The document discusses electrical synaptic communication and ephaptic communication between neurons. It begins by defining synapses and describing the two main types: electrical and chemical synapses. Electrical synapses allow direct communication between neurons through gap junctions, which are composed of connexin proteins. Connexins come in different types that vary in their properties. Electrical synapses allow fast, bidirectional signaling between neurons. The document then discusses ephaptic coupling, where neurons can influence each other through electric field effects in the extracellular space even without direct connections. Ephaptic coupling plays a role in synchronization and timing of neural activity. The document provides examples of electrical and ephaptic communication in the brain and outlines future challenges in understanding their roles.
Neuron communication belongs to subject ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY in course of zoology.
nerve communication.
how neuron communicate?
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Measurement of Membrane Potential
Synapse – Greek word –synaptein. Syn –together; aptein –clasp.
Synapse – Clasping of hands (as in hand shaking between two friends).
Site of functional continuity (transneuronal junctional complex) between two neurons.
Why need of synapse?
Neuron communication belongs to subject ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY in course of zoology.
nerve communication.
how neuron communicate?
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Measurement of Membrane Potential
Synapse – Greek word –synaptein. Syn –together; aptein –clasp.
Synapse – Clasping of hands (as in hand shaking between two friends).
Site of functional continuity (transneuronal junctional complex) between two neurons.
Why need of synapse?
Introduction
What RNA Splicing???
Discovery
Types
Alternative Splicing
Mechanism
Regulatory element And protein
Splicing repression
Splicing activation
Significance
Diseases
Conclusion
Refrences
The Role of Introns in Genetic Regulation
================================
Introns are sequences that interrupt open reading frames (ORFs) in RNA.
Spliceosomal introns are exclusive of eukaryotic nuclear gene transcripts, are a complex of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins .
Introns are crucial because the protein variety is greatly enhanced by alternative splicing in which introns take partly important roles.
Changes in the exon-intron structure of a gene can also occur, including the loss or/and gain of introns. Intron loss is important aspect of gene structural variation and plays a vital role in gene evolution.
This report focuses on the intron, its origin, classification, evolution, loss and gain, function, and the diverse roles of splicing and alternative splicing in human disease.
Introduction
What RNA Splicing???
Discovery
Types
Alternative Splicing
Mechanism
Regulatory element And protein
Splicing repression
Splicing activation
Significance
Diseases
Conclusion
Refrences
The Role of Introns in Genetic Regulation
================================
Introns are sequences that interrupt open reading frames (ORFs) in RNA.
Spliceosomal introns are exclusive of eukaryotic nuclear gene transcripts, are a complex of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins .
Introns are crucial because the protein variety is greatly enhanced by alternative splicing in which introns take partly important roles.
Changes in the exon-intron structure of a gene can also occur, including the loss or/and gain of introns. Intron loss is important aspect of gene structural variation and plays a vital role in gene evolution.
This report focuses on the intron, its origin, classification, evolution, loss and gain, function, and the diverse roles of splicing and alternative splicing in human disease.
L'expérience développeur au coeur de votre stratégie ITMailjet
Dans un contexte où tout est inter-connecté, les APIs constituent aujourd’hui un élément central et incontournable. Le plus grand challenge n’est pas de mettre en ligne une API simple d’utilisation, mais de parvenir à la faire utiliser.
L’un des éléments les plus importants reste une bonne compréhension des raisons pour lesquelles vos développeurs voudront l'utiliser, ainsi que les étapes clés pour y parvenir.
Comment booster ses revenus avec l'email ? Mailjet
Présentation de notre atelier solution plein d'astuces pour booster vos revenus grâce à l'emailing. Réalisée par Jérémy Viault, Product Marketing Manager, en compagnie de Privilège de Marque, avec son Président Guy Boeuf et sa Chef de projet Digital Clémence Lefebvre.
