This paper analyses the structure patterns of code-switching quantitatively and qualitatively based on EFL classroom discourse. Through the detailed analysis, the paper finds that there are different structure patterns in which teachers often switch their codes in English classroom. These structure patterns are reflected in different language levels: words and phrases level, clausal and sentence level. The functions of code-switching are determined by those structure patterns that teachers will choose for different purposes in the process of teaching.
SSLW 2014 Presentation: Lexical Diversity, Sophistication, and Size in Academ...Melanie Gonzalez
This presentation reports on a study that compares the extent to which vocabulary size, lexical diversity, and lexical sophistication contribute to academic writing proficiency. Results suggest that lexical diversity has a greater impact on writing score over vocabulary size and lexical sophistication. Implications for practice and further analysis are discussed. Presented November 15, 2014 at the 2014 Symposium on Second Language Writing at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, USA.
Slideshare haidee thomson noticing and acquiring lexical bundles with schemat...Haidee Thomson
Noticing and acquiring lexical bundles with schematic linguistic representation - presentation given at Vocab@Vic conference 19 Dec, 2013. A study that investigates the efficacy of noticing lexical bundles with linguistic schematic representation in reading texts as a classroom teaching method for learning lexical bundles.
JALT 2014 Noticing and learning lexical bundlesHaidee Thomson
Language is inherently formulaic and lexical bundles make up a generous proportion of it. Lexical bundles are usually acquired through extensive exposure to fluent discourse. However, in an environment where exposure is limited, intervention may be helpful. This presentation was given at JALT2014: Conversations across borders conference
Ideational Grammatical Metaphor in Scientific Texts: A Hallidayan PerspectiveBahram Kazemian
This study looked into a particular lexico-grammatical resource, the resource that SFL refers to as IGM. Proposed and evolved mainly by Halliday (1985, 1994), GMs can be identified in terms of the metafunctions. This paper adopts Hallidayan Systemic Functional Grammar to pinpoint and analyze nominalization and the role played by it. With a corpus of 10 authentic scientific texts drawn from very influential magazines, the analysis is conducted based on nominalization, its frequency and process types. The analysis displays that Ideational Grammatical Metaphor has permeated scientific texts and the prevailing process types are material and relational types.
SSLW 2014 Presentation: Lexical Diversity, Sophistication, and Size in Academ...Melanie Gonzalez
This presentation reports on a study that compares the extent to which vocabulary size, lexical diversity, and lexical sophistication contribute to academic writing proficiency. Results suggest that lexical diversity has a greater impact on writing score over vocabulary size and lexical sophistication. Implications for practice and further analysis are discussed. Presented November 15, 2014 at the 2014 Symposium on Second Language Writing at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, USA.
Slideshare haidee thomson noticing and acquiring lexical bundles with schemat...Haidee Thomson
Noticing and acquiring lexical bundles with schematic linguistic representation - presentation given at Vocab@Vic conference 19 Dec, 2013. A study that investigates the efficacy of noticing lexical bundles with linguistic schematic representation in reading texts as a classroom teaching method for learning lexical bundles.
JALT 2014 Noticing and learning lexical bundlesHaidee Thomson
Language is inherently formulaic and lexical bundles make up a generous proportion of it. Lexical bundles are usually acquired through extensive exposure to fluent discourse. However, in an environment where exposure is limited, intervention may be helpful. This presentation was given at JALT2014: Conversations across borders conference
Ideational Grammatical Metaphor in Scientific Texts: A Hallidayan PerspectiveBahram Kazemian
This study looked into a particular lexico-grammatical resource, the resource that SFL refers to as IGM. Proposed and evolved mainly by Halliday (1985, 1994), GMs can be identified in terms of the metafunctions. This paper adopts Hallidayan Systemic Functional Grammar to pinpoint and analyze nominalization and the role played by it. With a corpus of 10 authentic scientific texts drawn from very influential magazines, the analysis is conducted based on nominalization, its frequency and process types. The analysis displays that Ideational Grammatical Metaphor has permeated scientific texts and the prevailing process types are material and relational types.
