This lecture outlines of the metallurgical principles of mechanical working and forming of shapes from aluminium. Basic knowledge of physics and chemistry and some familiarity with TALAT lectures 1201 through 1205 is assumed.
Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA) of Packaging MaterialsPerkinElmer, Inc.
This application note presents examples of analysis of plastic film products using the PerkinElmer TMA 4000.
Learn more about the TMA 4000: http://bit.ly/18kJIZT
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) measures the viscoelastic properties of materials by applying a periodic stress in different deformation modes while varying temperature or frequency. In DMA, the sample is subjected to forces like bending, tension, shear or compression, and the modulus is measured as a function of time or temperature to provide information about phase transitions. DMA is useful for characterizing materials' mechanical properties and transitions, validating other analysis methods, and evaluating factors like polymer composition and miscibility.
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) allows relating a material's molecular structure, processing conditions, and product properties by applying an oscillating force to a material and measuring its response. DMA can measure storage and loss moduli and viscosity to characterize glass transitions, relaxations, and other molecular motions as a function of temperature, time, or frequency. Multiple sample geometries enable testing materials in various forms under tension, compression, flexure, and shear modes.
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) is a technique that is widely used to characterize a material’s properties as a function of temperature, time, frequency, stress, atmosphere or a combination of these parameters.
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a technique used to characterize materials by applying a sinusoidal stress and measuring the strain response. It is useful for studying the viscoelastic behavior of polymers. DMA measures the storage and loss moduli, which represent the elastic and viscous responses, respectively. The ratio of loss to storage moduli is called the tan delta and provides a measure of energy dissipation in the material. DMA can be used to locate the glass transition temperature, where the storage modulus decreases and tan delta peaks, indicating a change from rigid glassy state to a soft rubbery state.
DMA is an instrument that applies a dynamic oscillating force to a material sample and analyzes the sample's response, determining changes in properties like modulus and loss factor from changes in temperature, time, frequency, force, and strain. It works by exerting a known oscillating excitation to a specimen and measuring the resulting strains and dynamic forces, from which mechanical properties like modulus and damping can be derived. A wide range of materials from polymers and composites to metals and biomaterials can be analyzed using different specimen holders and test types as the sample is subjected to a temperature range in the DMA's thermal chamber. The data obtained provides information on the material's transitions, like the glass transition temperature, indicated by changes in the storage
Intro
Principle
How it works
Types of dynamic Experiments
Instrumentation
Construction
Preparation of samples
Types of analysers
DMA of glass transition of polymers
Advantages
Applications
Limitations
Latest Research
References
Dynamic mechanical properties refer to the response of a material as it is subjected to a periodic force. These properties may be expressed in terms of a dynamic modulus, a dynamic loss modulus, and a mechanical damping term.
Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA) of Packaging MaterialsPerkinElmer, Inc.
This application note presents examples of analysis of plastic film products using the PerkinElmer TMA 4000.
Learn more about the TMA 4000: http://bit.ly/18kJIZT
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) measures the viscoelastic properties of materials by applying a periodic stress in different deformation modes while varying temperature or frequency. In DMA, the sample is subjected to forces like bending, tension, shear or compression, and the modulus is measured as a function of time or temperature to provide information about phase transitions. DMA is useful for characterizing materials' mechanical properties and transitions, validating other analysis methods, and evaluating factors like polymer composition and miscibility.
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) allows relating a material's molecular structure, processing conditions, and product properties by applying an oscillating force to a material and measuring its response. DMA can measure storage and loss moduli and viscosity to characterize glass transitions, relaxations, and other molecular motions as a function of temperature, time, or frequency. Multiple sample geometries enable testing materials in various forms under tension, compression, flexure, and shear modes.
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) is a technique that is widely used to characterize a material’s properties as a function of temperature, time, frequency, stress, atmosphere or a combination of these parameters.
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a technique used to characterize materials by applying a sinusoidal stress and measuring the strain response. It is useful for studying the viscoelastic behavior of polymers. DMA measures the storage and loss moduli, which represent the elastic and viscous responses, respectively. The ratio of loss to storage moduli is called the tan delta and provides a measure of energy dissipation in the material. DMA can be used to locate the glass transition temperature, where the storage modulus decreases and tan delta peaks, indicating a change from rigid glassy state to a soft rubbery state.
DMA is an instrument that applies a dynamic oscillating force to a material sample and analyzes the sample's response, determining changes in properties like modulus and loss factor from changes in temperature, time, frequency, force, and strain. It works by exerting a known oscillating excitation to a specimen and measuring the resulting strains and dynamic forces, from which mechanical properties like modulus and damping can be derived. A wide range of materials from polymers and composites to metals and biomaterials can be analyzed using different specimen holders and test types as the sample is subjected to a temperature range in the DMA's thermal chamber. The data obtained provides information on the material's transitions, like the glass transition temperature, indicated by changes in the storage
Intro
Principle
How it works
Types of dynamic Experiments
Instrumentation
Construction
Preparation of samples
Types of analysers
DMA of glass transition of polymers
Advantages
Applications
Limitations
Latest Research
References
Dynamic mechanical properties refer to the response of a material as it is subjected to a periodic force. These properties may be expressed in terms of a dynamic modulus, a dynamic loss modulus, and a mechanical damping term.
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a technique that applies a periodic force to a material and measures the storage and loss modulus to characterize the viscoelastic properties. It can detect glass transition temperatures and other secondary transitions. The main components of a DMA machine include a motor to apply dynamic stress, an LVDT to measure strain, and a furnace. Samples are clamped and heated while a sinusoidal force is applied. The storage and loss modulus are calculated from the stress and strain measurements and plotted against temperature or time. DMA can be used to characterize polymers and fibers, determine the effects of composition, crystallinity, and orientation on transitions, and identify defects.
Use of the PerkinElmer TMA 4000 to Characterize Melting and Softening PointsPerkinElmer, Inc.
This application note demonstrates how the PerkinElmer TMA 4000 qualifies and quantifies changes occurring in materials as it softens on heating.
Learn more about the TMA 4000: http://bit.ly/1czg7em
This document discusses thermal characterization techniques for polymers. It provides an overview of polymer morphology and different thermal characterization methods including DSC, DTA, TGA, and TMA. These techniques are used to measure properties like glass transition temperature, melting point, heat capacity, and thermal decomposition. The document also defines important thermal concepts and terms and provides examples of applications of these characterization methods for polymers.
Several Kinds of Thermal Analysis Technologies of Measuring Glass Transition ...IJERA Editor
Thermal analysis technology is a general term of a set of techniques that can measure the material’s performance varying with temperature. The thermal property, volumetric property, mechanical property and electrical property of polymer exist obvious difference through glass transition, tracking these properties’ variation with temperature changes can determine its GTT (glass transition temperature). According to different measuring principles, these thermal analysis technologies of testing GTT are divided into following several categories, they are differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), differential thermal analysis (DTA), modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), thermo-mechanical analysis (TMA), dynamic thermomechanic analysis (DMA) and dielectric thermal analysis (DEA). The article introduces their testing methods, characteristics and influencing factors, in order to provide a reference for choosing appropriate technique to measure the glass transition temperature.
