The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 18th century and later spread to other parts of Europe and the United States. Key factors that drove the Industrial Revolution included population growth, agricultural advances, increased trade, and technological innovations such as the steam engine. These developments led to industrialization in three main sectors: textiles, iron and steel production, and transportation. The Industrial Revolution transformed economies and societies as it shifted populations from rural to urban areas and introduced new forms of production.

1. THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION AND THE
CLASS-BASED SOCIETY
OU WILL LEARN TO...
Describe the causes a n d
developments of the Industrial
Revolution.
Discuss the origins of
working-class politics.
Define the c o n c e p t of a
class-based society a n d analyse
the differences b e t w e e n t h e
social classes. ,
- 1 *
What is an economic revolution? How is it different from a
political revolution?
What are the differences between craft production and
industrial production?
i What is a class-based society?

2. The beginning of the
Industrial Revolution
While the great transformations of the
French Revolution were carried out on
top of a volcano, England began its
revolution in the fieid of industry. The
end of the 18th century was marked by
amazing discoveries which were destinad
to change the worid [...] working
conditions went through greater changes
than had ever been seen before. Two
machines which would both become
immortal, the steam engine and the
spinning machine, revolutionised the
economy and led to the creation of
producís and social problems that had
previously been unknown.
Stage a protest
Industrialisation brought technological advances that had never been seen before.
From then onwards, industrial workers made products in buildings called factories.
Nowadays, w o r k i n g conditions are generally g o o d , especially in developed countries.
However, in the early stages of industrialisation, there were huge social injustices
and workers were expected t o w o r k in unacceptable conditions and had no rights.
Do y o u k n o w h o w t h e first i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s lived a n d w o r k e d ? D o y o u k n o w
h o w l o n g t h e i r w o r k i n g d a y w a s ? D o y o u t h i n k t h e y h a d social security? Y o u
are g o i n g t o beconne a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y t r a d e u n i ó n leader. Y o u w i l l w r i t e a
p r o t e s t l e t t e r t o t r y t o i m p r o v e y o u r s i t u a t i o n . O b v i o u s l y , y o u s h o u l d f o l l o w
t h e c o r r e c t course o f a c t i o n f r o m t h e era, so y o u w i l l n e e d t o f i n d o u t h o w t h e
w o r k i n g class o r g a n i s e d t h e i r protests.

3. 1. THE BEGINNING OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION: GREAT BRITAIN ^
The Industrial Revolution was the process through which technological advances
led to dramatic economic changes. Agriculture became less important than industry,
and industrial capitalism emerged. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain
in about 1750.
1.1. The causes of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was not a rapid process: in fact it was a long, slow process
which took almost 100 years. It is considered to be a revolution because it affected every
sector of the economy and it transformed society. It was caused by a series of interrelated
factors which emerged simultaneously in Great Britain.
Population g r o w t h : during the 18th century, living conditions improved across
Europe. Increases in food production and advances in hygiene and medicine, such
as the smallpox vaccine, led to a growth in population.
The Agricultural R e v o l u t i o n : in IBth-century Europe agricultural production
increased and crops became more varied. There were numerous improvements in
agriculture during this period.
- Small, family-owned farms were replaced by extensive agricultural h o l d i n g s that
were more profitable.
- T h e mechanisation of agriculture began with John Deere's steel plough and
McCormick's mechanised harvester
- Animal and mineral fertilisers were widely used.
- Crop r o t a t i o n was introduced. It rotated cpmplementary crops, which helped to
prevent soil exhaustion.
1 Increased trade: in Great Britain, f o r e i g n t r a d e increased because the country
dominated trade routes in the A t l a n t i c a n d Indian Oceans. Domestic t r a d e aiso
grew due to an increase in demand, the absence of infernal customs duties and
improvements to roads and waterways.
Technological advances: the Industrial
Revolution was the start of the m a c h i n e
age, that is to say, the use of machines
to carry out work tasks (mechanisation)
and their substitution of manual work.
As a result, machines were the key
element of industrialisation.
The modern steam e n g i n e was
invented by James W a t t in 1769. It used
coal as a fuel. Steam power became the
source of energy that drove the new
machines. This had a huge effect on
agriculture, as steam engines could be
used for many tasks, such as ploughing
the soil and threshingcereal. In industry,
steam engines were aiso widely used,
for example to mould iron and print
books. In mining they were used to dig
out tunneis and in transport they were
used to power trains and Steamships. Mode! of James Watt's steam engine

4. 1.2. The consequences of the Industrial Revolution
The consequences of the Industrial Revolution were:
I p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h encouraged agricultural and industrial development because
there was an increased demand for food and manufactured products. There were
aiso more workers avalladle to work in the factories.
t agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s enabled population growth and industrial
developments because it was possible to produce enough food for the growing
population, as well as raw materials and capital to invest in industry.
I increased t r a d e encouraged industrial development because the profits from trade
were invested in industry.
i mechanisation meant that products could be produced more quickiy and in greater
quantities. It aiso meant that products were cheaper to produce.
Important
In his extensive agricultural holdings in Norfolk, Lord Townshend introduced new agricultural techniques. He drained the soil
and prepared it with fertilisers and manure, he rotated the crops (wheat rye and grass) to prevent soil exhaustion without
having to leave fallow áreas. He grew crops in artificial fields and provided food for his livestock dliring the winter [...] it was
thanks to Lord Townshend that the British nobility began to take an interest in agricultural development.
M. NivEAu, Historia de los hectios económicos contemporáneos, Ariei (Translated)
THREE-YEAR CROP ROTATION FOUR-YEAR CROP ROTATION: THE NORFOLK SYSTEM
Barley
Peas
Beans istyear 2nd year
Wheat
I K - ^ r d year
Fallow
i
Turnips and other
root vegetables
Ist year
A
** Barley
2nd year
Wheat
4th year
3rd year
Fodder
R e m e m b e r
1. Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in
Great Britain and not elsewhere?
2. W h a t is the machine age? W h a t is the
difference between manual w o r k and
mechanisation?
3. Draw a mind map in your notebook
showing the interrelated causes of the
Industrial Revolution.
4 . Look at the diagrams above. How did Townshend increase the
number of harvests? W h a t were the benefits of the Norfolk
system compared t o the Three-year system?
5. In your opinión, which of the causes of the Industrial Revolution
was the most crucial? Explain your answer.
6. Watch the steam engine animation. Write a short essay explaining
the importance of this machine. W h a t were its applications?
4. The Industrial Revolution and the class-based society 89

