Than Another?
Background:
Fredreck J. Newmeyer is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of Washington and adjunct professor in the University Of British Columbia Department Of Linguistics and the Simon Fraser University Department of Linguistics. He has published widely in theoretical and English syntax.
Speakers: Maggie Chen, Yuri Liu
As ACTFL has updated the national standards to promote World-Readiness language learning, language education nowadays is no longer about teaching what a language is like. Rather, it is to provide authentic input and meaningful practice to help learners develop a series of transferable skills, targeted in the ACTFL five “C” goal areas, which enable them to apply their language skills beyond instructional settings and according to a variety of situational needs. In this session, presenters will demonstrate how to establish an authentic and meaningful instructional setting (curriculum design, lesson plan, instructional activities, and materials) that is tightly connected to the ACTFL five “C” goals, in which learners improve their language skills (oral proficiency and literacy), applicable in real-life situations or workplaces. The presenters will also provide sample lesson plans, materials, and activities that can enhance learner engagement.
Speakers: Michelle Cheng, Li Ye
The impact of Standards-Based Grading (SBG) is not just limited to the grading system. It can actually change teachers’ instructional mindset, which in turn can affect everything teachers do in the classrooms. While many have heard about SBG, not many know how it can be implemented and what obstacles they may encounter. In this session, presenters will share firsthand experience in implementing SBG in their Chinese classrooms. From identifying the big ideas (the standards), what and how to measure performance to determining student success criteria, they will explain the steps involved and provide specific examples such as learning targets, unit design and assessments, and additional grading policies.
Speakers: Yuanyuan Lin, Dana Reijerkerk
Mastery of the Chinese characters could probably be considered as one of the most difficult and strenuous tasks for Chinese language learners. The present research is designed to address how Chinese characters are processed and organized in the cognitive approaches between memory and reasoning. In this session, presenters will share the findings, which divulge how fuzzy-trace theory benefits Chinese character learning and helps students to become more independent and effective language learners. The research also suggests that providing assistance to the students to form traces and visual-spatial analysis of the Chinese characters would significantly increase students’ performance. The research procedure, method, data, and results will be shared during the session. This session has implications for the daily classroom practices of using certain techniques to best acquire vocabulary in a second language.
Guided Reading (GR) in English has been approved as an effective strategy of teaching reading skills such as fluency and comprehension. The presenters will discuss how Chinese as a Second Language (CSL) teachers can build up GR into Chinese reading instruction.
Since 2012, Phoenix Tree Publishing has formed close partnerships with Hanban/Confucius Schools/Confucius Classrooms, local schools offering mandarin classes, and countless Chinese teaching organizations in North America to promote Chinese culture and language.
We work with teachers and administrators of schools with students ages ranging from 3 to 18 to create HSK test centers, build support centers, provide training and tutoring opportunities, and develop active, student-oriented learning environments.
Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters, as a public non-profit institution affiliated with the Chinese Ministry of Education, is committed to providing Chinese language and cultural teaching resources and services worldwide. It strives to satisfy the demands of Chinese learners around the world and contributing to the development of multiculturalism. The new HSK test was launched by exclusively by Hanban in an effort to better serve Chinese language learners, with different tests designed to serve the unique needs of students.
The new HSK is an international standardized exam that tests and rates Chinese language proficiency. It assesses non-native Chinese speakers’ abilities in using the Chinese language in their daily, academic and professional lives. HSK consists of six levels: from HSK Level I to HSK Level VI. For more information about the HSK tests, please visit http://english.hanban.org/node_8002.htm
New Practical Chinese Reader is a series starting from beginner’s level, designed for non-heritage learners. The pedagogical methodology uses language structure as the basis and combines it with functional and cultural knowledge. The third edition has 6 volumes and 30 books in total, including textbooks, workbooks, instructor’s manuals, companion readers, and tests and quizzes.
Chinese for Elementary School
Chinese for Elementary School is the first textbook designed exclusively for Chinese Immersion Programs in North America. Each grade contains book A and book B. Each book has 16 lessons. One lesson one week and 60-90 minutes class time each day (Adjustable). It aligns with 5C, ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines, and other national standards.