Basic Polymer identification and DSC and TGA analysisVatsal Kapadia
Vatsal K. Kapadia is interning at Larsen & Toubro in their Polymer Testing department. During the internship, he is analyzing various polymer materials to identify their composition and properties. Some of the techniques he is using include differential scanning calorimetry to determine melting points and glass transition temperatures, thermogravimetric analysis to measure composition and filler content, and conducting various tests such as burning samples to identify different polymer classes. The goal of his analysis is to help determine the appropriate materials for components and identify opportunities to improve products.
This document discusses sources of error in universal length measuring (ULM) machines due to factors like elastic properties of materials, thermal expansion, and cascading errors. It notes that while linear error correction seems advantageous, actually performing correction is complex due to these error sources. Thermal expansion of different materials used in ULM construction can lead to length changes with temperature variation. Elasticity in machine beds and long gauge blocks under load can cause misalignment. Cascading errors occur when small angular deviations are compounded over successive machine elements. The document analyzes specific error calculations and emphasizes the need for standard measurement temperatures to minimize thermal errors.
Thermal Resistance Approach to Analyze Temperature Distribution in Hollow Cyl...S M Shayak Ibna Faruqui
Thermal Resistance Approach to Analyze Temperature Distribution in Hollow Cylinders Made of Functionally Graded Material (FGM): Under Dirichlet Boundary Condition
The document proposes a thermal resistance approach (TRA) to analyze the temperature distribution in hollow cylinders made of functionally graded materials (FGMs) under Dirichlet boundary conditions. The TRA models the FGM cylinder as a thermal resistance network to bypass the non-linearity introduced by the power-law variation of thermal conductivity. Results from the TRA are found to match previous analytical and numerical solutions with less than 0.000012% average error. The TRA can determine temperature profiles for any material gradient distribution and provides insights into tailoring material gradients for desired temperature or stress fields.
Thermal analysis characterization of polymers and plastics acs webinarKevin Menard, Ph.D. MBA
Thermal analysis is a collection of techniques that examines how polymer properties change with temperature. Common techniques include DSC, TGA, DMA, and TMA. DSC measures transitions like glass transition and melting points via changes in heat flow or temperature. TGA analyzes weight changes with rising temperature such as decomposition. DMA provides storage modulus and damping curves to identify transitions. Thermal analysis is useful for characterizing polymers, determining purity, and studying curing and degradation. Hyphenated techniques like TG-IR and TG-GCMS further identify materials and products evolved during thermal degradation.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is introduced as a technique to measure the changes in mass of a material as it is heated. Key points made in the document include:
- TGA is commonly used to assess the thermal stability and determine the composition of polymers. It measures the mass of a sample as it is heated in a controlled atmosphere.
- Common factors analyzed from TGA curves include the shape, temperatures of mass changes, and magnitudes of mass changes. Temperature of initial degradation and 5% mass loss are used to compare thermal stability.
- Polymers typically undergo degradation through mechanisms like decomposition, desorption, or oxidation, which result in mass changes. TGA can be used
The document provides an overview of hot-stage microscopy (HSM), which couples thermal analysis with optical microscopy to observe solid-state materials as a function of temperature and time. HSM is used to support DSC and TGA and detect small changes missed by other techniques, such as desolvation and recrystallization. The instrumentation consists of a computer-controlled hot stage, optical microscope, and camera. HSM has various applications in pharmaceuticals for morphology studies, polymorphism, cocrystal screening, and detecting incompatibilities. It allows visual observation of processes like solid-solid transitions, phase changes, and desolvation.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the change in weight of a sample as it is heated. It can be used to detect decomposition, oxidation, and solvent loss. Some key applications of TGA include analyzing ceramics, metals, polymers, pharmaceuticals, foods, and printed circuit boards. For example, TGA can measure the thermal stability and oxidation kinetics of ceramic materials like silicon carbide, determine the composition of metal alloys, and analyze the effects of additives and optimization of polymer materials.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on preformulation studies using thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, and FT-IR spectroscopy. The presentation discusses the role of these techniques in preformulation, including methods like thermogravimetry, differential thermal analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. Applications described are polymorphism analysis, detection of impurities, drug-excipient compatibility testing, and prediction of drug stability from thermal degradation profiles. The document provides an overview of the principles and applications of various thermal analysis techniques in pharmaceutical preformulation studies.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on preformulation studies using thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, and FT-IR spectroscopy. The presentation introduces various thermal analysis techniques including thermogravimetry, differential thermal analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. Applications of thermal analysis in preformulation are discussed such as characterization of hydrates and solvates, study of polymers, detection of impurities, drug-excipient compatibility studies, polymorphism, prediction of drug stability, and degree of crystallinity. The document provides an overview of the techniques and their uses in preformulation studies.
The document discusses different thermal analysis techniques. It describes the principles, instrumentation, and applications of differential thermal analysis (DTA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). DTA involves measuring the temperature difference between a sample and reference material as they are heated. DSC measures the heat flow into or out of a sample during heating or cooling. Both techniques can identify phase transitions, crystallization events, and chemical reactions in materials.
Provides up to date information on DSC, recent developments and applicability. Recommended for those seeking up-to-date information on thermal analysis instruments.
Simulation of curing process of carbon/epoxy composite during autoclave degas...Darkdragon766
Simulation of curing process of carbon/epoxy composite during
autoclave degassing molding by considering phase changes of epoxy
resin
Seong-Hwan Yoo a, b
, Min-Gu Han a
, Jin-Ho Hong a
, Seung-Hwan Chang a, *
a School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University (CAU), 221, Huksuk-Dong, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea
b Korea Photonics Technology Institute Lighting Solution R&BD Center, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
This document summarizes a standard test method for measuring the thermal transmission properties of thermally conductive electrical insulation materials. It describes measuring a material's thermal impedance using a test setup with two parallel isothermal surfaces that impose a temperature gradient on a test specimen in between. Measurements of the surface temperatures and heat flow rate are used to calculate the specimen's thermal impedance and apparent thermal conductivity. The test method can be used to evaluate liquids, gels, rubbers, ceramics, metals and some plastics. Adjusting the clamping pressure and applying thermal grease can help account for interfacial thermal resistance between the specimen and test surfaces.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the change in weight of a substance as it is heated. It works by heating a sample at a controlled rate and measuring its weight loss over time or temperature. Changes in weight are caused by physical or chemical processes like decomposition or evaporation. A TGA curve shows the weight change of a sample as it is heated. It can identify decomposition temperatures and determine purity and composition. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) measures the temperature difference between a sample and an inert reference as both are heated. It identifies exothermic and endothermic transitions in a sample through temperature differences between the sample and reference.