5. mi
1.3. Key elements of industrialisation
During the early stages of the Industrial Revolution three áreas d r o v e e c o n o m i c
g r o w t h : the textile industry, the iron and steel industry and transport.
The textile industry
The mechanisation of the textile ¡ndustry through the invention of the spinning machine
and the mechanical weaving loom caused an increase in production. Prices were reduced
because production costs were lower than before. : •
The large size and the expense of the new mechanical looms brought about the birth
of the factory: large buildings were needed to house the machines and workers. In the
factories a new way of working developed: the división of labour, in which each worker
was responsible for a different part of the production process.
CONSUMPTION OF WOOL AND COTTON IN GREAT BRITAIN
(IN MILLIONS OF GB POUNDS) ^
YEAR 1741 1772 1799 1805 1840 1860
Wool 57 85 98 102 260 410
Cotton 2 3 50 60 430 950
P. DEANE, The Journal of Economic History
The iron and steel industry
The development of the ¡ron and steel industry was facilltated by the use of coal as a
source of energy. This produces a lot of heat, so it was used to meit large quantities of iron
in blastfurnaces.
Techniques such as the Bessemer converter aliowed foundries to transform iron into steel
in large quantities, as well as producing a better quality product.
ÍD Important
i i i ^ f t i
Did you know?
i i i i-
T h e m a i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l
innovations in the textile industry
were:
I John Kay's Fiying Shuttie (1733),
which enabled hand weavers
to produce cloth more quickiy.
I James Hargreaves' Spinning
j e n n y (1765) and Richard
Arkwright's W a t e r Frame
(1767), which both produced
various threads at the same
time. Samuel Crompton's
Spinning Mulé (1785) produced
a very fine and resistant thread.
I Edmund Cartwright's Power
Weaving Loom (1785) was a
steam-powered weaving machine
that produced fabric from cotton.
thread.
Iron and steel had many different
uses.
I In agriculture they were used to
make ploughs, harvesters and
tools.
1 In transport, they were used for
rails, steam locomotives, carriages
and boats.
I In industry they were used to
make arms such as guns and
cannons, weaving machines and
sewing machines.
I In construction they were used to
build bridges and buildings.
The iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale,
opened in 1781, was the first arched bridge
made from cast ¡ron.
90 :-9ography and History

6. PROSGCTO 4
The Transport Revolution
I m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e w a t e r w a y s a n d roads played an
important part in the Industrial Revolution. The improved
transport network aliowed raw materials and goods to be
transported easily and quickiy.
However, these improvements w o u l d not have been so
significant without the invention of the steam engine and its use
in land and sea transport.
The invention of the steam locomotive by Richard Trevithick in
1804, the steamship by Robert Fulton in 1807 and the opening
of the first public railway by George Stephenson in 1825 made
it possible to move large quantities of products more quickiy.
During the 19th century, the extent of a country's railway
network was the main indicator of its level of industrialisation. stephenson's 'Rocket- steam locomotive
THE SPREAD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN GREAT BRITAIN (1750-1850)
7. Which industries drove economic g r o w t h
industrial Revolution?
in the
8. Define the terms factory and división of labour.
9. W h a t was the origin of the factory?
10. W h a t products did the iron and steel industry produce?
11. W h a t was the relationship between the steam engine
and the Transport Revolution?
12. Use the Information on the maps above t o explain
t h e main economic changes t h a t t o o k place in Great
Britain between 1750 and 1850.
E v a l ú a t e
13. Which innovations do you think were the most
important in the textile industry and in the Transport
Revolution? Explain why.
4. The Industrie 1 and the class-based societ>' 91

7. • ^
2. INDUSTRIALISATION IN THE REST OF EUROPE
AND THE UNITED STATES A
During tlie 19tli century, the Industrial Revolution spread to other European counthes
such as Germany, Belgium and France.
These countries had the conditions which were necessary for industrialisation:
I abundant reserves of coal a n d ¡ron, which provided the raw materials and energy
sources for industry.
I population g r o w t h , which created demand for industrial products.
I capital for ¡nvestment ¡n ¡ndustry.
I well-deveioped railway n e t w o r k s , which facilitated the transport of products.
In France, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars slowed down the process of
¡ndusthalisation. However, in the mid-19th century, there was s¡gnificant industrial growth.
Prussia, which would later on become the driving forcé in Germán unification, began its
industrial take-off with the Zollverein, or customs u n i ó n , in 1834. The key elements in
Prussia's industrialisation were the construction of an extensive railway network, its naval
industry and the abundance of mineral resources, espec¡ally coal.
The industrialisation of t h e United States
In the 1840s the United States began the process of ¡ndusthalisation. This process was
enabled by its trade links with Great Britain, which exported machinery to the United
States. In addition, the application of new agricultural techniques to lands ¡n the West
and the large amounts of raw materials in this región aiso assisted industrial development.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE
92 Geography and History