Lundi 12 septembre 2016, dès 10h00, Mailjet sera au salon E-Commerce Paris 2016 pour l'ouverture avec un
É revisitada a famosa palestra de Niels Bohr em 1932 com o mesmo título, procurando atualizála. Os tópicos tratados são: 1) Intuição biológica. 2) Avanços básicos. 3) A origem da vida.
4) Dos procariontes aos eucariontes. 5) Luz solar e a vida. 6) A física quântica é relevante para a biologia? 7) Mecânica quântica, cérebro e mente. 8) A consciência. 9) Existe livre arbítrio? 10) A luz como arma da biologia: Pinças óticas. 11) Calibração absoluta das pinças. 12) Proteínas como demônios de Maxwell. 13) A catraca browniana. 14) Proteinas motoras: cinesina, miosina V e ATPsintase. 15) Mecanobiologia. 16) Nanotubos de tunelamento. 17) Comunicação à distância entre células e suas funções. 18) “Le hasard et la nécessité”.
Abstract In the mammalian neocortex, excitatory neurons provide excitation in both columnar and laminar dimensions, which is modulated further by inhibitory neurons. However, our understanding of intracortical excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs in relation to principal excitatory neurons remains incomplete, and it is unclear how local excitatory and inhibitory synaptic connections to excitatory neurons are spatially organized on a layer-by-layer basis. In the present study, we combined whole cell recordings with laser scanning photostimulation via glutamate uncaging to map excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs to single excitatory neurons throughout cortical layers 2/3–6 in the mouse primary visual cortex (V1). We find that synaptic input sources of excitatory neurons span the radial columns of laminar microcircuits, and excitatory neurons in different V1 laminae exhibit distinct patterns of layer-specific organizationofexcitatoryinputs.Remarkably,thespatialextentofinhibitoryinputsofexcitatory neurons for a given layer closely mirrors that of their excitatory input sources, indicating that excitatory and inhibitory synaptic connectivity is spatially balanced across excitatory neuronal networks. Strong interlaminar inhibitory inputs are found, particularly for excitatory neurons in layers 2/3 and 5. This differs from earlier studies reporting that inhibitory cortical connections to excitatory neurons are generally localized within the same cortical layer. On the basis of the functional mapping assays, we conducted a quantitative assessment of both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic laminar connections to excitatory cells at single cell resolution, establishing precise layer-by-layer synaptic wiring diagrams of excitatory neurons in the visual cortex.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
2. Outline
•Introduction to synapse,types…..
•Electrical Synaptic Communication
structure,properties,Connexins and its types ,future
challenges
•Ephaptic Coupling communication
Introduction,why?It’s role,some examples.
2
3. Synapse Definition
The synapse has been defined as a specialized structure that
mediates a functional interaction between two neurons or
between a neuron and another cell type.
3
4. Two type of Synapse
ELectrical synapse
Chemical Synapse
An electrical synapse is a mechanical and
electrically conductive link between two
neighboring neurons that is formed at a
narrow gap between the pre- and
postsynaptic neurons known as a gap
junction.
4
7. Difference Between Chemical and Electrical Synapse
At chemical synapses, an action potential arriving at the pre-synaptic
terminal triggers the exocytosis of vesicles filled with neurotransmitters
, which are then released in the synaptic cleft. Transmitters diffuse and
bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic cell, where they gate
(viz., open or close) ion channels either directly or indirectly, thereby
affecting its membrane conductance. In this example, the opening of a
ligand-gated channel triggers ionic influx in the post-synaptic cell.
At electrical synapses, gap junction channels allow a direct
communication between the cytoplasm of the two coupled cells.
7
9. Connexin
9
The connexins are a family of integral membrane proteins
that oligomerise to form intercellular channels that are
clustered at gap junctions. These channels are
specialised sites of cell-cell contact that allow the passage
of ions, intracellular metabolites and messenger
molecules,
Gap junction channels have
relatively large pores (16–20 A ˚
of diameter) (with molecular
weight less than 1-2kDa)
from the cytoplasm of
one cell to its opposing
neighbours.