Dislocations & Materials Classes , and strenthning mechanismsonadiaKhan
In brittle materials, failure in the film occurs when the stress exceeds a critical stress defined by the intrinsic atomic strength of the material and the nature of any critical defects. If the strength of the material can be increased or the size (or sharpness) of the defects decreased, then the film will be able to withstand higher levels of stress. It is important to emphasize that this approach will not reduce the stress in the system; so, bending and other detrimental effects will still occur.
The strength of the material can be increased by adding second-phase reinforcements that can be either permanent (e.g. fibers) or temporary (long-chain polymers). The size of critical defects can be modified through appropriate processing (either selection of route or control of processing) to ensure that the samples are free of critical defects. Large pores, introduced due to contamination, and poor powder packing or large grains are common strength-limiting defects in powder-based thick films – the use of fine grains and ensuring well-homogenized powders with no contaminants are therefore critical, as is high-quality deposition processing (Chapter 3).
Such strengthening mechanisms can play an important role, as there is a significant change in the mechanical properties of thick films during processing due to the rapidly evolving microstructure and chemistry of the system. Often, stresses in the system will increase before the strength of the material increases, leading to situations where the film is at a higher risk of failing mid-way through processing.
Overcoming Challenges of Integration
Reduce temperature
Reducing the temperature used for processing is by far the most effective way to overcome the challenges. It alleviates all the thermally induced issues, reduces (or even eliminates) chemical reactions, and reduces differential strains caused by reactions and temperature.
Separate reactants
Two reactive materials can be separated either by removing one material completely or by placing a barrier between the two materials. Protective atmospheres and barrier layers are frequently used.
Reduce differential strains
Select materials with comparable thermal expansions, those that do not undergo volume changes due to reactions or phase changes, or reduce the need to consolidate materials during processing.
Reduce film thickness
Building up multiple thin layers can allow much thicker films to be created, as each single layer is better able to withstand relative shrinkage during processing.
Strengthening
Modifying the materials to increase strength or interface strength of system can be used to prevent mechanical failure.
Read more
Creep of Intermetallics
M.-T. Perez-Prado, M.E. Kassner, in Fundamentals of Creep in Metals and Alloys (Third Edition), 2015
4.2.3 Strengthening Mechanisms
Several strengthening mechanisms have been utilized in order to improve the creep strength of NiAl alloys. Solid solution of Fe, Nb, Ta, Ti, and Zr produced only
Strengthening mechanisms in metals include work hardening, solid solution strengthening, and precipitation hardening. Work hardening increases yield strength by introducing dislocations through plastic deformation, which impede further dislocation movement. Solid solution strengthening adds solute atoms that distort the crystal lattice and interfere with dislocations. Precipitation hardening involves heat treating alloys to form precipitates that impede dislocations. These mechanisms strengthen metals by making dislocation motion and propagation more difficult.
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a technique that applies a periodic force to a material and measures the storage and loss modulus to characterize the viscoelastic properties. It can detect glass transition temperatures and other secondary transitions. The main components of a DMA machine include a motor to apply dynamic stress, an LVDT to measure strain, and a furnace. Samples are clamped and heated while a sinusoidal force is applied. The storage and loss modulus are calculated from the stress and strain measurements and plotted against temperature or time. DMA can be used to characterize polymers and fibers, determine the effects of composition, crystallinity, and orientation on transitions, and identify defects.
Use of the PerkinElmer TMA 4000 to Characterize Melting and Softening PointsPerkinElmer, Inc.
This application note demonstrates how the PerkinElmer TMA 4000 qualifies and quantifies changes occurring in materials as it softens on heating.
Learn more about the TMA 4000: http://bit.ly/1czg7em
This document discusses thermal characterization techniques for polymers. It provides an overview of polymer morphology and different thermal characterization methods including DSC, DTA, TGA, and TMA. These techniques are used to measure properties like glass transition temperature, melting point, heat capacity, and thermal decomposition. The document also defines important thermal concepts and terms and provides examples of applications of these characterization methods for polymers.
Several Kinds of Thermal Analysis Technologies of Measuring Glass Transition ...IJERA Editor
Thermal analysis technology is a general term of a set of techniques that can measure the material’s performance varying with temperature. The thermal property, volumetric property, mechanical property and electrical property of polymer exist obvious difference through glass transition, tracking these properties’ variation with temperature changes can determine its GTT (glass transition temperature). According to different measuring principles, these thermal analysis technologies of testing GTT are divided into following several categories, they are differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), differential thermal analysis (DTA), modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), thermo-mechanical analysis (TMA), dynamic thermomechanic analysis (DMA) and dielectric thermal analysis (DEA). The article introduces their testing methods, characteristics and influencing factors, in order to provide a reference for choosing appropriate technique to measure the glass transition temperature.
Basic Polymer identification and DSC and TGA analysisVatsal Kapadia
Vatsal K. Kapadia is interning at Larsen & Toubro in their Polymer Testing department. During the internship, he is analyzing various polymer materials to identify their composition and properties. Some of the techniques he is using include differential scanning calorimetry to determine melting points and glass transition temperatures, thermogravimetric analysis to measure composition and filler content, and conducting various tests such as burning samples to identify different polymer classes. The goal of his analysis is to help determine the appropriate materials for components and identify opportunities to improve products.
This document discusses sources of error in universal length measuring (ULM) machines due to factors like elastic properties of materials, thermal expansion, and cascading errors. It notes that while linear error correction seems advantageous, actually performing correction is complex due to these error sources. Thermal expansion of different materials used in ULM construction can lead to length changes with temperature variation. Elasticity in machine beds and long gauge blocks under load can cause misalignment. Cascading errors occur when small angular deviations are compounded over successive machine elements. The document analyzes specific error calculations and emphasizes the need for standard measurement temperatures to minimize thermal errors.
Thermal Resistance Approach to Analyze Temperature Distribution in Hollow Cyl...S M Shayak Ibna Faruqui
Thermal Resistance Approach to Analyze Temperature Distribution in Hollow Cylinders Made of Functionally Graded Material (FGM): Under Dirichlet Boundary Condition
The document proposes a thermal resistance approach (TRA) to analyze the temperature distribution in hollow cylinders made of functionally graded materials (FGMs) under Dirichlet boundary conditions. The TRA models the FGM cylinder as a thermal resistance network to bypass the non-linearity introduced by the power-law variation of thermal conductivity. Results from the TRA are found to match previous analytical and numerical solutions with less than 0.000012% average error. The TRA can determine temperature profiles for any material gradient distribution and provides insights into tailoring material gradients for desired temperature or stress fields.