Systematic curriculum: synergy of literacy study and content subjects
Story-driven and activity-based: entertaining, instructional, and interactive
3-D teaching support: supplementary materials, teaching resources, and professional development programs.
Stories from China is a series of extensive reading textbooks compiled by local Chinese language teachers for intermediate/advanced Chinese students or self-learners.
This series introduces Chinese culture to foreigners and improves their Chinese reading skills while teaching Chinese culture. The textbooks use stories to present vividly and specifically the glorious traditional Chinese cultural points that foreigners are interested in.
This series is divided into 10 volumes, including volumes of history, geography, folk customs, myths and legends, traditional culture, traditional festivals, arts, Chinese language, literature, celebrities, etc. Each volume uses 10 stories to discuss a cultural topic.
The volume of traditional festivals introduces ten most important traditional Chinese festivals, including the Spring Festival, Yuanxiao Festival, Tomb-Sweeping Day, Dragon Boat Festival, the Night of Sevens, Mid-Autumn Festival, Double Ninth Festival, Winter Solstice, Laba Festival and Little New Year. Besides these, there are also cultural tips such as staying up all night on Spring Festival Eve, pasting the Spring Festival couplets, watching Spring Festival Gala, guessing the lantern riddles, 24 solar terms, Chinese people’s sense of reunion, the special meanings of the number “9” and the ancestral worship ceremonies, etc.
Authorized by Hanban, HSK Standard Course is developed under the joint efforts of Beijing Language and Culture University Press and Chinese Testing International (CTI). With HSK test papers as its primary source, HSK Standard Course is characterized by a humorous style, familiar topics and a scientific course design. Matching the HSK test in all aspects, from the content, form to the levels, it is a series of new-type course books embodying the idea of “combining testing and teaching, and promoting learning and teaching by testing”. It is suitable for the Confucius Institutes in different countries as well as other Chinese teaching institutions and self-taught learners.
The whole series is divided into six levels matching the HSK test, with one volume for each of Levels 1-3 and two volumes for each of Levels 4-6, totaling nine volumes. With a textbook, a workbook and a teacher’s book in each volume, there are altogether 27 books. The book is illustrated with photos match the style of the test and is printed in full color. An audio CD comes with the book.
This workshop will provide an overview of the policies and initiatives at the state and national levels that supported this implementation, focusing on how this impacts programs like dual language/immersion, heritage language, and the traditional K–12 sequence. Participants will examine recent language research, intercultural competence initiatives, and student learning outcomes that have been used to establish proficiency expectations in different programs. International examples showing the use and alignment of proficiency scales will be presented. Free classroom resources like LinguaFolio will be shared, as well as activities that can help parents and administrators understand proficiency-based learning. Participants will learn about the progress of proficiency-based initiatives and gather resources they can use for professional development.\
Speaker:
Ann Marie Gunter: Ann Marie Gunter is the World Languages Consultant at the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction and the president-elect of the National Council of State Supervisors for Languages (NCSSFL). She serves K-12 world language educators, with a variety of state and national initiatives, to implement proficiency-based language programs.
Ryan Wertz: Ryan Wertz is the lead consultant for world languages at the Ohio Department of Education. He is also the current president of the National Council of State Supervisors for Languages (NCSSFL). His work supports the proficiency-based efforts of K-12 world language educators and students throughout Ohio and across the country.
Connect Chinese language learning and assessment with the PK-16 focus on literacy and 21st century skills. American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) is facilitating an initiative to guide teachers in a process of collaborative inquiry in which they explore an area of literacy to embed in language instruction to improve learners’ performance. Learn and apply strategies for developing engaging tasks in order to practice and assess this literacy-focused application of language skills. Participants practice using Conversation Builder, a free online tool that guides teachers through the design of several rounds of prompts for learners who wish to explore a single focus or topic as they practice conversation strategies and receive feedback from their teacher. In this workshop, educators design interpretive tasks in which learners demonstrate what they understand from what is heard, read, or viewed – without relying on production of Chinese to assess this receptive skill.
Expand the practice of the Presentational Mode beyond formal writing or memorized presentations to focus on tasks that learners would do in their daily life.