10. Connexins(Cx)
10
Their conductances, permeability to different molecules, phosphorylation and
voltage-dependence of their gating, have been found to vary.
Possible communication diversity is increased further by the fact that gap
junctions may be formed by the association of different connexin isoforms
from apposing cells. However, in vitro studies have shown that not all
possible combinations of connexins produce active channels
11. Connexins(Cx) Contd...
The family of connexin genes comprises 21 members in the
human and 20 in the mouse genome, 19 of which can be
considered as orthologue pairs on the basis of their sequence.
They are found in almost all vertebrate cell types, and somewhat
similar proteins have been cloned from plant species.
Invertebrates utilise a different family of molecules, innexins,
that share a similar predicted secondary structure to the
vertebrate connexins, but have no sequence identity to them
11
12. Connexin Types
• Two sets of nomenclature have been used to identify the connexins.
• The first, and most commonly used, classifies the connexin molecules according to
molecular weight, such as connexin43 (abbreviated to Cx43), indicating a connexin
of molecular weight close to 43kDa.
• However, studies have revealed cases where clear functional homologues exist
across species that have quite different molecular masses; therefore, an
alternative nomenclature was proposed based on evolutionary considerations,
which divides the family into two major subclasses, alpha and beta, each with a
number of members .
12
13. Property Electrical Synapse(Gap Junctions)
• Symmetrical morphology.
• Bidirectional transfer of information(Pre- and postsynaptic elements physically
indistinguishable
Bi-directional!), but can be unidirectional.
• Pre- and postsynaptic cell membranes are in close Ions can flow through these
gap junctions, providing low-resistance pathway for cells without leakage to the
extracellular space signal
• transmission = electrotonic transmission.
- Instantaneous, fast transfer from 1 cell to the next (
< 0.3 msec), unlike the delay seen with chemical(sometime may be slow)
13
Electrical coupling between mouse hippocampal
interneurons. Dual whole-cell patch-clamp
recordings performed in brain slices on pairs of
fast-spiking interneurons from the dentate gyrus
region of the hippocampus have demonstrated
that the vast majority of cell pairs are electrically
coupled
14. (A) Fast-spiking interneurons in the
dentate gyrus are
identified on the basis of their
morphology, location and action
potential
firing patterns (illustrated here by a
representative trace).
(B) Electrical coupling between fast-
spiking interneurons is reciprocal. (C)
Electrical coupling is likely to
promote the generation of action
potentials. When cell 2 of a pair is
injected with subthreshold current
pulses, no action potentials are
recorded in either cell (left traces). In
pairs of electrically coupled
interneurons a sub-threshold
depolarizing current, however,
facilitates the generation of action
potentials when concomitant firing is
evoked in the second interneuron
14
15. Some facts
• Electrical communication is not only happens
in invertebrate brain where faster
transmission is needed to accomplish simple,
reactive tasks but also present in vertebrates
• It is more abundant in vertebrate CNS.
Ex...synchronous oscillatory activity in cortical
brain regions and in the dynamic control of
retinal circuits.
15
16. Gap junctions and connexins between neurons
Studies show that the presence of gap junctions and the
expression of distinct connexins in different regions (as well as in
functions) of the adult mammalian brain, such as the
hippocampus, inferior olive,coeruleus, hypothalamus, spinal
cord, and olfactory bulb.
In situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry, electron microscopy,
freeze-fracture immunolabeling,electrophysiology, dye
coupling(Are their gap junctions here?), which are ultimately
providing a morphological, functional and molecular description
of neuronal coupling both in vitro and in vivo.
A systematic analysis of freeze-fracture replicas of the rat spinal
cord has demonstrated that mixed synapses are relatively
abundant between several classes of neurons.