Thermal analysis characterization of polymers and plastics acs webinarKevin Menard, Ph.D. MBA
Thermal analysis is a collection of techniques that examines how polymer properties change with temperature. Common techniques include DSC, TGA, DMA, and TMA. DSC measures transitions like glass transition and melting points via changes in heat flow or temperature. TGA analyzes weight changes with rising temperature such as decomposition. DMA provides storage modulus and damping curves to identify transitions. Thermal analysis is useful for characterizing polymers, determining purity, and studying curing and degradation. Hyphenated techniques like TG-IR and TG-GCMS further identify materials and products evolved during thermal degradation.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is introduced as a technique to measure the changes in mass of a material as it is heated. Key points made in the document include:
- TGA is commonly used to assess the thermal stability and determine the composition of polymers. It measures the mass of a sample as it is heated in a controlled atmosphere.
- Common factors analyzed from TGA curves include the shape, temperatures of mass changes, and magnitudes of mass changes. Temperature of initial degradation and 5% mass loss are used to compare thermal stability.
- Polymers typically undergo degradation through mechanisms like decomposition, desorption, or oxidation, which result in mass changes. TGA can be used
The document provides an overview of hot-stage microscopy (HSM), which couples thermal analysis with optical microscopy to observe solid-state materials as a function of temperature and time. HSM is used to support DSC and TGA and detect small changes missed by other techniques, such as desolvation and recrystallization. The instrumentation consists of a computer-controlled hot stage, optical microscope, and camera. HSM has various applications in pharmaceuticals for morphology studies, polymorphism, cocrystal screening, and detecting incompatibilities. It allows visual observation of processes like solid-solid transitions, phase changes, and desolvation.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the change in weight of a sample as it is heated. It can be used to detect decomposition, oxidation, and solvent loss. Some key applications of TGA include analyzing ceramics, metals, polymers, pharmaceuticals, foods, and printed circuit boards. For example, TGA can measure the thermal stability and oxidation kinetics of ceramic materials like silicon carbide, determine the composition of metal alloys, and analyze the effects of additives and optimization of polymer materials.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on preformulation studies using thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, and FT-IR spectroscopy. The presentation discusses the role of these techniques in preformulation, including methods like thermogravimetry, differential thermal analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. Applications described are polymorphism analysis, detection of impurities, drug-excipient compatibility testing, and prediction of drug stability from thermal degradation profiles. The document provides an overview of the principles and applications of various thermal analysis techniques in pharmaceutical preformulation studies.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on preformulation studies using thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, and FT-IR spectroscopy. The presentation introduces various thermal analysis techniques including thermogravimetry, differential thermal analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. Applications of thermal analysis in preformulation are discussed such as characterization of hydrates and solvates, study of polymers, detection of impurities, drug-excipient compatibility studies, polymorphism, prediction of drug stability, and degree of crystallinity. The document provides an overview of the techniques and their uses in preformulation studies.
The document discusses different thermal analysis techniques. It describes the principles, instrumentation, and applications of differential thermal analysis (DTA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). DTA involves measuring the temperature difference between a sample and reference material as they are heated. DSC measures the heat flow into or out of a sample during heating or cooling. Both techniques can identify phase transitions, crystallization events, and chemical reactions in materials.
Provides up to date information on DSC, recent developments and applicability. Recommended for those seeking up-to-date information on thermal analysis instruments.
Simulation of curing process of carbon/epoxy composite during autoclave degas...Darkdragon766
Simulation of curing process of carbon/epoxy composite during
autoclave degassing molding by considering phase changes of epoxy
resin
Seong-Hwan Yoo a, b
, Min-Gu Han a
, Jin-Ho Hong a
, Seung-Hwan Chang a, *
a School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University (CAU), 221, Huksuk-Dong, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea
b Korea Photonics Technology Institute Lighting Solution R&BD Center, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
This document summarizes a standard test method for measuring the thermal transmission properties of thermally conductive electrical insulation materials. It describes measuring a material's thermal impedance using a test setup with two parallel isothermal surfaces that impose a temperature gradient on a test specimen in between. Measurements of the surface temperatures and heat flow rate are used to calculate the specimen's thermal impedance and apparent thermal conductivity. The test method can be used to evaluate liquids, gels, rubbers, ceramics, metals and some plastics. Adjusting the clamping pressure and applying thermal grease can help account for interfacial thermal resistance between the specimen and test surfaces.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the change in weight of a substance as it is heated. It works by heating a sample at a controlled rate and measuring its weight loss over time or temperature. Changes in weight are caused by physical or chemical processes like decomposition or evaporation. A TGA curve shows the weight change of a sample as it is heated. It can identify decomposition temperatures and determine purity and composition. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) measures the temperature difference between a sample and an inert reference as both are heated. It identifies exothermic and endothermic transitions in a sample through temperature differences between the sample and reference.
Dislocations & Materials Classes , and strenthning mechanismsonadiaKhan
In brittle materials, failure in the film occurs when the stress exceeds a critical stress defined by the intrinsic atomic strength of the material and the nature of any critical defects. If the strength of the material can be increased or the size (or sharpness) of the defects decreased, then the film will be able to withstand higher levels of stress. It is important to emphasize that this approach will not reduce the stress in the system; so, bending and other detrimental effects will still occur.
The strength of the material can be increased by adding second-phase reinforcements that can be either permanent (e.g. fibers) or temporary (long-chain polymers). The size of critical defects can be modified through appropriate processing (either selection of route or control of processing) to ensure that the samples are free of critical defects. Large pores, introduced due to contamination, and poor powder packing or large grains are common strength-limiting defects in powder-based thick films – the use of fine grains and ensuring well-homogenized powders with no contaminants are therefore critical, as is high-quality deposition processing (Chapter 3).
Such strengthening mechanisms can play an important role, as there is a significant change in the mechanical properties of thick films during processing due to the rapidly evolving microstructure and chemistry of the system. Often, stresses in the system will increase before the strength of the material increases, leading to situations where the film is at a higher risk of failing mid-way through processing.
Overcoming Challenges of Integration
Reduce temperature
Reducing the temperature used for processing is by far the most effective way to overcome the challenges. It alleviates all the thermally induced issues, reduces (or even eliminates) chemical reactions, and reduces differential strains caused by reactions and temperature.
Separate reactants
Two reactive materials can be separated either by removing one material completely or by placing a barrier between the two materials. Protective atmospheres and barrier layers are frequently used.
Reduce differential strains
Select materials with comparable thermal expansions, those that do not undergo volume changes due to reactions or phase changes, or reduce the need to consolidate materials during processing.
Reduce film thickness
Building up multiple thin layers can allow much thicker films to be created, as each single layer is better able to withstand relative shrinkage during processing.
Strengthening
Modifying the materials to increase strength or interface strength of system can be used to prevent mechanical failure.