Speaker:
Paul Sandrock, Director of Education at the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), directs this national organization’s professional development and initiatives around standards, curriculum, instruction, and performance assessment. Previously, Paul was Assistant Director of Content and Learning at the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (DPI) , coordinating the areas of English language arts, mathematics, international education, and world languages. He earlier served as the DPI state-wide consultant for world languages. Paul taught Spanish for 16 years in middle school and high school and authored The Keys to Assessing Language Performance and Planning Curriculum for Learning World Languages. Paul previously served ACTFL as a board member and president and received ACTFL’s Florence Steiner Award for Leadership in Foreign Language Education, K-12.
The use of digitized lessons and online tech tools are gradually transforming the landscape of K–12 education. This presentation will introduce the concepts of blended learning and flipped instruction, and show how the Chinese American International School (CAIS) and the Chinese program at Lakeside School are developing a set of “flipped classroom” digitized online lessons in Mandarin Chinese to supplement traditional classroom instruction. This demonstration will also model modes of delivery to students and formative assessment techniques delivered via learning management systems. The presentation will conclude with ramifications for improving the learning experience for students as well as thoughts for continued development in blended learning for Chinese programs.
Speaker:
Cheyenne (Xiaoyun) Zhang Matthewson is a Chinese instructor at Lakeside Upper School in Seattle, teaching beginning to advanced level Chinese. She has presented at ACTFL and at the NCLC on teaching advanced level Chinese in high schools and on building a high-functioning Chinese program in a secondary school setting. She has served on the board of directors for the CLTA -Washington State since 2012.
Adam Ross has taught Chinese language in both K-12 and university settings for over 20 years, and is presently working as Program Manager for Digital Chinese Initiatives at the Chinese American International School (CAIS) in San Francisco. In addition to his work in schools, he has led numerous workshops in starting and building Chinese language programs and in using online tools to support student learning in Chinese classes. He also has served as a Team Leader consultant for many STARTALK student and teacher programs across the US.
Focusing on a collaborative approach to teaching, participants will sample hands-on, highly engaging integrated arts lessons to introduce students to Chinese language, culture, and history, and will examine methods to increase intercultural and language competencies to enhance the support of Chinese culture and language throughout the school community. Teachers will learn how to use the various arts disciplines to kick-start classroom studies in order to deepen and enrich students’ experiences and understanding, to open dialogue for discussion, and to make authentic connections between students’ home cultures and those they have chosen to study.
Currently there is an increased demand for Chinese language teachers across the U.S. The majority of today’s Chinese teachers are faced with the daunting realization that teaching in U.S. schools is tremendously different from their own schooling experiences; numerous factors contribute to this contrast. This study specifically focused on classroom management and discipline and examines how teachers address the challenges of working across the languages and cultures of U.S. schooling. Through a carefully designed sequence of blended learning activities, this study provided participants multiple opportunities to explore and examine introspectively critical considerations that directly influence transitioning into a learner-centered classroom, utilizing various classroom management skills and strategies with millennial learners. Data collection instruments included two online surveys, a group interview, and online discussion board threads. Results indicate that there remains a great deal to be done in this area to assist Chinese teachers.
Speaker:
Marjorie Hall & Sherry Steeley
Dr. Marjorie Hall Haley is tenured Professor of Education at George Mason University in Fairfax, VA. She is a former Spanish, French, German, and ESL teacher of 14 years.She teaches Foreign Language methods and ESL methods courses as well as doctoral courses in Brain-compatible Teaching and Learning, Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition Research. She is actively involved in ongoing action research projects with teachers at local, national, and international levels. Dr. Haley’s research and publication record is wide. Her most recent books are, Content-Based Second Language Teaching and Learning: An Interactive Approach (2nd Ed.) (2014) and Brain-compatible Differentiated Instruction for English Language Learners (2010). In addition, she is a featured scholar in the WGBH and Annenberg/CPB video, “Valuing Diverse Learners” available at www.learner.org
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
The Boundary between Competence and Performance - Prof. Fredreck J. Newmeyer
1. Class 4:
The Boundary between
Competence and Performance
1
FREDERICK J . NEWMEYER
UNIVERSI TY OF WASHINGTON, UNIVERSI TY OF
BRI T ISH COLUMBIA,
AND SIMON FRASER UNIVERSI TY
2. Competence and Performance
2
The fundamental distinction in generative grammar
is between competence (knowledge of language)
and performance (language use).