8. Industrialisation in Spain
Spain's industrialisation began in the 19th century, but it was a slow process that began
later than in other European counthes. This was because of various problems:
i domestic d e m a n d was l i m i t e d because 7 0 % of the working population were
peasants with insufficient income to buy manufactured goods. Therefore, the
domestic market was relatively small.
I the poor quality of coal from Spanish mines and the lack o f local t e c h n o l o g y
meant that machinery had to be imported from other countries.
I there was insufficient domestic capital avalladle for ¡nvestment ¡n ¡ndustry.
Investment carne, almost always, from abroad (from France or Great Britain), and it
was concentrated in raüway construct¡on and m¡n¡ng, for example ¡n R¡otinto in Huelva.
In the mid-19th century, t w o industries became important:
I the c o t t o n industry, which was established in Cataluña with ¡mported Br¡t¡sh
machinery. • -
I the iron and steel ¡ndustry, wh¡ch began ¡n Marbella, Málaga, usIng charcoal. Later on
it was established ¡n Asturias and then in Vizcaya, where imported Brit¡sh coal (more
powerful than elther charcoal or Asturlan coal), the Bessemer converter and ¡ron
mined ¡n V¡zcaya were used to produce steel. ••
Important
The Spanish government
pursued an economic policy
which damaged Spain's
interests by allowing foreign
investors to tal<e over the most
profitable businesses, such
as the mines in Almadén and
Riotinto.
Spain found itself trapped
in a semi-colonial economic
model which turned it into the
supplier of raw materials for
European factories.
F. GARCÍA DE CORTÁZAR,
Álbum de la Historia de España
Círculo de Lectores (Translated)
Did you know?
The d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e railway in Spain
The costs of developing the railway system were huge due to
the geography of the península - it was the most complicated
in Europe with the exception of Switzerland [...] To cross the
mountain ranges, tunneis had to be excavated, cuttings and
embankments built [...] Spain's modest levéis of economic
development meant that it could not afford expensive railways
[...] The oniy way to pay for them was by using poor quality,
cheap trains [...] Centralism was aiso evident when the railways
were built; all the Unes went to and from Madrid, and therefore
there were few connecting Unes outside the capital.
J.L. COMELLAS,
Historia de España, Durvan S. A. de Ediciones (Translated) The first railway in Spain was the Barcelona-IVIataró line (1848).
U n d e r s t a n d
14. Which European countries other t h a n Great Britain
experienced the Industrial Revolution early on?
15. W h a t factors p r o m o t e d industrialisation in Europe?
16. Were the factors t h a t p r o m o t e d industrialisation in
other counthes present in Spain? W h a t problems
delayed industrialisation in Spain?
17. In which Spanish industries was foreign capital
invested? W h a t did Spain export t o the rest of Europe?
18. Look at the 19th-century European railway map and
answer the questions.
a) Which country had the most developed network? Was
it industrialised?
b) Describe Spain's railway network. How industrialised
was Spain at th¡s point?
c) What was the relationsh¡p between industrial regions
and the railway network? Why is a good transport:
network necessary for economic development?
4. The industrial Revolution and the class-based society 93

9. 3. THE CLASS-BASED SOCIETY i
At the end of the 18th century a new form of social organisation began to emerge. It
replaced the oíd estafes system. In the new class-based society, people's status depended
on their wealth and their j o b , rather than on their family background.
3.1. The origins of the class-based society
The class-based society ohginated in the political and economic changes that had taken
place as a result of the late-18th century revolutions.
I The French Revolution abolished the phvileges of the nobility and the clergy. It
brought about the legal end of the estafes system.
I The Industrial Revolution increased the importance and power of the wealthy
bourgeoisie, as they were the factory and business owners. In addition, a new social
group was formed: the working class. It was made up of industrial workers.
3.2. The characteristics of the class-based society
The main feature of the new class-based society was that people's class was determined
mainly by their w e a l t h (land, buildings, businesses, wages and other income). Therefore
society was more open: people's class could change depending on the wealth they
possessed or obtained.
In addition, all citizens were equal before the law, at least in theory. However, in practice,
there were great economic inequalities between classes, which meant that this was an
unequal society.
Society was divided into three groups: the u p p e r class, the m i d d i e class and the
w o r k i n g class.
The upper class was made up of the wealthiest people, including:
- the w e a l t h y bourgeoisie, or bourgeois capitalists (bankers, business and factory
owners). They obtained large profits from their businesses and became the dominant
social group.
- the nobility, w h o continued to receive high incomes from their agricultural
holdings.
The middie class had a médium level of wealth, and higher incomes than the working
class. It was made up of:
- civil servants, lawyers a n d doctors, w h o provided services.
- small-scale merchants a n d craftsmen w h o owned their workshops or shops.
- farmers w h o o w n e d small agricultural holdings and cultivated their o w n lands.
I The w o r k i n g class lived in extreme poverty. It was made up of:
- industrial workers, aiso known as the proletariat. They worked in factories. They
did not own property and their wages were usually low.
- t e n a n t farmers, w h o rented agricultural land in order to cultívate it, and
agricultural labourers, w h o did seasonal work and were paid by the day.
Important
Spanish society
Spain's society was different
to that of other European
counthes due to the country's
relative lack of industhalisation,
which limited the growth of
the industrial bourgeoisie and
the urban proletariat.
I The upper class was made up
i . o f an oligarchy consisting of
r*" largelandowners(thenobility ' I
li: and bourgeois owners of í
í rural estafes), business ^
' owners and bankers. This
group dominated Spanish
politics. I
¡,j I Themiddieclasswasgrowing j
' in urban centres. It was made j
up of civil servants, lawyers,
architects, doctors and
m e m b e r s o f themilitary. *
I The w o r k i n g class included
large numbers of peasants,
tenant farmers, day labourers
(especially in Andalucía), and |
a limited industrial proletariat (
(particularly in Cataluña). i
94 jeography and History

10. The third-dass carríage (Honoré Daumier, c.1862-1864)
Did you know?
The origins o f t h e worl<ing class
At the beginning, the oniy people who worked in faetones were those who had no
alternative: peasants who had been forced to leave the countryside by changes in
agriculture, former soldiers and the unemployed [...] Later on, the growing compe-
tition of industrial production forced those who worked in the domestic system to
leave their homes and work in the factories too.
v A J . TUDESQA,
Los cambios sociales y el apogeo de la burguesía
Historia Universal Salvat (Translated)
msssm19. How did the French Revolution contribute t o the
emergence of the class-based society? W h a t was the
role of the Industrial Revolution?
20. W h a t did the class-based society replace?
tssmum
21. In your n o t e b o o k , d r a w a m i n d m a p s h o w i n g t h e
structure and characteristics of t h e class-based
society.
2 2 J C o p y and complete the table about Spanish society.
Classes Sub-groups
2 3 . Does our present-day society have the same
characteristics as the 19th-century class-based
society? Explain your answer.
4. The industrial Revolution and the c'^iss-based society 95