SENTENCE-LEVEL DIALECTS IDENTIFICATION IN THE GREATER CHINA REGIONijnlc
Identifying the different varieties of the same language is more challenging than unrelated languages identification. In this paper, we propose an approach to discriminate language varieties or dialects of Mandarin Chinese for the Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao, Malaysia and Singapore, a.k.a., the Greater China Region (GCR). When applied to the dialects identification of the GCR, we find that the commonly used character-level or word-level uni-gram feature is not very efficient since there exist several specific problems such as the ambiguity and context-dependent characteristic of words in the dialects of the GCR. To overcome these challenges, we use not only the general features like character-level n-gram, but
also many new word-level features, including PMI-based and word alignment-based features. A series of evaluation results on both the news and open-domain dataset from Wikipedia show the effectiveness of the proposed approach.
EXTRACTING LINGUISTIC SPEECH PATTERNS OF JAPANESE FICTIONAL CHARACTERS USING ...kevig
This study extracted and analyzed the linguistic speech patterns that characterize Japanese anime or game characters. Conventional morphological analyzers, such as MeCab, segment words with high performance, but they are unable to segment broken expressions or utterance endings that are not listed in the dictionary, which often appears in lines of anime or game characters. To overcome this challenge, we propose segmenting lines of Japanese anime or game characters using subword units that were proposed mainly for deep learning, and extracting frequently occurring strings to obtain expressions that characterize their utterances. We analyzed the subword units weighted by TF/IDF according to gender, age, and each anime character and show that they are linguistic speech patterns that are specific for each feature. Additionally, a classification experiment shows that the model with subword units outperformed that with the conventional method.
MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYZER USING THE BILSTM MODEL ONLY FOR JAPANESE HIRAGANA SENT...kevig
This study proposes a method to develop neural models of the morphological analyzer for Japanese Hiragana sentences using the Bi-LSTM CRF model. Morphological analysis is a technique that divides text data into words and assigns information such as parts of speech. In Japanese natural language processing systems, this technique plays an essential role in downstream applications because the Japanese language does not have word delimiters between words. Hiragana is a type of Japanese phonogramic characters, which is used for texts for children or people who cannot read Chinese characters. Morphological analysis of Hiragana sentences is more difficult than that of ordinary Japanese sentences because there is less information for dividing. For morphological analysis of Hiragana sentences, we demonstrated the effectiveness of fine-tuning using a model based on ordinary Japanese text and examined the influence of training data on texts of various genres.
INTEGRATION OF PHONOTACTIC FEATURES FOR LANGUAGE IDENTIFICATION ON CODE-SWITC...kevig
In this paper, phoneme sequences are used as language information to perform code-switched language
identification (LID). With the one-pass recognition system, the spoken sounds are converted into
phonetically arranged sequences of sounds. The acoustic models are robust enough to handle multiple
languages when emulating multiple hidden Markov models (HMMs). To determine the phoneme similarity
among our target languages, we reported two methods of phoneme mapping. Statistical phoneme-based
bigram language models (LM) are integrated into speech decoding to eliminate possible phone
mismatches. The supervised support vector machine (SVM) is used to learn to recognize the phonetic
information of mixed-language speech based on recognized phone sequences. As the back-end decision is
taken by an SVM, the likelihood scores of segments with monolingual phone occurrence are used to
classify language identity. The speech corpus was tested on Sepedi and English languages that are often
mixed. Our system is evaluated by measuring both the ASR performance and the LID performance
separately. The systems have obtained a promising ASR accuracy with data-driven phone merging
approach modelled using 16 Gaussian mixtures per state. In code-switched speech and monolingual
speech segments respectively, the proposed systems achieved an acceptable ASR and LID accuracy.
Welcome to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
call for paper 2012, hard copy of journal, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals
A Word Stemming Algorithm for Hausa Languageiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Taking authentic data from the simultaneous interpreting of the Chinese 2012 Spring Festival Gala as the corpus of this study, the present paper summarizes two kinds of pragmatic functions with regard to the discourse markers used in the corpus, namely passive markers and proactive markers. The discourse markers discussed here are used by the interpreters, not those they translated. The paper then discusses their functions with some examples. Finally, the reasons for using discourse markers are investigated. It is hoped that the research findings can shed some light on the success of simultaneous interpreters in use of discourse markers.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
A COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF STEMMERS AVAILABLE FOR INDIC LANGUAGES ijnlc
Stemming is the process of term conflation. It conflates all the word variants to a common form called as stem. It plays significant role in numerous Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications like morphological analysis, parsing, document summarization, text classification, part-of-speech tagging, question-answering system, machine translation, word sense disambiguation, information retrieval (IR), etc. Each of these tasks requires some pre-processing to be done. Stemming is one of the important building blocks for all these applications. This paper, presents an overview of various stemming techniques, evaluation criteria for stemmers and various existing stemmers for Indic languages.