Competence is now often referred to as ‘I-Language’.
The distinction goes back to Ferdinand de Saussure
and his langue vs. parole.
3. Competence and Performance
3
But there are important differences between langue and
competence.
Saussure thought of syntax as forming part of parole, not
langue:
“La phrase est le type par excellence du syntagme.
Mais elle appartient à la parole, non à la langue …”
Also, for Saussure and later functionalists, langue was a
taxonomy of elements, not a system of generative rules.
4. Competence and Performance
4
The competence-performance distinction is based
on the commonplace observation that there is a
difference between what we know and what we do.
One could compare competence to the score of a
symphony and performance to the actual
performance of that symphony.
No two performances will be exactly the same.
5. Competence and Performance
5
But how do we know which phenomena deserve a
competence explanation and which deserve a
performance explanation?
Short answer: We don’t know before we have
undertaken a complete analysis.
There will always be disagreement over the analysis
of borderline phenomena.
6. Competence and Performance
6
Just because a sentence is unacceptable, it does not
follow that it is ungrammatical.
Chomsky and Miller (1963) called attention to the
following unacceptable sentence:
The rat [S the cat [S the dog chased] ate] died
They argued that the sentence is grammatical.
7. Competence and Performance
7
Why is the sentence grammatical?
The rat [S the cat [S the dog chased] ate] died
Regular rules of sentence embedding generate it.
It would really complicate the grammar to have to
‘shut off’ embedding at a certain level.
We know why it is unacceptable: it is confusing.
8. Competence and Performance
8
Sometimes it will not be clear whether an unacceptability
is due to competence or performance.
[That he left] is a surprise.
Normally one can delete a that complementizer in
English. But deleting that in the above sentence leads to
unacceptability:
??[He left] is a surprise.
9. Competence and Performance
9
Why is the sentence He left is a surprise unacceptable?
Chomsky and Lasnik (1977) say that it is ungrammatical. It
violates a filter prohibiting two tensed verbs in a row after an
initial subject.
Bever (1970) says that the sentence is grammatical. It is
unacceptable because it violates a processing principle:
The first N … V … (N) … sequence is processed as the
main clause unless the verb is marked as subordinate.
Who is right? We don’t know.
10. Competence and Performance
10
Nevertheless, not all linguists accept the
competence-performance dichotomy.
A leading sociolinguist once wrote that the distinction
is ‘almost incoherent’ (Labov 1972).
Statistical approaches to grammar popular in
artificial intelligence and natural language processing
often question the distinction.
11. Competence and Performance
11
But the greatest objection to the competence-performance
distinction come from the direction of
functional linguistics.
Many functionalists believe that (almost) all aspects
of grammar can be derived from the needs of
communication and other functions of language.
Hence there is no need to construct a competence
grammar.
12. Competence and Performance
12
A quote from Johanna Nichols:
“Functionalists maintain that the
communicative situation motivates,
constrains, explains, or otherwise
determines grammatical structure,
and that a structural or formal
approach is not merely limited to an
artificially restricted data base, but is
inadequate even as a structural
account.”
JOHANNA
NICHOLS
13. FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
13
Recall that Saussure thought that syntax was part of
parole.
His thinking led many functionalists to look for non-structural
approaches to syntax.
Let’s do a quick historical survey of functional
linguistics.
14. FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
14
Many European structuralists — especially those of
the Prague School — attempted to construct a
parole-based theory of the sentence, where the
order of elements is determined by discourse-function,
not structural rules.
The Prague-based linguists developed the theory of
Functional Sentence Perspective, which tries to
explain word order in terms of discourse-based
notions like theme (old information, topic) and rheme
(new information, focus), etc.
15. FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
15
Modern functional linguistics is a direct descendent
of Praguean Functional Sentence Perspective …
… combined with the type of typological studies
initiated by Joseph Greenberg.
JOSEPH GREENBERG, 1915-2001
16. FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
16
• It is functional linguists who have taken the lead on
studies of grammaticalization:
• lexical categories > functional categories and pronominal
elements > clitics > derivational affixes > inflectional
affixes > zero
• English modals might, will, and others were verbs that
were grammaticalized to auxiliaries.