16
17. Gap junctions in the developing CNS
The electrical coupling actually precedes the establishment of chemical
transmission between nerve and muscle cells in culture, hence providing a
route for the exchange of signals involved in synapse formation .
Thus, at early stages of development it has been proposed that gap
junction channels are not only important for electrical synchronization, but
are chiefly used as used as a biochemical means that allows neuronal
ensembles to exchange small second messenger molecules that shape their
activity.
It has been noted that the prevalence of gap junctional coupling is well
correlated with specific developmental events (including
neurulation, cellular and regional differentiation, migration,
axon guidance, and the formation of neuronal circuits) and
that the basic properties of these channels are well suited to mediate the
transfer of developmental signals.
17
19. Mouse Brain
19
Connexins are differentially distributed in the mouse brain. The
profile of mRNA expression was determined by radioactive in
situ hybridization in horizontal brain sections obtained from rats
at postnatal day 90. X-ray autoradiograms illustrate the
differences between the localization of Cx26, whose transcript is
detected only in the meningeal layer (Me) , and Cx43, which is
highly expressed in astrocytes . Cx36 mRNA is high in the
olfactory bulb (Ob) and also present in other regions, including
cortex (Co), hippocampus (Hi) and cerebellum (Cb). Note that
the signal for the neuronal Cx36 is absent from white matter
structures (arrowhead), such as corpus callosum (Cc), where
labeling is evident for Cx32, which is expressed by
oligodendrocytes . Scale bar is 2 mm
20. •
Synchronization of the electrical activity of large populations of neurons;(for
example cx36)
- e.g., the large populations of neurosecretory neurons that synthesize and
release biologically active peptide neurotransmitters and hormones are
extensively connected by electrical synapses.
- e.g., Synchronization may be required for neuronal development,
including the development of chemical synapses.
- e.g., Synchronization may be important in functions that require
instantaneous responses, such as reflexes and pacemakers.
20
22. Electrical signaling and synchronous Oscillatory activity
22
Experiments in mice lacking Cx36 have demonstrated
that the disruption of oscillogenesis is observed only in
models of gamma frequency, whereas electrical communication
within the excitatory neuronal network, as measured
using ultrafast population activity
Cx36 is involved in gamma frequency (30– 80 Hz), but not ultrafast
(150– 200 Hz) oscillations.
Extracellular field recordings were obtained in brain
slices prepared from wild-type (black traces) and Cx36 knockout
(KO) animals (red traces).
Cellular assemblies communicating through gap junctions mature
during development
24. Future Challenges Electrical Synapse Study
24
• All Connexins roles in the Central nervous system are
ambiguous or unknown.
• The mechanism by which electrical synapse are regulated
are also unknown.
• What rule electrical synapse play in brain function and
neural basis behaviour.
25. Ephaptic Coupling
Neurons communicate via specialized molecular machines, the synapses.
Such discrete, point-to-point synaptic connectivity, whether chemical or electric,
is important for information processing in the brain1–3. However, such
integrative processes do not occur in a vacuum
Instead, neurons are located in a conductive medium, the
extracellular space
Neurons Talk Without Synapses
25
26. Ephaptic coupling to endogenous electric field activity: why
bother?
• The idea that the electrical activity generated by nervous tissue may
influence the activity of surrounding nervous tissue is one that dates back to
the late 19th century.Early experiments, like those by du Bois-
Reymond,demonstrated that the firing of a primary nerve may induce the
firing of an adjacent secondary nerve (termed "secondary excitation"). This
effect was not quantitatively explored, however, until experiments by Katz
and Schmitt in 1940, when the two explored the electric interaction of two
adjacent limb nerves of the crab Carcinus maenas.
26
In a fruit fly’s antennae, two neighboring neurons can
stop each other from firing even if they do not share any
direct connections, and help the insect to process
smells.This is also ephaptic communication.