11. 3.3. Life in the industrial city
During the 19th century, the European urban population was growing faster than the
rural population for the first time. Many people m o v e d f r o m t h e countryside t o t h e
cities to work in industry.
Between 1800 and 1850, the number of cities with more than 100000 inhabitants
doubled. The characteristics of these cities changed as well.
I New buildings were constructed and infrastructure was developed. In particular,
large, noisy and polluting factories appeared, as well as modern railway stations.
I Cities g r e w in size beyond their histoncal centres. In some cases, such as Paris, the
city walls were demolished because they were an obstacle to both urban growth and
traffic circulation. 4,
í New n e i g h b o u r h o o d s were built for the m i d d i e class and for the w o r k i n g class.
Differences between these neighbourhoods reflected social inequality and the
differences between the classes.
t Important
Did. you know?
In the second half of the 19th
century, Madrid and Barcelona
were reorganised, and extensions
k n o w n as ensanches were
developed, such as the Ensanche
del Marqués de Salamanca in
Madrid, and the Ensanche de
Ildefonso Cerda in Barcelona.
Middie-class n e i g h b o u r h o o d s were extensions of the
historical city centre, built far a w a y from the noise and
pollution of the factories. They were well planned with
straight, wide avenues, gas street lights, shops, theatres
and tram-lines. Homes were usually large, well-built and
comfortable, sometimes with several floors.
Working-class n e i g h b o u r h o o d s were built in marginal
áreas on the outskirts of the city, often near factories.
The streets were narrow and not well-planned, and there
was usually no lighting or other public services. The
houses in these áreas were usually small, poorly built and
uncomfortable.
1
24. Explain how industrialisation affected the
characteristics of cities.
25. Describe the images of a middie-class and
a working-class neighbourhood shown
above. W h a t characteristics of each type
of neighbourhood can you see?
E S E S
26. Imagine that you are an agricultural labourer w h o has just moved
t o a city t o w o r k in a factory. Write a letter t o a friend in the
countryside describing your job and where you live, including
the differences between city life and life in the village.
27. Which Spanish cities built extensions (ensanches) in the 19th
century? Find out w h o designed these extensions and write a
short profile of each person.
96 Geography and History

12. 4. THE WORKING-CLASS MOVEMENT j
4.1. Industrial working conditions
As industrial capitalism grew, the_^ferences between
the wealthy industrial bourgeoisie and the_working class
increased.
For the w e a l t h y b o u r g e o i s i e , industrialisation brought
increased wealth and higher standards of living. They enjoyed
comfortable homes, education, healthcare, entertainment and
holidays.
However, the w o r k i n g class suffered terrible working and
living conditions.
I Wages w e r e t o o l o w t o s u p p o r t a family, so w o m e n
and children had to work as well. However, women's and
children's wages were even lower than men's.
I The w o r k i n g day was e x t r e m e l y long a n d exhausting:
between 14 and 16 hours a day. Discipline was very strict,
and workers could be fined for speaking or breaking a
machine.
I Child labour in factories and mines was common.
,1 There was a lack of safety and hygiene in the workplace, so chronic illnesses and
! accidents were common, especially in the mines.
I Workers had no rights. In the case of illness, accident or death they lost their wages,
and they could be dismissed at any time without compensation.
I Workers did n o t have t h e r i g h t t o protest or strike, or even to meet and discuss
their conditions.
Important
Working-class women had
to work outside the home
because the wages their
husbands received were
not enough to support
a family. Most women
worked as servants,
laundresses, seamstresses
or in faetones. Some even
worked in the mines.
Women were dischminated
against at work because
they earned lower wages
than men, even when they
were doing the same job.
The laundress (Honoré Oaumier, c.1863)
4. The Industrial

13. 4.2. The origins of working-class politics
f-
The difficult working and living conditions that the w o r k i n g class experienced
led to protests against t h e f a c t o r y o w n e r s . These owners opposed workers'
demands because they t h o u g h t that improved conditions w o u l d reduce their
profits. In addition, the dominant principies of economic liberalism (state n o n -
intervention in the economy) aliowed factory owners t o carry out their businesses
without any type of restriction.
Despite this opposition, in the eady 19th century the p r o l e t a r i a t in Great Britain
began t o organise itself in opposition to both factory owners and the government.
The following developments were particularly important.
I In 1811 the Luddites emerged. Factory workers protested by destroying machines
because they feit that they were being replaced by them. The government reacted by
passing a law in 1812 which established the death penalty for anyone w h o destroyed
a machine.
i In the 1830s the first t r a d e unions^ began to appear. These were associations
of workers in the same industry, which offered mutual assistance in the case of
accident or injury and demanded better w o r k i n g conditions. Trade unions aiso
tried to use strikes w h e n negotiations w i t h business owners failed. European
governments made both trade unions and strikes illegal, although unions
continued to opérate.
; At the same time, the Chartist m o v e m e n t emerged (1838-1848) in Great Britain.
Chartists petitioned Parliament demanding political reforms, such as universal
manhood suffrage and salaries for members of padiament (MPs). This would make
it possible to pass laws that would protect workers' interests, and would aiso allow
workers to become MPs. However, these petitions were rejected.
Although these organisations and initiatives failed, the government and factory owners
were forced to concede some of their demands. The working day was reduced and
laws were passed that improved working conditions. : . . . . "
Robert Owen (1771-1858).
Important
During the 19th century, workers demanded labour reforms to improve their living
and working conditions, as well as political reforms.
! Labour reforms
- Higher wages . .
- Shorter working days - / ,
- Better safety and hygiene in factories in order to prevent accidents, illnesses
and deaths I
- A ban on child labour , 1
Political reforms
- Freedom of association (the legalisation of trade unions)
- The right to strike and protest
- Universal manhood suffrage
- An end to the requirement that MPs be property owners
- Working-class representation in Parliament and in the government
^ trade unión: association of workers from
the same industry that protests against
business owners and the government,
and aims to improve working conditions
98 Geography and History