• Suffixes like –ful (wonderful), -able (breakable), and -
ment (enjoyment) were one full words that became
affixes.
17. FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
17
• The (apparently) gradual nature of
grammaticalization has been posed as a direct
challenge to standard versions of generative
grammar and has led to a lively debate.
• One book devoted to grammaticalization has
claimed that ‘grammaticalization theory’ calls for a
‘new theoretical paradigm’ to replace formal
linguistics.
18. FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
18
Some leading grammaticalization theorists:
ELIZABETH TRAUGOTT BERND HEINE MARTIN HASPELMATH
19. FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
19
The most extreme functionalists not only reject the
autonomy of syntax (Chomsky’s hypothesis), but
also the competence-performance distinction
(Saussure’s hypothesis).
21. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
21
Most linguists believe that given the autonomy of
syntax, it is impossible to provide functional
explanations based on language use for why
grammatical systems have the properties that they
have.
22. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
22
ELIZABETH BATES, 1947-2003 BRIAN MACWHINNEY
“The autonomy of syntax cuts off [sentence structure] from
the pressures of communicative function. In the [formalist]
vision, language is pure and autonomous, unconstrained
and unshaped by purpose or function.”
23. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
23
My goal in this class:
TO ARGUE THAT THE AUTONOMY OF SYNTAX
AND FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION ARE FULLY
COMPATIBLE.
24. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
24
Quotes like that from Bates and
MacWhinney make it sound like if a
system is autonomous, then a
functionalist explanation of that system
is impossible.
25. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
25
That is not true. And it only seems to be linguists
who have this curious idea.
In other domains, formal and functional accounts
taken as complementary, not contradictory.
26. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
26
Chess is a formal
autonomous system:
There are a finite number
of discrete statements and
rules.
Given the layout of board,
the pieces & the moves,
one can ‘generate’ all of
the possible games of
chess.
27. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
27
But functional
considerations went into
the design of the system
— to make it a satisfying
pastime.
And external factors can
change the system — for
example a decree from
the International Chess
Authority.
28. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
28
Furthermore, in any
game of chess, the
moves are subject to
the conscious will of the
players, just as any act
of speaking is subject to
the conscious decision
of the speaker.
31. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
31
But still it has been
shaped by its function
and use.
It evolved in response to
selective pressure for a
more efficient role in
digestion.
33. FORMALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM
33
So the question is whether
grammar in general and syntax in
particular are — in relevant
respects — like the game of chess
and like our bodily organs.
35. FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
35
Let’s look more deeply at some
functional explanations.
We’ll talk about the three most
important types.
36. FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
36
a. Parsing: There is pressure to shape grammar so
the hearer can determine the structure of the
sentence as rapidly as possible.
b. (Structure-Concept) Iconicity: There is pressure
to keep form and meaning as close to each other as
possible.
c. Information flow in discourse: There is pressure
for the syntactic structure of a sentence to mirror the
flow of information in discourse.
37. PARSING
37
JOHN A. HAWKINS,
EFFICIENCY AND
COMPLEXITY IN
GRAMMARS (2004)
38. PARSING
38
CENTRAL INSIGHT: It is in the interest of the hearer
to recognize the syntactic groupings in a sentence
as rapidly as possible.
LANGUAGE USE: When speakers have choice, they
will follow the parser’s preference.
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE: Typological facts
about grammars will reflect parsing preferences.
39. PARSING
39
Minimize Domains (MD): The
hearer (and therefore the parsing
mechanism) prefers orderings of
elements that lead to the most
rapid recognition possible of the
structure of the sentence.
40. PARSING
40
MD explains why long (or heavy)
elements tend to come after short
(or light) ones in English:
a. ?I met the twenty three people who I had
taken Astronomy 201 with last semester in
the park.
b. I met in the park the twenty three people
who I had taken Astronomy 201 with last
semester.
41. PARSING
41
S
S
NP VP NP VP
I V NP PP I V PP NP
met D N’ P NP met P NP D N’
the 23 .. 201 in the park in the park the 23 ... 201
Distance of 14 words Distance of 4 words
42. PARSING
42
Typological predictions of Minimize Domains:
Verb-object languages (like English and French)
tend to put heavy elements on the right.
a. That John will leave is likely.
b. It is likely that John will leave.