Read more
Creep of Intermetallics
M.-T. Perez-Prado, M.E. Kassner, in Fundamentals of Creep in Metals and Alloys (Third Edition), 2015
4.2.3 Strengthening Mechanisms
Several strengthening mechanisms have been utilized in order to improve the creep strength of NiAl alloys. Solid solution of Fe, Nb, Ta, Ti, and Zr produced only
Strengthening mechanisms in metals include work hardening, solid solution strengthening, and precipitation hardening. Work hardening increases yield strength by introducing dislocations through plastic deformation, which impede further dislocation movement. Solid solution strengthening adds solute atoms that distort the crystal lattice and interfere with dislocations. Precipitation hardening involves heat treating alloys to form precipitates that impede dislocations. These mechanisms strengthen metals by making dislocation motion and propagation more difficult.
1. Metals have the greatest number of dislocations present because dislocation motion is easiest in metals due to their non-directional bonding and close-packed crystal structures.
2. Strength and dislocation motion are related because dislocations allow plastic deformation via slip and strength increases as dislocation motion is impeded.
3. Heating alters strength and other properties by allowing recovery and recrystallization processes that reduce dislocation density and form new defect-free grains, decreasing strength but increasing ductility.
TRIP-assisted steels are mass produced steels that use a complex heat treatment to develop a microstructure consisting of allotriomorphic ferrite, bainite, martensite, and retained austenite. Their major application is in the automobile industry. There are two types of TRIP-assisted steels that differ in their heat treatment process. TWIP steels are austenitic and accommodate strain through dislocation glide and mechanical twinning, resulting in high ductility and strength. Micro-alloyed steels produced by controlled rolling have moderate strength, good toughness and weldability, and are widely used in applications like pipelines. The embrittlement and fracture of steels depends on
TALAT Lecture 1205: Introduction to Mechanical Properties, Casting, Forming, ...CORE-Materials
This lecture provides background, basic information on mechanical properties and testing, solidification and casting, joining and corrosion of aluminium and its alloys. Basic knowledge of physics and chemistry and some familiarity with lectures 1201 and 1203 is assumed.
Manufacturing engineering and technology - Schmid and Kalpakjianjagdeep_jd
The document discusses the structure of metals and their mechanical properties. It begins with an outline of chapter topics, including crystal structures (BCC, FCC, HCP), defects, slip and deformation, dislocations, solidification, and grain size. Tables provide data on mechanical properties and homologous temperature ranges for various metalworking processes. Figures show stress-strain curves, tensile testing specimens and machines, and the relationships between engineering and true stress/strain. The document provides an overview of the key concepts relating to metal structure and mechanical behavior.
There are several mechanisms that can strengthen materials by hindering the movement of dislocations:
1) Grain size reduction - Smaller grain sizes provide more barriers to dislocation movement at grain boundaries. According to the Hall-Petch relationship, smaller grain diameters yield higher yield strengths.
2) Solid solution strengthening - Impurity atoms distort the crystal lattice and generate stress fields that impede dislocation motion. The effectiveness depends on size difference and concentration of solute atoms.
3) Strain hardening - Plastic deformation increases dislocation density within a material, making further dislocation movement more difficult through interactions between dislocations. This causes strain hardened metals to strengthen with increasing plastic deformation.
Dislocations are defects in crystal structures caused by stress and strain. There are different types of dislocations including edge dislocations and screw dislocations. Dislocations cause plastic deformation in metals by allowing slip and twinning to occur when stress is applied. Slip involves the sliding of crystal planes over one another, resulting in a permanent displacement, while twinning involves the rearrangement of atoms across a twinning plane. Dislocations are classified into types and influence many material properties, such as making metals able to undergo shaping processes that involve plastic deformation.
Dislocations are defects in crystal structures caused by stress and strain. There are different types of dislocations including edge dislocations and screw dislocations. Dislocations cause plastic deformation in metals by allowing slip and twinning to occur when stress is applied. Slip involves the sliding of crystal planes over one another, resulting in a permanent displacement, while twinning involves the rearrangement of atoms across a twinning plane. Dislocations are classified into types and influence many material properties, such as making metals able to undergo shaping processes that involve plastic deformation.
This document discusses texture formation processes in metals and alloys, including deformation, annealing, and transformation textures. It focuses on deformation textures and the mechanisms of slip and twinning. The key factors that determine the dominant deformation mechanism are crystal structure and stacking fault energy. Materials with high stacking fault energy deform primarily through slip, while those with low stacking fault energy experience more twinning. The document also examines differences in slip systems for BCC, FCC, and HCP crystals and how deformation leads to the development of crystallographic texture through grain rotation.
This document discusses dislocations and strengthening mechanisms in metals. It begins by explaining how dislocations allow plastic deformation through slip and describes the slip systems in FCC and BCC crystals. It then discusses three main mechanisms for strengthening metals: reducing grain size, solid solution strengthening, and strain hardening. Reducing grain size increases the number of grain boundaries that impede dislocation motion. Solid solution strengthening involves alloying with impurity atoms that distort the lattice and impede dislocations. Strain hardening occurs through plastic deformation, which increases dislocation density and causes dislocations to impede each other. The document concludes by discussing recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth processes in metals after plastic deformation.
This lecture provides an introduction to the metallurgy of precipitation hardening, with a presentation of the fundamental mechanisms involved and illustrations from alloys which form the basis for engineering alloys. The Al-Mg<sub>2</sub>Si system is discussed in some detail because of its commercial importance. The microstructural aspects of precipitation hardening are illustrated by examples, many of which were obtained by electron microscopy; an outline of the background to electron microscopy is given in an appendix. Familiarity with the subject matter covered in earlier lectures 1201, 1202 and 1203 is assumed.
This document provides an overview of modern construction materials and their atomic structures. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
Atomic structures of metals are described, including the arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Metals form different crystal structures when solidifying from a molten state in order to minimize energy, and crystal structures influence mechanical properties. Common crystal structures include body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed, and imperfections in crystal structures help explain the difference between theoretical and actual metal strengths.
These diagrams are useful for assessing ceramic performance at high temperatures. Phase diagrams have been experimentally determined for many ceramic systems, often involving oxides sharing a common element like oxygen. The document then summarizes several important ceramic systems, including their phase diagrams and key phases present. It discusses how mechanical properties like strength and fracture behavior are limited in ceramics, and outlines factors like microcracks, flaws, and grain boundaries that contribute to their brittle fracture. Various deformation and strengthening mechanisms in crystalline and non-crystalline ceramics are also summarized.
This presentation discusses deformation bands and kink bands in metals. Deformation bands are irregularly shaped regions of different crystallographic orientation that form in plastically deformed metals due to non-uniform deformation. Kink bands form in hexagonal close packed crystals under compression when slip is difficult. Kink bands accommodate stress by a localized region abruptly tilting into a new orientation, shortening the crystal. Factors like density, modulus, and cohesion influence kink band formation. Both deformation bands and kink bands are common inexperience incompatibilities in crystal structure during plastic deformation.
This document provides an overview of metal forming processes. It discusses how plastic deformation occurs in crystal structures through slip and twinning. It introduces common yield criteria like von Mises and Tresca criteria that define the onset of plastic deformation. The document contrasts hot and cold working processes. Hot working is done above the recrystallization temperature to allow recovery and recrystallization during deformation, while cold working is below this temperature and results in work hardening without recovery. The advantages and disadvantages of each process are outlined. Higher strain rates lower the recrystallization temperature.