14. UTOPIAN SOCIALISM
In the first half of the 19th century, as well as the working-class
movement, the first theories that criticised capitalism for the
social problems it created began to emerge. One of these was
utopian socialism, which was an ideological current that opposed
capitalism and aimed to improve working conditions through
education and negotiation with the middie class. Two of the main
utopian socialists were Charles Fourier and Robert Owen.
I Charles Fourier suggested reorganising society into perfect
communities which he called 'phalanxes'. These communities
would opérate as cooperatives, where the workers would live and
work together
Robert Owen put his socialist and humanitarian ideas
into practice in Scotland in around 1800, when he created a
cooperative system of working in his textile company, New
Lanark Mills, and aiso reduced working hours.
[...] Robert Owen, a textile manufacturar,
put into practice his plan for the economic
reorganisation of his company, creating a
non-profit cooperative system [...] He reduced
the working day to ten and a half hours! He
forbade the employment of children under
ten years oíd and the recruitment of workers
from the workhouse, introduced an Insurance
system to cover illness, increased wages, built
houses for the workers [...]
In response to Owen's efforts, in 1819 the
British government Introduced a law to
Improve the working conditions of children
[•••]
VARIOUS AUTHORS,
Manual de Historia Universal.
Ilustración y revoluciones burguesas
: Ediciones Nájera (Translated)
The New Lanark Mili, Scotland
R e m e m b e r
28. W h a t Jobs did working-class w o m e n do?
1*79. W h a t were the ideas of utopian socialism? H o w did
' Robert Owen put t h e m into practice and w h a t was t h e
result?
30. In your notebook draw a mind map summarising t h e
working-class movement.
31. O Listen t o the recording about Luddism and answer
the questions.
a) What were the origins of the term 'Luddite'?
b) How did the government respond to the Luddites?
c) Were Luddites really hostile to machines?
32. Read t h e text of the Factory Act and the factory
inspector's report. Answer the questions in your
notebook.
a) What conditions did the Factory Act set for child
labour?
b) How many hours did the boys interviewed work for
(not including breaks)?
c) Which parts of the Factory Act had been broken?
d) What do you think the attitude of the factory inspector
was towards this case?
33. W h a t happened t o 19th-century workers if they had
an accident or became ill? How is this different t o
w h a t happens t o workers today in these situations?
4. The Industrial Revolution and the class-based socien/ 99

15. UTOPIAN SOCIALISM
in the first half of the 19th century, as well as the working-class
movement, the first theories that criticised capitalism for the
social problems it created began to emerge. One of these was
utopian socialism, which was an ideological current that opposed
capitalism and aimed to improve working conditions through
education and negotiation with the middie class. Two of the main
utopian socialists were Charles Fourier and Robert Owen.
Charles Fourier suggested reorganising society into perfect
communities which he called 'phalanxes'. These communities
would opérate as cooperatives, where the workers would live and
work together
Robert Owen put his socialist and humanitarian ideas
into practice in Scotland in around 1800, when he created a
cooperative system of working in his textile company, New
Lanark Mills, and aiso reduced working hours.
[...] Robert Owen, a textile manufacturer,
put into practice his plan for the economic
reorganisation of his company, creating a
non-profit cooperative system [...] He reduced
the working day to ten and a half hours! He
forbade the employment of children under
ten years oíd and the recruitment of workers
from the workhouse, introduced an Insurance
system to cover illness, increased wages, built
houses for the workers [...]
In response to Owen's efforts, in 1819 the
British government introduced a law to
improve the working conditions of children
[•••]
VARIOUS AUTHORS,
Manual de Historia Universal.
Ilustración y revoluciones burguesas
• Ediciones Nájera (Translated)
The New Lanark Mili, Scotland
tmsssm
28. W h a t Jobs did working-class w o m e n do?
r9. W h a t were the ideas of utopian socialism? H o w did
Robert Owen put t h e m into practice and w h a t was the
result?
MlfWHBfflüa
30. In your notebook draw a mind map summarising the
working-class movement.
31. O Listen t o t h e recording about Luddism and answer
the questions.
a) What were the origins of the term 'Luddite'?
b) How did the government respond to the Luddites?
c) Were Luddites really hostile to machines?
32. Read t h e text of the Factory Act and the factory
inspector's report. Answer the questions in your
notebook.
a) What conditions did the Factory Act set for child
labour? /
b) How many hours did the boys interviewed work for
(not including breaks)?
c) Which parts of the Factory Act had been broken?
d) What do you think the attitude of the factory inspector
, was towards this case?
33. W h a t happened t o 19th-century workers if they had
an accident or became ill? How is this different t o
w h a t happens t o workers today in these situations?
'"tria! Revolution and the class-based societv 99

16. 5. REVOLUTIONARY IDEOLOGIES
During the 19th century, as well as the working-class movement, several revolutionary
ideologies emerged. These ideologies promoted working-class interests and aimed to
transform society through a workers' revolution. The most important of these were
Marxism and anarchism.
5.1. Marxism
Marxism, aiso known as socialism, was an ideology developed by KarI M a r x and
Friedrich Engeis based on their analysis of politics and the economy. They predicted that
the following stages would lead to the destruction of capitalism and the establishment
of a communist society.
* Class struggle: the oppressed proletariat would organise themselves and struggle
against their oppressors, the capitalist bourgeoisie. Their objective would be to gain
political power
I The dictatorship of t h e w o r k i n g classes: once they had achieved political power,
the working classes would establish a new social and political order
I The communist e c o n o m y : prívate property (capitalism) would be abolished. The
means of p r o d u c t i o n ^ would be socialised: they would be owned by the state.
This meant that the proletahat would become the owners of the means of production,
not as individuáis, but rather as members of the society they all belonged to. The state
would control, plan and organise how the means of production would be used, and all
economic activity would be collective.
' The communist society: the class-based society would disappear because everybody
would have the same relationship with the means of production. Society would be
equal and without classes.
5.2. Anarchism
Anarchism wasfirst developed by Pierre
Joseph Proudhon, and its best-known
advócate was Mikhail Bakunin. They
supported the overthrow of capitalism
via a social revolution.
These were the main principies of
anarchism.
i Individual f r e e d o m : people had
to fight against any authonty or
institution that limited freedom,
such as the state and the church.
Direct action: each citizen should
represent him or herself, so
anarchists rejected political parties
and elections.
i The a b o l i t i o n o f prívate property:
society would be organised into
independent communes. The means
of production would be owned
collectively and decisions would be
taken by popular assemblies.
Kari Marx (1818-1883)
^ means of production: all the resources
needed to carry out an economic artivity,
such as capital, machines, raw materials
and workers
Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876)
100 Geography and History