Phrase Identification is one of the most critical and widely studied in Natural Language processing (NLP) tasks. Verb Phrase Identification within a sentence is very useful for a variety of application on NLP. One of the core enabling technologies required in NLP applications is a Morphological Analysis. This paper presents the Myanmar Verb Phrase Identification and Translation Algorithm and develops a Markov Model with Morphological Analysis. The system is based on Rule-Based Maximum Matching Approach. In Machine Translation, Large amount of information is needed to guide the translation process. Myanmar Language is inflected language and there are very few creations and researches of Lexicon in Myanmar, comparing to other language such as English, French and Czech etc. Therefore, this system is proposed Myanmar Verb Phrase identification and translation model based on Syntactic Structure and Morphology of Myanmar Language by using Myanmar- English bilingual lexicon. Markov Model is also used to reformulate the translation probability of Phrase pairs. Experiment results showed that proposed system can improve translation quality by applying morphological analysis on Myanmar Language.
A ROBUST THREE-STAGE HYBRID FRAMEWORK FOR ENGLISH TO BANGLA TRANSLITERATIONkevig
Phonetic typing using the English alphabet has become widely popular nowadays for social media and chat services. As a result, a text containing various English and Bangla words and phrases has become increasingly common. Existing transliteration tools display poor performance for such texts. This paper proposes a robust Three-stage Hybrid Transliteration (THT) framework that can transliterate both English words and phonetic typed Bangla words satisfactorily. This is achieved by adopting a hybrid approach of dictionary-based and rule-based techniques. Experimental results confirm superiority of THT as it significantly outperforms the benchmark transliteration tool.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
SENTENCE-LEVEL DIALECTS IDENTIFICATION IN THE GREATER CHINA REGIONijnlc
Identifying the different varieties of the same language is more challenging than unrelated languages identification. In this paper, we propose an approach to discriminate language varieties or dialects of Mandarin Chinese for the Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao, Malaysia and Singapore, a.k.a., the Greater China Region (GCR). When applied to the dialects identification of the GCR, we find that the commonly used character-level or word-level uni-gram feature is not very efficient since there exist several specific problems such as the ambiguity and context-dependent characteristic of words in the dialects of the GCR. To overcome these challenges, we use not only the general features like character-level n-gram, but
also many new word-level features, including PMI-based and word alignment-based features. A series of evaluation results on both the news and open-domain dataset from Wikipedia show the effectiveness of the proposed approach.
EXTRACTING LINGUISTIC SPEECH PATTERNS OF JAPANESE FICTIONAL CHARACTERS USING ...kevig
This study extracted and analyzed the linguistic speech patterns that characterize Japanese anime or game characters. Conventional morphological analyzers, such as MeCab, segment words with high performance, but they are unable to segment broken expressions or utterance endings that are not listed in the dictionary, which often appears in lines of anime or game characters. To overcome this challenge, we propose segmenting lines of Japanese anime or game characters using subword units that were proposed mainly for deep learning, and extracting frequently occurring strings to obtain expressions that characterize their utterances. We analyzed the subword units weighted by TF/IDF according to gender, age, and each anime character and show that they are linguistic speech patterns that are specific for each feature. Additionally, a classification experiment shows that the model with subword units outperformed that with the conventional method.
MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYZER USING THE BILSTM MODEL ONLY FOR JAPANESE HIRAGANA SENT...kevig
This study proposes a method to develop neural models of the morphological analyzer for Japanese Hiragana sentences using the Bi-LSTM CRF model. Morphological analysis is a technique that divides text data into words and assigns information such as parts of speech. In Japanese natural language processing systems, this technique plays an essential role in downstream applications because the Japanese language does not have word delimiters between words. Hiragana is a type of Japanese phonogramic characters, which is used for texts for children or people who cannot read Chinese characters. Morphological analysis of Hiragana sentences is more difficult than that of ordinary Japanese sentences because there is less information for dividing. For morphological analysis of Hiragana sentences, we demonstrated the effectiveness of fine-tuning using a model based on ordinary Japanese text and examined the influence of training data on texts of various genres.