43. PARSING
43
Object-verb languages (like Japanese) tend to put
heavy elements on the left:
a. Mary-ga [kinoo John-ga kekkonsi-ta
to] it-ta
Mary yesterday John married
that said
‘Mary said that John got married
yesterday’
b. [kinoo John-ga kekkonsi-ta to] Mary-ga
it-ta
44. PARSING
44
a. S[S’[ that S[ John will leave]] VP[[is likely]]
b. S[ NP [it] VP[ is likely S’[that S[John will leave]]]]
45. PARSING
45
a. S1[Mary-ga VP[S’[S2 [kinoo John-ga kekkonsi-ta] to] it-ta]]
b. S2[S’[S1[kinoo John-ga kekkonsi-ta] to] Mary-ga VP[it-ta]]
46. PARSING
46
MD makes even more interesting predictions about
grammatical competence.
That is where we have grammaticalized orders —
cases where the speaker has no choice about the
positioning of phrases.
47. PARSING
47
Notice that the verb and what follows it tend to
line up in short-to-long order:
I [convinced - my students - of the fact - that
linguistics is interesting]
48. PARSING
48
I convinced my students of the fact that linguistics is interesting
We have a short verb,
then a longer direct object,
then a still longer prepositional phrase,
and finally a still longer subordinate clause.
verb dir.
obj.
prep.
phrase
subordinate
clause
49. PARSING
49
Why do VO languages
tend to have prepositions
and OV languages tend to
have postpositions?
51. PARSING
51
Another important processing principle proposed by
Hawkins:
Maximize On Line Processing: If node B is
dependent on node A for a property assignment, the
processor prefers B to follow A.
52. PARSING
52
MAXIMIZE ON LINE PROCESSING:
a. Fillers tend to precede gaps:
COMMON: Whati did you put ____i on the table?
RARE: You put ___i on the table whati?
b. Antecedents tend to precede pronouns:
COMMON: Maryi is very proud of herselfi.
RARE: Of herselfi is very proud Maryi
c. Topics tend to precede predications:
COMMON: John is going to Geneva today (where John is the topic of the
sentence)
RARE: Is going to Geneva today John (where John is the topic of the
sentence)
53. STRUCTURE-CONCEPT ICONICITY
53
There’s another way that grammars seem designed for
language users. In general what we find is an iconic
relationship between form and meaning.
There is an iconic relationship between the two faces
54. STRUCTURE-CONCEPT ICONICITY
54
That means that the form, length, complexity, or
interrelationship of elements in a linguistic representation
reflects the form, length, complexity or interrelationship of
elements in the concept that that representation encodes.
55. STRUCTURE-CONCEPT
ICONICITY
55
There are two types of possession in human language:
Inalienable possession: John’s liver Alienable possession:
John’s book
JOHN AND HIS LIVER JOHN AND HIS BOOK
56. STRUCTURE-CONCEPT ICONICITY
56
In English, John’s liver and John’s book have the
same structure.
But in a majority of languages, it is more complicated
to say John’s book than John’s liver.
57. STRUCTURE-CONCEPT ICONICITY
57
And there is no language in the world where it is
more complicated to say John’s liver than to say
John’s book.
58. STRUCTURE-CONCEPT ICONICITY
58
So when the relationship between the possessor and
the object is very close (like between yourself and
your liver), the structural distance between them is
very small.
59. INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE
59
THE ARGUMENT:
Language is used to communicate.
Communication involves the conveying of
information.
Therefore, the nature of information flow
should leave and has left its mark on
grammatical structure.
60. INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE
60
There are 6 ways to say: Lenin
cites Marx in Russian — a
typical ‘free word-order’
language:
a. Lenin citiruet Marksa.
b. Lenin Marksa citiruet.
c. Citiruet Lenin Marksa.
d. Citiruet Marksa Lenin.
e. Marksa Lenin citiruet.
f. Marksa citiruet Lenin.
61. INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE
61
In each case, old information comes before new
information.
A functionalist claim is that the discourse principle of
Communicative Dynamism governs the order.