17. 5.3. The International
In the second half of the 19th century, the leaders of workers' organisations from
vahous European counthes began to meet, as they were aware that the proletariat
faced the same problems in different countries. They formed an organisation known
as the International, hoping that their demands would be strengthened by working
together across borders.
I The First I n t e r n a t i o n a l , aiso known as the International Workingmen's Association
(IWA), was founded in London in 1864. It included working-class organisations and
advocates of revolutionary ideologies from various countries, such as trade unionists,
anarchists and Marxists. Its objective was to coordínate workers' action all over the
worid.
The IWA campaigned for measures to encourage the collective ownership of the
means of production, trade unions and the establishment of political parties that would
advócate workers' political hghts.
In 1876 the First International was dissolved due to the vahous disagreements between
Marxists and anarchists.
I The Second International was established in Paris in 1889. It called for an eight-hour
working day and established 1 May as an International day of protest for workers'
rights. - ~ .
Unlike the IWA, the Second International oniy included socialist parties, and the trade
unions and anarchists were not members. It was dissolved when the First World War
began in 1914.
Important
The First International led to
the creation of the first Marxist
political parties. These parties
had different ñames, such
as social democrats, social
revolutionahes and socialist
workers' parties. One of the
first parties to form was the
Germán Social Democratic
Party(SPD)in 1875.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MARXISTS AND ANARCHISTS IN THE IWA
Organisation
Method of
protest
State
Means of
production
Marxists
Socialist parties and trade unions
Strikes and the organisation of
workers into political parties
Working-class controlled state
State-controlled econonny
Anarchists
Opposed to political parties but
in favour of revolutionary trade
unions
Any means, violence
Opposed to the existence of the
state
Directly controlled by the
working class and peasants
(collectivisation)
34. According t o Marxism, h o w w o u l d workers control the
economy? How did Marxists plan t o destroy capitalism?
35. Why were anarchists opposed t o the state? H o w w o u l d
they organise society w i t h o u t it?
•IHiliHiWil
36. Which Marxist and which anarchist ideas were adopted
by the First International? • .
V : '
37. O Listen t o the recording about KarI Marx and
answer the questions in your notebook.
a) When and why did he move to London?
b) Ñame two books authored by Marx. When were they
published?
38. Compare and contrast the Marxists and the anarchists.
On w h a t did they agree, and in which áreas were the
biggest disagreements?
4. The industrial Revolution and the class-based socíeh 101

18. 6. THE WORKING-CLASS MOVEMENT IN SPAIN
In Spain, the working-class movement d e v e l o p e d in a similar w a y t o t h e rest
of Europe. Spanish workers faced the same problems as other European workers,
such as low wages and poor housing. However, the struggle between the industrial
bourgeoisie and the proletariat was oniy significant in industrial cities such as
Barcelona.
The workers' movement in Spain developed in the following way:
Luddite-styie protests took place mainly in Cataluña, which was the centre of the
textile industry. In 1835, workers set the sewing machines on fire in the Bonaplata
factory in Barcelona.
¡ from 1840 onwards, mutual aid societies, called sociedades de socorro mutuo,
were set up. These were the precursors of the trade unions and were established by
the workers in order to protect themselves and help each other A n example is the
Asociación de Tejedores in Barcelona.
In the second half of the 19th century, workers began to organise themselves into trade
unions and political parties which advocated workers' rights. These organisations were
aligned with the t w o main European ideological tendencies.
The Partido Socialista O b r e r o Español (PSOE), or Socialist party, was established
in 1879, and in 1888 the U n i ó n General d e Trabajadores (UGT) was founded.
Both the PSOE and UGT followed M a r x i s m and used strikes and political means t o
achieve their objectives.
Anarchists initially organised many revolutionary trade unions, or syndicates, such
as the Federación de Trabajadores de la Región Española (FTRE). These organisations
engaged in violent direct action against business and landowners, especially in
Cataluña and Andalucía.
In 1910, the anarchists w h o were opposed to the use of violence established the
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), a syndicate which was made up of all
the anarcho-syndicalist federations. The CNT became the biggest and strongest trade
unión in Spain.
In addition, other associations not influenced by revolutionary ideologies were aiso set
up, such as the círculos católicos and rural building societies {cajas rurales). Their
objective was to help the working classes and peasants. The rural building societies
provided loans for the purchase of fertilisers and seeds.
Important
The establishment o f t h e
PSOE
Considering that this society
is unjust because it divides its
members into two unequal
classes: the middie class [...]
and the working class.
Considering that the right way
[...] requires the disappearance
of inequalities between the
classes [...] the objective of
the Partido Socialista Obrero
is the [...] abolition of all social
classes.
Founding Manifestó of the PSOE,
in Pablo Iglesias:
Educador de muchedumbres, Ariel
(Translated)
Pablo Iglesias, co-founder of the PSOE
mmsm
39. Which trade unión was f o r m e d by t h e socialists and
which were f o r m e d by t h e anarchists? W h y was there
no anarchist political party?
40. Which non-revolutionary associations were established
to help t h e working class?
41. Read the text about t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e PSOE and
summarise it in your oyvn words. W h a t was t h e PSOE's
objective?
42. In your notebook draw a timeline showing t h e main
events in t h e development o f t h e working-class
m o v e m e n t in Spain.
43. Find o u t which o f t h e trade unions mentioned on this
page still exist today.
44. W h a t different methods did t h e socialists and
anarchists use? Which methods do you think were
the most effective? Were any o f these methods
unjustifiabie?
102 Geography and Historv