INTEGRATION OF PHONOTACTIC FEATURES FOR LANGUAGE IDENTIFICATION ON CODE-SWITC...kevig
In this paper, phoneme sequences are used as language information to perform code-switched language
identification (LID). With the one-pass recognition system, the spoken sounds are converted into
phonetically arranged sequences of sounds. The acoustic models are robust enough to handle multiple
languages when emulating multiple hidden Markov models (HMMs). To determine the phoneme similarity
among our target languages, we reported two methods of phoneme mapping. Statistical phoneme-based
bigram language models (LM) are integrated into speech decoding to eliminate possible phone
mismatches. The supervised support vector machine (SVM) is used to learn to recognize the phonetic
information of mixed-language speech based on recognized phone sequences. As the back-end decision is
taken by an SVM, the likelihood scores of segments with monolingual phone occurrence are used to
classify language identity. The speech corpus was tested on Sepedi and English languages that are often
mixed. Our system is evaluated by measuring both the ASR performance and the LID performance
separately. The systems have obtained a promising ASR accuracy with data-driven phone merging
approach modelled using 16 Gaussian mixtures per state. In code-switched speech and monolingual
speech segments respectively, the proposed systems achieved an acceptable ASR and LID accuracy.
Welcome to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
call for paper 2012, hard copy of journal, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals
A Word Stemming Algorithm for Hausa Languageiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Taking authentic data from the simultaneous interpreting of the Chinese 2012 Spring Festival Gala as the corpus of this study, the present paper summarizes two kinds of pragmatic functions with regard to the discourse markers used in the corpus, namely passive markers and proactive markers. The discourse markers discussed here are used by the interpreters, not those they translated. The paper then discusses their functions with some examples. Finally, the reasons for using discourse markers are investigated. It is hoped that the research findings can shed some light on the success of simultaneous interpreters in use of discourse markers.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
A COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF STEMMERS AVAILABLE FOR INDIC LANGUAGES ijnlc
Stemming is the process of term conflation. It conflates all the word variants to a common form called as stem. It plays significant role in numerous Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications like morphological analysis, parsing, document summarization, text classification, part-of-speech tagging, question-answering system, machine translation, word sense disambiguation, information retrieval (IR), etc. Each of these tasks requires some pre-processing to be done. Stemming is one of the important building blocks for all these applications. This paper, presents an overview of various stemming techniques, evaluation criteria for stemmers and various existing stemmers for Indic languages.
Phrase Identification is one of the most critical and widely studied in Natural Language processing (NLP) tasks. Verb Phrase Identification within a sentence is very useful for a variety of application on NLP. One of the core enabling technologies required in NLP applications is a Morphological Analysis. This paper presents the Myanmar Verb Phrase Identification and Translation Algorithm and develops a Markov Model with Morphological Analysis. The system is based on Rule-Based Maximum Matching Approach. In Machine Translation, Large amount of information is needed to guide the translation process. Myanmar Language is inflected language and there are very few creations and researches of Lexicon in Myanmar, comparing to other language such as English, French and Czech etc. Therefore, this system is proposed Myanmar Verb Phrase identification and translation model based on Syntactic Structure and Morphology of Myanmar Language by using Myanmar- English bilingual lexicon. Markov Model is also used to reformulate the translation probability of Phrase pairs. Experiment results showed that proposed system can improve translation quality by applying morphological analysis on Myanmar Language.
A ROBUST THREE-STAGE HYBRID FRAMEWORK FOR ENGLISH TO BANGLA TRANSLITERATIONkevig
Phonetic typing using the English alphabet has become widely popular nowadays for social media and chat services. As a result, a text containing various English and Bangla words and phrases has become increasingly common. Existing transliteration tools display poor performance for such texts. This paper proposes a robust Three-stage Hybrid Transliteration (THT) framework that can transliterate both English words and phonetic typed Bangla words satisfactorily. This is achieved by adopting a hybrid approach of dictionary-based and rule-based techniques. Experimental results confirm superiority of THT as it significantly outperforms the benchmark transliteration tool.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Code-Switching in Urdu Books of Punjab Text Book Board, Lahore, PakistanBahram Kazemian
The study highlights English code-switching in Punjab Urdu textbooks. The research aims at finding and categorizing Urdu-English code-switches. Another rationale behind the study is to present Urdu equivalents of the switches from an Urdu-English dictionary; for instance, adakar for actor and sayyah for tourist. Textbooks of 5th, 6th, 9th and 10th class are selected for data collection and analysis. A number of instances are observed at morpheme, word, phrase and clause levels. Data is analyzed qualitatively. The data analysis shows switches at all the mentioned levels. The researchers propose a revision of the existing textbooks in the light of the given equivalents and a careful scrutiny of the compilation of future textbooks to preserve the purity of Urdu language.