27. Mechanism and Effects
Role in Excitation and Inhibition
The early work performed by Katz and Schmitt demonstrated that ephaptic
coupling between the two adjacent nerves was insufficient to stimulate an
action potential in the resting nerve. Under ideal conditions the maximum
depolarization observed was approximately 20% of the threshold stimulus.This
effect is the result of the exchange of ions between the two fibers. As the action
potential wave propagates along the active axon it draws from ion stores in the
resting axon and the characteristic influx and efflux of ions in the action
potential are experienced in reverse by the resting axon. The resting axon
experiences hyperpolarization, depolarization, and then a smaller
hyperpolarization in contrast to the active axon's progression from
depolarization to repolarization, and return to resting potential.
27
28. Role in Synchronization and Timing
In the simpler case of adjacent fibers that experience simultaneous stimulation
the impulse is slowed because both fibers are limited to exchange ions solely
with the interstitial fluid (increasing the resistance of the nerve). Slightly offset
impulses (conduction velocities differing by less than 10%) are able to
exchange ions constructively and the action potentials propagate slightly out of
phase at the same velocity.
28
29. Example
Ephaptic coupling in rat Purkinje cells of the cerebellum
One of the few known cases of a functional system in which ephaptic coupling
is responsible for an observable physiological event is in the Purkinje cells of
the rat cerebellum.
29
30. how endogenous and externally imposed
electric fields impact brain function at different spatial (from
synapses to single neurons and neural networks) and temporal
scales (from milliseconds to seconds).
30
Rate Hippocampal sliced positioned between parallel plates imposing an extracellular fields.
31. Outlook on Ephaptic coupling
Advantages
1. it is very fast and has no synaptic delay, and
2. it has very low noise levels. In principle, such
communication will occur in any synapse, but its influence will
only become significant if the synapse has certain properties.
The elements that are crucial for ephaptic neuronal
communication are:
1. an ephapse with a large resistance to the extrasynaptic
space,
2. a current sink and
3. voltage sensitive channels on the opposing membrane
31
32. Conclusion
•We cant go for Directly go for In Vivo tests to
find out Ephaptic coupling communication
details about functional role, does it
contribute to neural functions.
•There are very less number of evidence to find
out which occur very rarely.
32
33. References
• Hormuzdi a , Mikhail A. Filippova , Georgia Mitropouloub , Hannah Monyer a , Roberto Bruzzonea
Electrical synapses: a dynamic signaling system that shapes the activity of neuronal networks Sheriar G.
2003
• http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/en.php?title=Ephaptic_coupling
• https://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/entry/IPR002260
• http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33350/title/Neurons-Talk-Without-Synapses/
33
All of our sensations, feelings, thoughts, motor and emotional responses, learning and memory, the actions of psychoactive drugs, the causes of mental disorders, and any other function or dysfunction of the human brain cannot be understood without the knowledge about the fascinating process of communication between nerve cells (neurons). Neurons must continuously gather information about the internal state of the organism and its external environment, evaluate this information, and coordinate activities appropriate to the situation and to the person's current needs.
How neurons process this information?
This essentially happens by means of the nerve impulse. A nerve impulse is the transmission of a coded signal from a given stimulus along the membrane of the neuron, starting in the point where it was applied. Nerve impulses can pass from one cell to another, thus creating a chain of information within a network of neurons.
http://www.slideshare.net/vacagodx/synaptic-transmission-2474448?next_slideshow=1
So Basically two main types of communications ..which are widely studied Chemical and electrical and a less known ..communication Ephapting coupling communication.Here mainly I will discuss about Electrical synapse and Ephaptic Coupling.
This zone of contact presents two distinctive elements, the pre-synaptic terminal and the post-synaptic target site, separated by a synaptic cleft.
Pre synaptic cleft from where signal will go
Post will receive the signal.