19. steam train
THE START OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: GREAT BRITAIN
I The Industrial Revolution was a process in which
technological advances, such as Watt's steann engine,
led to radical e c o n o m i c changes. Agriculture became less
important than industry, and industrial capitalism emerged.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in about
1750.
I At the start of the Industrial Revolution, three áreas drove
economic g r o w t h : the textile industry, the iron and steel
industry, and transport.
Industrialisation in t h e rest of E u r o p e a n d t h e US
I Dunng the 19th century, the Industnal Revolution spread
to other European counthes, such as Germany, B e l g i u m
and France. These counthes had abundant reserves of
iron and coal, growing populations and capital available for
investment.
1 In the 1840s the U n i t e d States began the process of
industnalisation thanks to its trade relations with Great Britain
and its abundant natural resources.
i In Spain, industrialisation was slow due to a senes of
problems: limited domestic demand, poor-quality coal and a
lack of domestic technology and capital.
The n e w c l a s s - b a s e d s o c i e t y
! At the end of the 18th century, the class-based society began
to replace the estafes system of the Anclen Régime. In the new
society, social status was d e t e r m i n e d by w e a l t h , rather
t h a n by b i r t h .
I Society was divided into three groups: the upper class (the
wealthy bourgeoisie and nobility), the m i d d i e class (civil
servants, professionals, small-scale merchants and landowners,
and artisans) and the w o r k i n g class (factory workers and
agricultural labourers).
5 During the 19th century, the European urban population grew
more rapidly than the rural population for the first time. People
moved f r o m t h e countryside t o t h e cities to work in industry.
The start of t h e w o r k i n g - c l a s s m o v e m e n t
I As industrial capitalism developed, the differences between
the middie and working classes increased.
I The p o o r w o r k i n g and living conditions that the working
class expenenced led to protests against business owners.
The middie class rejected working-class demands because
they wanted to protect their own interests.
i The first developments in working-class protest and
organisation took place in Great Britain, such as t h e Luddites,
t h e t r a d e unions and t h e Chartists.
I In the first half of the 19th century, the first theories that
chticised the inequalities of industrial capitalism emerged.
These included u t o p i a n socialism (Fourier and Owen).
R e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e o l o g i e s
• During the 19th century, various revolutionary ideologies
developed in parallel to the working-class movement. They
advocated working-class interests and aimed to establish a
new society through a working-class revolution. The main
ideologies were Marxism, or socialism, (Marx and Engeis),
and anarchism (Bakunin).
I The First I n t e r n a t i o n a l , or International Workingmen's
Association (IWA), was established in 1864, and the Second
I n t e r n a t i o n a l was established in 1889. Working-class leaders
in different European countries realised that the problems
affecting workers were the same in each country. They
hoped that their demands would be strengthened by working
together across borders.
The w o r k i n g - c l a s s m o v e m e n t in S p a i n
InSpain, the working-class movement developed in a similar w a y t o t h e rest
of Europe. This was because Spanish workers expenenced similar problems to
the workers in other countries, such as low wages and poor living conditions.
The Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE), or Socialist party, established
in 1879, and the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), established in
1888, followed Marxism.
The anarchists formed various unions and used violent direct action
against the government and business owners. In 1910 they established the
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT). General strike in Valencia (1917)
103

20. CONSOLIDATIOI
Define tlie f o l l o w i n g terms:
I Industrial Revolution. trade unión.
I iron and steel industry. Chartism.
I class-based society. Marxism.
I proletariat, anarchism.
I working-class movement. IWA.
Follow t h e instructions b e l o w .
a) In your notebook write the dates of these developments:
I steam engine.
( ^ ) Copy a n d c o m p l e t e t h e table in y o u r n o t e b o o k .
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN GREAT BRITAIN
Causes
Population growth
Consequences
Agricultural revolution
Increase in trade
I PSOE.
• Industnal Revolution.
I sociedades de socorro
mutuo.
I steamship.
i Luddites.
I trade unions.'
I steam locomotive.
• power weaving loom.
I burning of machines in
the Bonaplata factory.
ii
b) Draw t w o timelines, one for Spain and one for the rest
of Europe.
c) Look at the t w o timelines. Did the working-class
movement in Spain develop at the same time as in the
rest of Europe, or later on?
d) Explain your answer to question c).
THE I N D U S T R I A L R E V O L U T I O N IN E U R O P E
Technological progress
48. In y o u r n o t e b o o k , d r a w a n o u t l i n e d i a g r a m of t h e t h r e e
áreas t h a t drove economic g r o w t h in t h e early stages
o f t h e Industrial Revolution. Include t h e technological
innovations in each sector.
Look a t t h e m a p a n d answer t h e questions in your
n o t e b o o k .
a) In which country did the Industnal Revolution begin? G'^olBf^'tL'-'^
b) Which were the other first countries to industhalise?F'- ...
c) Which counthes had coal deposits? When did they
industrialise? Fro^not, (jr^oJ. %r^AtaA^^, GermcLP>^
d) What was the relationship between coal deposits and
industhalisation?
e) Which áreas of Spain were industrialised first? Which
industries developed in these regions?
m