UNIVERSALITY IN TRANSLATION: AN ANALYSIS OF TRANSLATION INTERFERENCE IN MULTI...John1Lorcan
Universality in translation has been a research focus in translation studies since the publication of Mona
Baker’s seminal paper in 1990s. The relevant studies mainly explore the various universality rules
governing translation in written texts, however, little attention has been devoted to translation universality
in translating multi-modal texts. This study, with Systemic Functional Grammar and Visual Grammar as
theoretical framework, verifies the validity of Law of Interference, one of the universal translation rules, in
multimodal texts. By statistically comparing transitivity, theme choice, thematic progression and
information value of two magazine articles and their translations, the paper finds that most make-up of the
source text is transferred into the target text or rendered into existing patterns, and that more negative
transfers are observed in transitivity, split theme TP and information value when translating from a major
language. The paper concludes that the Law of Interference is stronger in visual mode while weaker in
verbal mode. The present study shows that the law of interference can be observed in translating
multimodal texts. It also implies that the translation of multimodal texts makes more visible the power of
English, and it helps to perpetuate the hegemony of English in the global world.
Regarding the importance of the term corrective feedback, this study was an attempt to investigate probable impacts of explicit and implicit corrective feedbacks on learners’ levels of grammatical range and accuracy in their language learning and production. One-hundred pre-intermediate EFL learners, with an age range of 18-26, were participated in this study. They were assigned into four groups: one control group who received no treatment and three experimental groups who received three different types of corrective feedbacks (recast, error code, and explanation). The outcomes of the present study confirmed the efficacy of explicit feedback strategies than that of implicit and suggested that learners who used explanation as an explicit corrective feedback strategy achieved higher scores than those who used recast and error code feedback strategies.
R021 Kilborn, K., & Ito, T. (1989). Sentence processing strategies in adult b...Takehiko Ito
R021 Kilborn, K., & Ito, T. (1989). Sentence processing strategies in adult bilinguals. In B. MacWhinney & E. Bates. (Eds.), Cross-linguistic studies of language processing. New York : Cambridge University Press. pp.257-291.
This study focuses on the listening anxiety experienced by teacher candidates (TCs) in Iran and Turkey. Using different data collection methods, including two questionnaires, listening test, and semi-structured interviews, this study tried to investigate the factors behind Foreign Language Listening Anxiety (FLLA) among Iranian teacher candidates (TCs). The participants of the study in Iran context were 29 teacher candidates studying at BA level in English Language Teaching. All of the participants were asked to complete these two questionnaires with the background information regarding their age, gender, years of language study. The participants’ answers to FLLAS and FLCAS were analyzed with spss to obtain frequencies and percentages. The results were compared to the same study by Bekleyen. The findings revealed that Iranian TCs experienced a high level of FLLA compared to Turkish TCs and showed a significant positive correlation between FLLA and FLCA, which means that teacher candidates with higher levels of language anxiety tended to have higher levels of listening anxiety. In addition, interview data suggested that Iranian and Turkish participants’ FLLA mostly originated from the same source: inadequacy of past education in listening skill. Furthermore, practice was the most frequent strategy used by participants in these two countries to overcome this kind of anxiety.
The main thrust of this paper is to examine the issue of racial segregation in Maya Angelou’s “Caged Bird” via exploring the poem in relation to the circumstances that typify life and existence in the African American context. An attempt is made to situate this poem within the heat of racism, oppression, and class discrimination as well as the search for black identity. The paper relies on New Historicism as the scope of exploration owing to the chunk of influence that history and society bears on African American writing. Then literary critical analysis is made to verify the different aspects of racism and social segregation as represented in the poem.
This article provides an overview of existing instruments measuring self-efficacy for English language learning in both first and second language acquisition fields and their reliability and validity evidence. It also describes the development and use of the Questionnaire of English Language Self-Efficacy (QESE) scale, designed specifically for English language learners (ELLs), and presents an overview of the research findings from empirical studies related to its psychometric properties. A growing body of literature has begun to document encouraging evidence of ELL students’ self-efficacy belief measures and the utility of the QESE in particular. The information pertaining to the QESE is quite encouraging from measurement perspectives and fills the gap in the literature by providing a reliable and valid instrument to measure ELLs’ self-efficacy in various cultures. This paper concludes with evidence for internal consistency, test-retest reliability, structural, generalizability, and external aspects of the construct validity of the QESE. This paper contributes to the growing interest in these skills by reviewing the measures of self-efficacy in the field of second-language acquisition and the findings of empirical research on the development and use of a self-efficacy scale for ELLs.