Since This presentation is specific about only Electrical Synapse,I will discuss and introduce chemical Synapse While Finding Difference Between Them
In early time neuroscientist thought only one type of synapse is present...So
The nature of synaptic transmission was vigorously debated by some of the finest neuroscientists of the last century, who argued either in favor of an electrical mode implying that the action potential in the pre-synaptic neuron induces a passive current flow into the post-synaptic cell, or in favor of a chemical substance, liberated from the pre-synaptic cell upon arrival of an action potential, which interacts with the post-synaptic cell and propagates the stimulus.
For some time the strong case made by the unequivocal evidence for chemical transmission in the vertebrate brain and at the neuromuscular junction led to the generalization that all synaptic transmission would be chemical.
Then, a direct demonstration of electrical synaptic transmission was first obtained at the giant motor synapse in the crayfish, where it was shown that the post-synaptic response arose in a fraction of a millisecond after pre-synaptic stimulation , and these findings were shortly confirmed in vertebrates and . It is now accepted that either view overestimated just one type of synaptic transmission, as both mechanisms, chemical as well as electrical, co-exist.
At chemical synapses, an action potential arriving at the pre-synaptic terminal triggers the exocytosis of vesicles filled with neurotransmitters (gray), which are then released in the synaptic cleft. Transmitters diffuse and bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic cell, where they gate (viz., open or close) ion channels either directly or indirectly, thereby affecting its membrane conductance. In this example, the opening of a ligand-gated channel (green) triggers ionic influx (black) in the post-synaptic cell.
(B) At electrical synapses, gap junction channels allow a direct communication between the cytoplasm of the two coupled cells. In
At chemical synapses, an action potential arriving at the pre-synaptic terminal triggers the exocytosis of vesicles filled with neurotransmitters (gray), which are then released in the synaptic cleft. Transmitters diffuse and bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic cell, where they gate (viz., open or close) ion channels either directly or indirectly, thereby affecting its membrane conductance. In this example, the opening of a ligand-gated channel (green) triggers ionic influx (black) in the post-synaptic cell.
(B) At electrical synapses, gap junction channels allow a direct communication between the cytoplasm of the two coupled cells. In
Electrical and chemical synapses differ not only in the molecular mechanisms of information transfer, but also in their morphological organization
At chemical synapses, there is no continuity between the cytoplasm of the two cells at the synapse, and the distance separating the pre- and post-synaptic membranes, namely the synaptic cleft, is in the order of 20–40 nm. In contrast, electrical synapses are characterized by an area of very close apposition, in the order of 2–4 nm between the pre- and postsynaptic membranes.
Within this area of apposition the two cells communicate through gap junctions, cell-to-cell pores that serve as conduits between the cytoplasm of the two cells. The structural proteins comprising these channels, called connexins (Cx), form a multigene family whose members are distinguished according to their predicted molecular mass in kDa (e.g. Cx32, Cx43) .
Intercellular channels span two plasma membranes and result from the association of two half channels, called connexons, contributed separately by each of the two participating cells. Each connexon, in turn, is a hexameric assembly of connexin subunits.
Intercellular channels are defined as homotypic, when the two connexons have the same molecular composition, or heterotypic, when the connexons differ.Connexins have evolved a code of compatibility that permits only selective interactions between connexons, so that the establishment of electrical coupling is also dependent on the pattern of connexin expression between neighboring cells.
although important differences exist between connexins . Hence, these intercellular channels are also involved in the transmission of metabolic signals between cells, by permitting the passage of second messengers such as inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
Due to their ubiquity and overlapping tissue distributions, it has proved difficult to elucidate the functions of individual connexin isoforms. To circumvent this problem, particular connexin-encoding genes have been subjected to targeted-disruption in mice, and the phenotype of the resulting animals investigated. Around half the connexin isoforms have been investigated in this manner . Further insight into the functional roles of connexins has come from the discovery that a number of human diseases are caused by mutations in connexin genes. For instance, mutations in Cx32 give rise to a form of inherited peripheral neuropathy called X-linked dominant Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease . Similarly, mutations in Cx26 are responsible for both autosomal recessive and dominant forms of nonsyndromic deafness, a disorder characterised by hearing loss, with no apparent effects on other organ systems.