21. 50. Look at t h e t a b l e a n d answer t h e questions in y o u r
n o t e b o o k .
BRITISH FOREIGN TRADE {MILLION GB POUNDS)
£) ^ 3 ) Are these sentences true or false? Correct the false ones in
your notebook.
Exports Imports
1800 97 40,5
1820 109 37,7
1840 198 70,6
1850 287 79,2
1860 515 158,3
1873 1047 269,3
a) Which is higher in every decade, exports or imports?
Calcúlate the difference between exports and imports in
each decade.
b) Why did Great Britain have such high levéis of exports in
the 19th century? What was the relationship between
increased trade and industhalisation?
c) According to this table, did Great Bhtain have a positive or
negative trade balance?
(5ir)Copy and c o m p l e t e t h e t a b l e in y o u r n o t e b o o k .
INDUSTRIALISATION IN SPAIN
Time-scale and characteristics
Problems
Industries
Industrial regions
52. Look at this ¡mage and answer t h e questions in y o u r
n o t e b o o k .
a) Deschbe the image, including the furniture, the size of the
room, the people and their clothes.
b) Which social class do these people belong to? Explain your
answer tOot ^(''^cj dcxss.
c) What were the origins of this social class? What Jobs did
they do and what were their working conditions like?
d) How did their working conditions affect their family life?
The Industrial Revolution brought about the legal
end of the estafes system.
A social class is a closed group that is determined
by birth.
During the 19th century people migrated from rural
to urban áreas to work in industry.
The middie class became the dominant social group
in the 19th century.
In Spain the working class was made up of large
numbers of industnal workers and a small number
of rural labourers.
Anarchists were opposed to the state, the church
and the existence of prívate property.
54. W h a t are t h e differences b e t w e e n these concepts?
I The estafes system and the class-based society
I The industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat
I A workers' political party and a trade unión
I Marxism and utopian socialism
C j í ^ y R e a d t h e text and answer t h e questions below.
I Chartism was a popular movement which, like socialism, was
anti-capitalist. Both Chartists and socialists believed that the
' first step should be for the working class to be representad in
Parliament. The 1838 People's Chartar contalnad six points
[...] universal manhood suffrage, the secret ballot an and to
the requirement that IVIPs be property owners, salaries for
MPs so that people with limited economic resources could
' become MPs [...]
Tha chartar was sent to parliament with a million signatures.
• In 1842, a sacond petition was presented, this time with
3 331 702 signatures [...] It was clear that half the country's
males in tha country axplicitly supportad the damands.
Parliament rejected tha petition by 287 votas to 49. They
were rightiy worriad that political damocracy would threatan
property rights and the entire capitalist economic system as
it than axistad.
R. PALMER A N D J. CoLTON,
Historia Contemporánea, Akal (Translated)
a) What were the demands of the Chartists? Classify them
as political or labour reforms.
b) What was the Chartists' main objective?
c) W h o could become an MP at that time in Great Britain?
d) What social classes do you think MPs came from?
e) Why did Parliament reject the Chartists' demands?
105

22. 4
Stage a protest
During the Industrial Revolution, workers experienced terrible conditions and did not have
any rights.
Do you k n o w h o w the first industrial workers lived and w o r k e d ? Do y o u k n o w h o w long
their working day was? Do you t h i n k they had social security? You are g o i n g t o become
a 19th-century trade unión leader. You will w r i t e a protest letter t o try t o improve your
situation. Obviously, you should f o l l o w t h e correct course of action f r o m
the era, so you will need t o f i n d o u t h o w t h e w o r k i n g class organised their 9 ^
protests. ^ ^ P B
In a big group
or indivldually^
Work in groups. Each group will write a protest
letter to a different person or organisation:
to a business owner, to the government, to
Parliament, to the minister for employment, to
the monarch or to the president of the republic.
Before beginning the task, decide together as a
whole class who each group will whte to so that
each letter contains different demands.
In the box on the right you will find different
demands that can be made according to the
person or organisation you are writing to.
Types of letters w r i t t e n in t h e 19th century
I Peaceful letters
I Threatening letters
D e m a n d s K . : 'c .•
1. Political demands: the right to vote, freedom of association,
the right to strike and the right to protest.
2. Economic demands: higher wages, compensation for illness or
unemployment.
3. Labour demands: a reduction in working hours, paid holidays,
social security.
People a n d organisations
I Economic and labour demands should be sent to business owners.
I Economic, political and labour demands should be sent to other
people or organisations.
P r o c e d u r e
For this stage of the task, we suggest that you
follow these steps.
I Research
Look for Information about the different types of
protest, working-class ideologies and organisation
in the 19th century. Find the answers to these
questions.
What were working conditions like in the early
stages of the Industrial Revolution?
What was the working-class movement?
When did the working-class movement begin?
What caused the working-class movement?
What types of protest did workers use?
What ideologies were important to the working-
class movement? Workers' demonstratlon
What was the International?

23. Final task
> ^ — - - - ----- ^
I Decide y o u r ietter's structure a n d w l i o it w i l l be sent t o
Once you have analysed and understood the working-class movement of the
19th century, you are ready to begin writing your letter Decide w h o your letter
will be sent to. You will need to use appropriate formal language and follow this
structure:
Presentation - begin with a header which includes the ñame of the representative
or organisation that has written the letter
Circumstances - indícate the events or political or economic circumstances that
you want to protest about.
Explanation - explain the consequences of the circumstances you described pre-
viously, and how they affect the workers.
Demands - state your specific demands, such as a reduction in the working day,
an increase in wages, paid holidays and a ban on child labour
Closing - end your letter by signing it.
In some cases, you may wish to include a w a r n i n g . This would be a description of
the actions you plan to take if your demands are not met, for example, a strike. It
would aiso be a good idea to include documents that support your demands, such
as testimonies from the workers and contracts stating working conditions.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d p u b l i c
Each group will present their letter to the class. Before reading the letter, explain to
your classmates w h o you wrote to.
After reading the letters, the class will have a debate to discuss the demands, and
then vote to choose the best letter
Finally, the letters can be published on a blog, on your school webpage or even in
your school history magazine.
Work ers in a mine
í ^ ^ t l m o n y o f a n E n g l i s h
worker in 1832
Classiques Hachette
(Translated)
SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. W h a t have y o u learnt a b o u t w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s in this period?
2. Do y o u t h i n k t h a t w e should struggle t o change w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s if w e t h i n k t h a t t h e y are unfair?
3. W e r e all of t h e f o r m s of protest used in t h e 19th century correct? Is violence justified or should oniy peaceful
means be used? Explain y o u r answer.
4. Do y o u t h i n k t h a t letters such as those y o u have w r i t t e n achieved a n y t h i n g ? Explain your answer.
5. By d o i n g this task, have y o u learnt w h a t a t r a d e u n i ó n is, w h a t it does a n d w h a t t h e responsibilities of a u n i ó n
leader are?
6. H o w did y o u feel a b o u t representing a g r o u p o f p e o p l e w h o s e d e m a n d s w o u l d be met, or not, according t o
h o w w e l l y o u did y o u r j o b ?
7. Make a list of w o r k i n g conditions in d e v e l o p e d countries t o d a y . Compare y o u r list w i t h t h e conditions in t h e
19th century.
8. Ref lect o n y o u r answer t o q u e s t i o n 7. Do y o u t h i n k t h a t t h e working-class m o v e m e n t has had a positive impact?
9. Do y o u t h i n k it is necessary f o r w o r k e r s t o have associations a n d representatives? W h y ?
107