This document discusses several techniques for improving the understandability of textbooks: 1) Coherent cognitive structures help learners build mental models of the text and learn by making connections within and between concepts. 2) Adjunct questions guide learners' attention to important parts of the text as they read. 3) Signaling with techniques like headings and summaries helps learners organize the text and identify key information and shifts in topics. 4) Advance organizers provide context before learning to help learners integrate new concepts with prior knowledge.

1. Teaching by guiding cognitive processes during learning: techniques for increasing the understandability of textbook

2. Cognitive Theory of Instruction “The learner seeks to build a coherent cognitive structure that make sense, by being internally consistent, and consistent with existing knowledge structure”.

3. What is a coherent cognitive structure? Rhetorical structures found in expository writing: Generalization (main idea and supporting evidences), enumeration (a list of facts), Sequence (connected series of events or steps), classification (class or categories), comparison/contrast ( 그림 10-3 보기 ) 학습자는 이렇게 구성된 글을 읽고 자신의 정신 모형을 구성할 줄 알아야 한다 . 그것이 학습의 과정이다 . (355 쪽 글 )--- 정신 모형

4. Adjunct questions: asking learners to pay attentions to certain parts of the text. Forward effect: questions inform the reader concerning what to pay attention to in subsequent portions of the text. Backward effect: questions require that the reader go back and review portions of the passage that have already been read.

5. Research on AQ Placement of questions: p 357-8( both RQ and TQ can serve as cues to readers concerning what to pay attention to.

6. Types of questions 그림 10-8

7. Signaling 그림 10-1과 10-9를 비교해보자.

8. Signaling ( non content words ) fosters the process of organizing Signals의 유형 : (367쪽), Cues, Abstracted statements of key information, summary statements, pointer words (‘more important’..) by Mayer(1975)/// relevance indicators, typographical cues; enumeration devices and function indicators; repetition and titles, and headings

9. Research on signaling Signals are more effective for less skilled readers. Signals help learners build a mental outline of the text. Signals promote selective retention and transfer. Signals are most effective for poorly written text, Signaling helps readers recognize topic shifts.

10. Advance Organizer Notion: information that is presented prior to learning and that can be used by the learner to organize and interpret new incoming information. Function: to provide ideational scaffolding for the stable incorporation and retention of more detailed and differentiated material that follows (Ausubel, 1968, 148). Providing prerequisite knowledge, Connecting the presented material with what they already know (integration) Type: expository AO; comparative AO Ways of presentation: a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness.

11. Research on AO AO are more effective when learners lack prior knowledge.( 그렇지 않은 학습자들에게는 어떤 영향을 줄 수 있을까 ?) AO promote transfer. Concrete models can serve as AO.( 저항의 원리를 배운다고 생각해보자 .) Illustrations can serve as concrete model in text.