This lecture describes the most significant correlation among foundry processes, microstructures and defects of castings and fatigue behaviour of Al casting alloys. No prior knowledge is strictly necessary; however, the basic concepts developed in TALAT lectures 2400 and 3200 are very useful for the comprehension of this lecture.
The document discusses dislocations and strengthening mechanisms in engineering materials. It defines edge, screw, and mixed dislocations, and describes how dislocation motion leads to plastic deformation through slip. Strengthening mechanisms like grain size reduction, solid solution strengthening, and strain hardening are explained in relation to restricting dislocation movement. Recovery and recrystallization processes are also summarized which allow deformed metals to reduce strain energy at elevated temperatures.
This document discusses different types of joining processes used to assemble components. It begins by introducing solid phase welding processes which join components without melting them through techniques like pressure. It then discusses different criteria for classifying joining processes, such as whether they use a filler material and whether the filler is the same or different from the parent material. The document goes on to explain principles of solid phase welding, including factors like surface deformation and contamination, and diffusion. It also covers principles of fusion welding processes, which do involve melting material at the joint.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
This document reviews the effects of hot extrusion on metal matrix composites (MMCs). It finds that hot extrusion improves many properties compared to cold extrusion due to recrystallization and reduced porosity. Specifically, hot extrusion leads to higher hardness, impact strength, tensile properties and texture strength, and lower residual stresses and porosity compared to cold extrusion. Micrographs show hot extrusion minimizes porosity and improves reinforcement distribution. In conclusion, hot extrusion is an effective secondary process for fabricating MMCs that enhances mechanical properties.
Similar to TALAT Lecture 1251: Mechanical Working / Forming of Shapes (20)
Series of powerpoint slides showing three different drawing processes used in the manufacture of wires, rod, tubes and drinks cans. The slides are adapted from the University of Liverpool "Materials Processing" lectures [MATS214] by Dr J. Wilcox.
The document describes several test geometries used to determine the failure strengths of composite materials, including the Double Cantilever Beam test for mode I failure, the End Notch Flexure test for mode II failure, and the Mixed-mode Interlaminar Fracture test for mixed mode I/II failure. It also lists the Single Cantilever Beam test for skin debonding energy in composite sandwiches, the Centre Notch Flexure test for thin skin debonding, and the Interlaminar Shear Strength test, a three point bend test to determine shear strength.
The document describes several common composite manufacturing techniques including wet lay-up, vacuum bagging, compression moulding, filament winding, pultrusion, and resin transfer moulding. Each technique involves different processes for combining fibres and resin such as applying layers by hand, using pressure and heat, winding fibres onto a rotating mandrel, pulling fibres through a resin bath, or injecting resin into a mould containing dry fibres. The techniques are suited for different part geometries and production volumes.
The role of technology in sporting performanceCORE-Materials
The lecture answers the questions of how much effect does engineering technology have on sport, is technology only used to increase performance and what are the "new technologies" being introduced. Courtesy of Prof Claire Davies, School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham.
The chapter describes principles of the chemical analysis in the SEM and TEM. From "Electron Microscopy and Analysis" textbook by Peter J. Goodhew, John Humphreys and Richard Beanland. Courtesy of Taylor and Francis Books UK.
The chapter gives insight into the scanning electron microscope technique. From "Electron Microscopy and Analysis" textbook by Peter J. Goodhew, John Humphreys and Richard Beanland. Courtesy of Taylor and Francis Books UK.
The chapter gives insight into the transmission electron microscope technique. From "Electron Microscopy and Analysis" textbook by Peter J. Goodhew, John Humphreys and Richard Beanland. Courtesy of Taylor and Francis Books UK.
The chapter explains the diffraction of electrons and demonstrates what it can reveal. From "Electron Microscopy and Analysis" textbook by Peter J. Goodhew, John Humphreys and Richard Beanland. Courtesy of Taylor and Francis Books UK.
Electrons and their interaction with the specimenCORE-Materials
The chapter explains the behaviour of electrons within a specimen and shows how they interact with the atoms of the sample. From "Electron Microscopy and Analysis" textbook by Peter J. Goodhew, John Humphreys and Richard Beanland. Courtesy of Taylor and Francis Books UK.
The chapter gives the comparison of electron microscopy with other imaging and analysis techniques. From "Electron Microscopy and Analysis" textbook by Peter J. Goodhew, John Humphreys and Richard Beanland. Courtesy of Taylor and Francis Books UK.
The chapter gives the basic principles of microscopy. From "Electron Microscopy and Analysis" textbook by Peter J. Goodhew, John Humphreys and Richard Beanland. Courtesy of Taylor and Francis Books UK.
TALAT Lecture 5301: The Surface Treatment and Coil Coating of AluminiumCORE-Materials
This lecture describes the continuous coil coating processes for aluminium in sufficient detail in order to understand the industrial coating technology and its application potential. General background in materials engineering and familiarity with the subject matter covered in TALAT This lectures 5100 and 5200 is assumed.
This lecture describes the processes of electroless, electrolytic, as well as physical and chemical vapour deposition of metals on the aluminium surface in order to achieve variations in its surface properties for functional and decorative purposes. Some knowledge of the surface properties of metals, metallurgy and electrochemistry of aluminium and familiarity with the subject matter covered in TALAT This lectures 5101, 5102, 5105 is assumed.
This lecture describes the process of anodic oxidation of aluminium, which is one of the most unique and commonly used surface treatment techniques for aluminium; it illustrates the weathering behaviour of anodized surfaces. Some familiarity with the subject matter covered in TALAT This lectures 5101- 5104 is assumed.
This lecture describes the key factors associated with conversion coatings on aluminium can be appreciated, such as general and local behaviour of the aluminium surface, range of conversion coatings and interrelationships, requirements of conversion coating, tailor-making of coatings, current and future issues. Some familiarity with the subject matter covered in TALAT This lectures 5101, 5102, 5201 is assumed.
TALAT Lecture 5105: Surface Treatment of AluminiumCORE-Materials
This lecture helps to understand the general principles, methods, properties and applications of plating on aluminium. Some knowledge in general electrochemistry is assumed.
TALAT Lecture 5104: Basic Approaches to Prevent Corrosion of AluminiumCORE-Materials
This lecture describes important measures for the prevention of corrosion of unprotected, bare
aluminium. Basic knowledge of corrosion behaviour of aluminium and some knowledge of the electrochemical nature of corrosion is assumed
TALAT Lecture 5103: Corrosion Control of Aluminium - Forms of Corrosion and P...CORE-Materials
This document discusses various forms of corrosion that can affect aluminium and aluminium alloys. It describes general corrosion that can occur in acid and neutral solutions. It also covers localized corrosion such as pitting, crevice, filiform, and biological corrosion. Factors influencing galvanic and intergranular corrosion are presented. The document also discusses mechanically assisted degradation like erosion, fretting corrosion, and corrosion fatigue. It concludes with descriptions of stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement.