The passage of time from past to present to future is
mirrored iconically in discourse by ordering of old
information before new information.
62. INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE
62
But some
functionalists, like
Talmy Givón, argue
that language works
precisely the
opposite way!
TALMY GIVON
63. INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE
63
According to Givón and others, new information
comes before old information; that is, more important
information comes before less important information.
This idea is called ‘Communicative Task Urgency’ by
Givón.
64. INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE
64
Even English shows Communicative Task Urgency:
John is the person that I talked to.
65. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
65
How can we be sure that a
functional explanation is
convincing?
Three criteria:
a. precise formulation
b. demonstrable linkage between cause and effect
c. measurable typological consequences
66. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
66
Let’s illustrate these with respect to an
uncontroversial cause and effect: Cigarette smoking
and lung cancer.
67. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
67
Precise formulation?
YES: It is easy to gauge
whether and how much
people smoke.
68. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
68
Demonstrable
linkage? YES: The
effect of
components of
smoke upon cells is
well known.
69. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
69
Measurable
typological
consequences?
YES: The more
people smoke, the
more likely they are
to get lung cancer.
70. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
70
By these three criteria, parsing and
structure-concept iconicity-based
explanations are valid.
Explanations based on
information flow in discourse are
not.
71. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
71
PARSING (MINIMIZE DOMAINS)
1. It is formulated precisely.
2. There is demonstrable linkage between cause
and effect: The advantage to parsing rapidly is
hardly controversial. Every word has to be picked
out from ensemble of 50,000, identified in 1/3
second, and put in the right structure.
3. There are hundreds of typological predictions.
72. CONVINCING AND UNCONVINCING
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS
72
STRUCTURE-CONCEPT ICONICITY
1. It can be formulated precisely (most models are
structured so there is a close relationship between form
and meaning).
2. There is demonstrable linkage between cause and
effect: Comprehension is made easier when syntactic units
are isomorphic to units of meaning than when they are not.
There is experimental evidence as well — semantic
interpretation of a sentence proceeds on line as the
syntactic constituents are recognized.
3. Typological predictions: certainly, but need to be tested.
73. THE PROBLEMS WITH EXPLANATIONS BASED ON
‘INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE’
73
Two competing theories about how information flow
in discourse is supposed to influence grammar:
1. Communicative Dynamism (old information
precedes new information)
2. Communicative Task Urgency (new information
precedes old information)
They both can’t be right at the same time!
74. THE PROBLEMS WITH EXPLANATIONS BASED ON
‘INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE’
74
A very interesting
generalization:
Old-before-new is generally true for VO
languages.
New-before-old is generally true for OV
languages.
75. THE PROBLEMS WITH EXPLANATIONS BASED ON
‘INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE’
75
Jack Hawkins’s parsing theory (MD) predicts:
short-before-long for VO languages (e.g. in
English, post-verbal PP’s tend to be ordered in
terms of increasing length)
long-before-short for OV languages (e.g. in
Japanese, -ga, -o, and –ni phrases tend to be
ordered in terms of decreasing length)
76. THE PROBLEMS WITH EXPLANATIONS BASED ON
‘INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE’
76
Where MD predicts short-before-long, you get old-before new.
Where MD predicts long-before-short, you get new-before-old.
But old information is shorter than new information.
So, as Hawkins has shown, both ‘Communicative Dynamism’
and ‘Communicative Task Urgency’ are parsing effects.
They have little to do with discourse principles affecting
grammatical structure!
77. THE PROBLEMS WITH EXPLANATIONS BASED ON
‘INFORMATION FLOW IN DISCOURSE’
77
Word order facts can be reduced to the effects of parsing
pressure to a great extent.
The desire to maintain structural parallelism is as
important as the desire to model information flow.
There is little reason to believe that the conveying of
information is the central ‘function’ of language, that is,
one that would be expected to shape language structure.
Information flow-based explanations attribute to speakers
and hearers more knowledge than they actually are likely
to have.
The recognition of form takes precedence over the
recognition of the information conveyed by that form.
78. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
78
We have seen that wh-constructions are specified by
autonomous rules and principles.