Voltage responses in cell 1 following depolarizing (upper traces) or hyperpolarizing (lower traces) current injections are reflected in cell 2, albeit with a significant reduction in amplitude.
A no of report come over the years
Freeze-facture immuno
Neurulation refers to the folding process in vertebrate embryos, which includes the transformation of the neural plate into the neural tube.
Neural tube (in an embryo) a hollow structure from which the brain and spinal cord form. Defects in its development can result in congenital abnormalities such as spina bifida.
In situ hybridization (ISH) is a type of hybridization that uses a labeled complementary DNA, RNA or modified nucleic acids strand (i.e.,probe) to localize a specific DNA or RNA sequence in a portion or section of tissue (in situ), or, if the tissue is small enough (e.g., plant seeds, Drosophila embryos), in the entire tissue (whole mount ISH), in cells, and in circulating tumor cells (CTCs). This is distinct fromimmunohistochemistry, which usually localizes proteins in tissue sections.
In situ hybridization is a powerful technique for identifying specific mRNA species within individual cells in tissue sections, providing insights into physiological processes and disease pathogenesis. However, in situ hybridization requires that many steps be taken with precise optimization for each tissue examined and for each probe used. In order to preserve the target mRNA within tissues, it is often required that crosslinking fixatives (such as formaldehyde) be used.
This is fine Example
As we already discussed
the two best-known types of cell-cell communication are chemical synapses and electrical synapses, which are formed by gap junctions. A third, less well known, form of communication is ephaptic transmission, in which electric fields generated by a specific neuron alter the excitability of neighboring neurons as a result of their anatomical and electrical proximity.
The idea that the electrical activity generated by nervous tissue may influence the activity of surrounding nervous tissue is one that dates back to the late 19th century. Early experiments, like those by du Bois-Reymond,demonstrated that the firing of a primary nerve may induce the firing of an adjacent secondary nerve (termed "secondary excitation"). This effect was not quantitatively explored, however, until experiments by Katz and Schmitt in 1940, when the two explored the electric interaction of two adjacent limb nerves of the crab Carcinus maenas.
Field effect (Ephaptic)
Their work demonstrated that the progression of the action potential in the active axon caused excitability changes in the inactive axon. These changes were attributed to the local currents that form the action potential. For example, the currents that caused the depolarization (excitation) of the active nerve caused a corresponding hyperpolarization (depression) of the adjacent resting fiber. Similarly, the currents that caused repolarization of the active nerve caused slight depolarization in the resting fiber. Katz and Schmitt also observed that stimulation of both nerves could cause interference effects. Simultaneous action potential firing caused interference and resulted in decreased conduction velocity, while slightly offset stimulation resulted in synchronization of the two impulses.
More recent research, however, has focused on the more general case of electric fields that affect a variety of neurons. It has been observed that local field potentials in cortical neurons can serve to synchronize neuronal activity. Although the mechanism is unknown, it is hypothesized that neurons are ephaptically coupled to the frequencies of the local field potential. This coupling may effectively synchronize neurons into periods of enhanced excitability (or depression) and allow for specific patterns of action potential timing (often referred to as spike timing). This effect has been demonstrated and modeled in a variety of cases.
It was demonstrated in this study that the basket cells which encapsulate some regions of Purkinje fibers can cause inhibitory effects on the Purkinje cells. The firing of these basket cells, which occurs more rapidly than in the Purkinje cells, draws current across the Purkinje cell and generates a passive hyperpolarizing potential which inhibits the activity of the Purkinje cell. Although the exact functional role of this inhibition is still unclear, it may well have a synchronizing effect in the Purkinje cells as the ephaptic effect will limit the firing time.