TALAT Lecture 5102: Reactivity of the Aluminium Surface in Aqueous SolutionsCORE-Materials
This lecture provides better understanding of the electrochemistry of aluminium; it gives an introduction to the other lectures. Some knowledge in aluminium metallurgy, simple chemistry (thermodynamics and kinetics), electricity and general electrochemistry is assumed.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH LỚP 9 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2024-2025 - ...
TALAT Lecture 1251: Mechanical Working / Forming of Shapes
1. TALAT Lecture 1251
Mechanical Working and Forming of Shapes
14 pages, 14 Figures
Advanced level
prepared by M H Jacobs
Interdisciplinary Research Centre in Materials
The University of Birmingham, UK
Objectives:
Outline of the metallurgical principles of mechanical working and forming of shapes
from aluminium.
Prerequisites:
Basic knowledge of physics and chemistry. Familiarity with the contents of TALAT
lectures 1201 through 1205.
Date of Issue: 1999
EAA - European Aluminium Association
2. 1251 Mechanical Working and Forming of Shapes
Contents (14 Figures)
1251 Mechanical Working and Forming of Shapes ________________________2
1251.01 Background to Mechanical Working and Forming______________________ 3
1251.01.01 Change of Shape ____________________________________________________3
1251.01.02 Change of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties ________________________4
1251.02 Forming Processes_______________________________________________ 12
1251.02.01 Flat Rolling _________________________________________________________12
1251.02.02 Extrusion _________________________________________________________12
1251.02.03 Forging___________________________________________________________13
1251.02.04 Sheet Metal Forming Processes ________________________________________13
1251.03 References ______________________________________________________ 14
1251.04 List of Figures ___________________________________________________ 14
TALAT 1251 2
3. 1251.01 Background to Mechanical Working and Forming
This involves the conversion of a cast ingot to a wrought product by processes which
are carried out at high temperatures or at room temperature and which might involve
reheating the material to restore ductility.
Two main aspects must be considered, which are (1) change of shape, and (2) change
of microstructure and mechanical properties. We will deal with these in turn.
1251.01.01 Change of Shape
As an example, consider the production of flat rolled products. If we start with a cast
ingot of a suitable alloy which is 5m long and 300mm thick, this slab can be
converted to foil which may be 7µm (.007mm) thick. Neglecting any change in width
that occurs, the length of foil produced from this ingot is about 200km. The change of
shape is expressed by measurement of strain. In the particular example, the total
reduction in thickness can be expressed as
Original thickness - Final thickness x 100 % = 99.998
Original thickness
This is called nominal strain or engineering strain.
Another way of expressing the thickness strain is
logn Original thickness = 10.7
Final thickness
This is called true strain.
Such large strains cannot be achieved in a single operation. The usual route is to start
with hot working processes followed by cold working and annealing,
Figure 1251.01.01.
TALAT 1251 3
4. 1251.01.02 Change of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties
The ability to undergo large plastic deformation is one of the most useful attributes of
metals. Metals with a face-centred cubic (fcc) crystal structure usually exhibit good,
isotropic ductility as a direct consequence of three sets of active slip planes. In this
respect, aluminium and its many alloys are excellent examples of a material that is
readily formed into complex shapes.
Metals usually consist of large numbers of individual grains or crystals; that is, they
are polycrystalline, see TALAT lecture 1201. A typical grain or crystal after hot
working, plus cold working and annealing will be of diameter, say, 40µm thus
contains many millions of unit cells, see Figure 1251.01.02.
In the cast condition, the initial crystals grow from the liquid phase and the resultant
microstructure is usually coarse, see TALAT lecture 1201. When the metal is
deformed, each grain deforms by the movement of line defects in the crystal lattice;
deformation is by slip on slip planes along the shear direction, see
Figure 1251.01.03. These defects are known as dislocations, Figure 1251.01.04.
The dislocations move on certain crystallographic planes in the crystals (close-packed
planes) which are known as slip planes, see again TALAT lecture 1201. The
movement of a single dislocation produces a shear strain and the combined motion of
hundreds of thousands of dislocations produces the total strain.
TALAT 1251 4
5. Figure 1251.01.05 lists four points that emphasise the importance of dislocations and
the ease with which they slip under the influence of an applied stress:
Metals, especially those with a cubic crystal structure, are ductile and tough
because dislocations can move through the crystal lattice with relative ease.
Large single crystals of a pure metal are very WEAK because the dislocations
present can move easily without encountering obstacles.
Very small single crystals (METAL WHISKERS) are very strong because there
is insufficient crystal volume for them to deform by the movement of
dislocations.
TALAT 1251 5
6. Commercial metals and alloys are strengthened by various types of
OBSTACLES to the movement of dislocations.
Obstacles to dislocation movement, Figure 1251.01.06, include one or more of the
following:
(1) Grain boundaries
(2) Other dislocations (work hardening)
(3) Solute atoms (solution hardening)
(4) Precipitated GP zones (precipitation hardening)
(5) Dispersed particles (dispersoid hardening).
Some or all of these may contribute to the strength of a metal or alloy,
Figure 1251.01.07:
TALAT 1251 6
7. σy = σo + σd + σs + σp + kd-0.5 (1)
where
σy = overall yield stress
σo = stress due to basic lattice
σd = stress due to dislocations interactions
σs = stress due to resistance to dislocation movement caused by
solute atoms (size effect)
σp = stress due to obstacles resented as precipitate particles and
dispersoid particles
The effect of grain size is given by the Hall-Petch relationship
σ = Constant + kd-0.5 , where d is the grain size (mean diameter).
During deformation at room temperature the number of dislocations increases and it
becomes increasingly difficult for dislocations to move through the lattice, i.e. the
metal work hardens or strain hardens. This means that higher loads are required to
continue deformation and the metal loses ductility, eventually leading to cracking and
failure. At the atomistic level the situation is complex and the theory of dislocations
has been developed to a high degree in order to understand the details of the
mechanisms involved [1]. During deformation, slip is very active and moving
dislocations on intersecting slip planes will give rise to jogs which, in themselves,
make only a small contribution to hindering dislocation movement and associated
work hardening; of move importance is the interaction between opposing strain fields
that surround dislocations, which gives rise to tangles or ‘forests’ of dislocations,
Figure 1251.01.07.
During work hardening in which dislocation forests are formed, the flow stress σ is
given by
σ = constant x √ (dislocation density) (2)
TALAT 1251 7
8. Dislocations may be removed by heating the cold worked metal to a moderately high
temperature (annealing) which causes the metal to soften and restores ductility. The
changes in microstructure which occur during annealing are referred to as recovery
and recrystallisation, see TALAT lecture 1201.