That doesn’t mean that external functional
motivations weren’t involved in giving these
constructions their shape.
Certainly their function has helped to shape their
form.
79. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
79
Some wh-constructions are operator-variable
constructions.
It’s ‘natural’ that operators should precede the variables
that they bind.
The function of the wh-phrase in direct questions is to focus
on a bit of missing information.
It’s natural that you’d want to place this element at the
beginning.
Subjacency is at least to some degree functionally
motivated.
80. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
80
The issue isn’t whether properties of wh-constructions
are externally motivated or not.
Certainly they are.
The issue is whether in a synchronic grammar the formal
properties of these constructions are best characterized
independently of their meanings and the functions that
they serve.
And the answer is ‘yes’ — they should be so
characterized.
81. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
81
The reason is that whatever functional
considerations went into shaping a particular formal
structure, that structure takes on a life of its own, so
it is no longer a mirror of whatever functions brought
it into being.
In other words, the autonomous structural system
takes over.
82. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
82
For example, one cannot derive constraints just from
parsing since there are sentences that are constraint
violations that pose no parsing difficulty.
Some examples from Janet Fodor:
*Who were you hoping for ___ to win the game?
*What did the baby play with ___ and the rattle?
83. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
83
And there are pairs of sentences of roughly equal ease to the
parser, where one is grammatical and the other is a violation:
a. *John tried for Mary to get along well with ___.
b. John is too snobbish for Mary to get along well with ___.
a. *The second question, that he couldn’t answer ___
satisfactorily was obvious.
b. The second question, it was obvious that he couldn’t answer
___ satisfactorily.
The structural system of English decides the grammaticality
— not the parser.
84. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
84
Languages are filled with constructions that arose in
the course of history to respond to some functional
pressure, but, as the language as a whole changed,
ceased to be very good responses to that original
pressure.
Rather, the functionally motivated structure
generalizes and comes to encode meanings and
functions that don’t reflect the original pressure.
85. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
85
Parsing ease, pressure for an iconic relationship
between form and meaning, and so on really are
forces that shape grammars.
Adult speakers, in their use of language, are
influenced by such factors to produce variant forms
reflecting the influences of these forces.
86. THE COMPATIBILITY OF FORMAL AND
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
86
Children, in the process of acquisition, hear these
variant forms and grammaticalize them.
In that way, over time, certain functional influences
leave their mark on grammars.
But these influences operate at the level of language
use and acquisition — and therefore language
change — not internally to the grammar itself.
87. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
87
It’s partly a question of efficiency.
It is more efficient to make use of
old familiar formal patterns than to
keep creating news ones.
88. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
88
• Language serves many functions, which pull
on it in many different directions (thought /
communication).
• For this reason, virtually all linguists agree
that there can be no simple relationship between
form and function.
89. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
89
• Two functional forces do seem powerful
enough to have ‘left their mark’ on grammar:
The force pushing form and meaning into
alignment (pressure for iconicity).
The force favouring the identification of the
structure of the sentence as rapidly as
possible (parsing pressure).
90. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
90
• Even these two pressures can conflict with
each other, however — in some cases
dramatically:
Where there is parsing pressure to postpose
proper subpart of some semantic unit.
Where preference for topic-before-comment
conflicts with pressure to have long-before-short,
as in Japanese.
91. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
91
• The problem, then, is to provide grammar
with the degree of stability rendering it immune
from the constant push-pull of conflicting forces.
• A natural solution to the problem is to
provide language with a relatively stable core
immune to the immanent pressure coming from all
sides.
92. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
92
• That is, a natural solution
is to embody language with
a structural system at its
core.
93. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
93
Put another way, an autonomous syntax as an intermediate
system between form and function is a clever design solution to
the problem of how to make language both learnable and usable:
This system allows language to be
• nonarbitrary enough to facilitate acquisition and
use
and yet
• stable enough not be pushed this way and that by
the functional force of the moment.
94. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
94
We started by raising the question: Is language
structure shaped in part by external function?
The answer is yes!
And surprisingly, not only is this conclusion
compatible with the idea of formal generative
grammar, it even explains why formal grammars
have some of the properties that they do.
95. WHY IS THERE A COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION?
95
The competence-performance
distinction
is functionally motivated!