During deformation at elevated temperatures, restoration processes may occur. These
are called dynamic recovery or dynamic recrystallisation. In aluminium alloys, the
former is more likely to occur. As a result of these processes, the metal does not
strain harden as much as it does at room temperature and consequently lower loads
are required to deform the material. But, under these conditions, the speed of
deformation, or strain rate, becomes an important parameter of the process.
Several different techniques must be used to observe the microstructural features
referred to above. In order to observe dislocations, it is necessary to use transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) A thin foil of the material is prepared and inserted in an
electron microscope, and dislocations are revealed by diffraction contrast, see TALAT
lecture 1204, section 1204.05 Appendix. In aluminium alloys after a moderate
amount of deformation, the dislocations are not uniformly distributed but instead they
form cells, with walls of tangled dislocations and interior regions of low dislocation
density, see Figure 1251.01.08. Typically, these cells have a diameter of the order of
1µm. When recovery occurs, the cell walls become clean boundaries and the units are
then referred to as subgrains. However, when a large amount of cold work is
followed by annealing, new grains are formed by the process of recrystallisation,
Figure 1251.01.09.
TALAT 1251 8
9. The driving force for recrystallisation is the stored energy caused by the presence of
dislocations, Figure 1251.01.10.
The dislocation density can be expressed as the total length of dislocation lines in a
unit volume of the material. For annealed material this may be about 1010m-2 and for
heavily cold worked material the dislocation density rises to about 1015m-2.
TALAT 1251 9
10. The response of a metal to stress at constant temperature, Figure 1251.01.11 may be
expressed as:
σ = k εn εm (3)
where σ = stress
ε = strain
ε = strain rate
n = strain hardening exponent
m = strain rate sensitivity.
Figure 1251.01.12 and Figure 1251.01.13 show schematically the temperature
dependences of strain hardening and strain rate hardening in pure aluminium. These
figures show that the strain rate sensitivity of pure aluminium increases significantly
with temperature above 200°C. This reflects the importance of the dynamic recovery
at high temperatures.
TALAT 1251 10
11. Note that aluminium alloys that are formable by superplastic deformation have strain
rate sensitivities > 0.5. A stable, fine scale microstructure is required for superplastic
deformation, by which ductilities of several hundreds of percent are possible. This
requires special alloy compositions, containing Zirconium which provides particles
which pin grain boundaries, Figure 1251.01.14.
In heat treatable aluminium alloys, the effective hardening precipitates are very small
and it is necessary to use TEM to observe these directly, see TALAT lecture 1204 on
precipitation hardening. Also the small sub-micron dispersoid particles present in
some alloys are observable only by TEM.
Other features of the microstructure may be observed by optical microscopy – these
include the grain size, the degree of recrystallisation, the grain aspect ratio and
coarse intermetallic particles.
TALAT 1251 11
12. Yet another aspect of the microstructure is concerned with the orientations of the
grains. During deformation involving crystallographic slip, rotations occur leading to
the lining up of crystals in preferred directions. The non-random distribution of
orientations is known as preferred orientation or crystallographic texture. The
preferred orientation developed during deformation is known as a deformation
texture and when the material is subsequently recrystallised, a new preferred
orientation is formed which is a recrystallisation texture. The presence of texture in
wrought products influences directionality of mechanical properties, an important
example in aluminium process technology being the control of earring in canstock
material used for the production of beverage cans.
Preferred orientation is usually measured by X-ray diffraction methods.
Another source of directionality, particularly in some of the strong aluminium alloys
in plate form, is associated with grain morphology. Flat, elongated grains account for
lower ductility, lower toughness and lower stress corrosion resistance in the short
transverse direction.
In the deformation and heat treatment of aluminium alloys, particles of intermetallic
compounds play an important role especially in relation to the recrystallisation
behaviour. Large particles, with diameters of the order of 1µm or more, create strain
concentrations during deformation and can act as nucleation sites for recrystallisation.
On the other hand, small particles (dispersoids) interact with moving grain boundaries
and can prevent grain growth.
The above considerations relate generally to deformation and we can now consider
briefly some specific working processes, flat rolling, extrusion, forging and sheet
metal forming processes.
1251.02 Forming Processes
1251.02.01 Flat Rolling
The first stage in the process is hot rolling. Slabs are pre-heated to a temperature of
up to ~500°C, depending on the alloy composition and the rolling to plate with a
thickness of ~7mm is often carried out without reheating, so that the temperature falls
during deformation.
A typical rolling mill for this stage is a large 4-high reversing mill, with work rolls of
about 1m diameter and back-up rolls of about 1.5m diameter.
Cold Rolling is carried out on a variety of mills depending on the alloy and the
dimensions of the strip - a single 4-high mill, tandem mill or cluster mill (Sendzimir)
can be used. In the case of very thin strip, the application of front and back tension is
important.
1251.02.02 Extrusion
TALAT 1251 12
13. The advantage of the extrusion process is that complicated cross section products can
be made in a single operation. It is a hot forming process carried out on large and
expensive extrusion presses. For large extruded sections, the loading capacity of the
press may be about 7000t.
1251.02.03 Forging
Forging of aluminium alloys is carried out at high temperatures in the region of
400°C. While the main outlet for aluminium forgings has been the aerospace
industry, commercial products now occupy a significant portion of the market.
Examples of commercial products are suspension units for trucks, wheels,
components for racing cars, etc.
1251.02.04 Sheet Metal Forming Processes
These are usually carried out at room temperature. The processes involved are
bending, stretch forming and deep drawing. The range of products is enormous,
ranging from aircraft fuselages to beer cans. Currently, efforts are being made to
introduce aluminium alloys into car bodies. The room temperature formability of
aluminium alloys is not as good as that of some competitive materials such as low-
carbon steels.
For the forming of complex shapes in a single operation, superplastic forming offers
possibilities. Aluminium alloys have been developed for superplastic forming
applications.
TALAT 1251 13
14. 1251.03 References
1. R E Smallman, Modern Physical Metallurgy, Fourth Edition, Butterworth
Heinemann, 1985.
1251.04 List of Figures
Figure No. Figure Title (Overhead)
1251.01.01 Processing of Aluminium Sheet from Ingot
1251.01.02 Grains and grain sizes
1251.01.03 Deformation by shear on slip planes
1251.01.04 Deformation by slip of a dislocation
1251.01.05 Deformation by slip of dislocations
1251.01.06 Obstacles to dislocation movement
1251.01.07 Modified Hall Petch Relationship
1251.01.08 Dislocations and work hardening
1251.01.09 Work hardening, recovery and recrystallisation
1251.01.10 Stored Energy
1251.01.11 Response of metals to stress
1251.01.12 Temperature dependence of strain hardening for pure aluminium
1251.01.13 Temperature dependence of strain rate hardening for pure aluminium
1251.01.14 Superplastic Forming – requires stable, fine microstructure
TALAT 1251 14