This study examines written errors in a corpus of 30 compositions produced by 15 students of English as a second language (L2), whose first language (L1) is Spanish. Their ages range from 10 to 11. This paper identifies grammar errors as the most frequent due to L1’s interference in L2 learning. Positive, focused, indirect written feedback is proven to be the most effective, and the L1 seems to help the students to understand the teacher’s metalinguistic explanation to correct errors and avoid mistakes. These results provide insight into language learning given that they offer information regarding the teaching practice.
Reading without proper guidance from the perspective of discourse analysis will be a challenge and torture for English readers. However, most college students are suffering from this sort of tedious reading dilemma due to a sense of failure and anxiety as a result of an inefficient teaching approach. In this paper, the author tries to combine discourse analysis with reading coaching so as to arouse and promote readers’ sense of discourse, with the hope of helping them to read effectively.
In her cross-border debate with Chinese anchor Liu Xin, Trish Regan, an American anchor, behaved differently than what she had done in her previous commentaries. This paper explores the attitudinal differences evinced by Trish Regan on different occasions from a linguistic perspective. Based on the Appraisal System, especially the Attitude subsystem (Martin and White, 2005), this paper examines the attitudinal resources utilized by Trish Regan in her two news commentaries and her online debate with her counterpart Liu Xin—a set of texts which provides a longitudinal account of how Trish has changed her attitude. By annotating the attitude resources used by Trish, positive and negative evaluations are expected to be clarified, with detailed analyses of subsystems in the Attitude System to be given. The results suggest that Trish’s attitude towards China has changed a lot in her commentaries and the debate with Liu Xin—from negative to partly positive. It also appears that Trish maintained a positive attitude towards the United States while she changed her positive attitude towards the trade war into a negative one in her debate with Liu Xin.
The present study examines the role that feedback plays on the development of second language (L2) English learners’ writing accuracy over time. Earlier formal accounts and empirical works have focused on the relevance of corrective feedback (CF) in L2 writing learning (Ellis et al., 2008; Sheen, 2007), and what kind of CF (i.e. direct or indirect) has proved to be the most effective one, especially at low L2 levels (García Mayo and Labandibar, 2017; Ismail et al., 2008). We have analyzed 3 pieces of writing produced by 8 L2 English participants (aged 11 to 12). The participants were randomly divided into two groups, one of them received direct CF on their written tasks and the other group was exposed to indirect CF. Results revealed that both groups seemed to improve their mean scores from the pre-task to the post-task, regardless of the type of CF implemented. However, the direct CF group has proven to benefit more from teacher’s written CF, when compared to the indirect CF group. This is especially the case in the development of grammar accuracy.
Politics is a genre of language, and language is the manifestation of politics (Mazrui, 2008). Political discourse not only plays an important role in the process of national external communication but also conveys certain ideology and political intentions. Based on interpersonal function in Systemic Functional Grammar and using President Xi’s speech at the Extraordinary G20 Leaders’ Summit as the original data, this paper analyzes and explores how this speech can achieve discourse function through personal pronouns, mood, and modality. In addition, this paper reveals how various linguistic resources are used to realize interpersonal meaning in political discourse.
There is an obvious tendency and ample evidence to show Sylvia Plath’s representation of the gendered body throughout her poetry. However, inadequate attention has been paid to the evolution of her such kind of representation. Taking one of her early poems “Pursuit” and a later one “Daddy” as examples, this essay aims to explicate this evolution of representation. In her early poetry, her representation of gendered body centers on Freudian interest as seen in “Pursuit,” but in her later poems this representation changes to her political consciousness as is the case in “Daddy.” Therefore, this evolution embodies both her change of poetic subject matter and her concern with gender politics under the influence of the social culture.
Under the guidance of the theory of theme and rheme as well as thematic progression patterns, two significant components in Systemic Functional Linguistics, this paper discusses the thematic structure and thematic progression patterns of the Queen’s national speech “We will meet again!” which was delivered on April 5, 2020, when both England and the rest of the world were in the throes of the growing pandemic. With the use of quantitative and qualitative research methods, their distributions and the reasons are explored to figure out the thematic features, the effects, or the functions that have been achieved in Queen’s speech.
Pragmatic presupposition focuses on the study of the relationship between the speaker and the hearer at the time of communication and the language they used. It can effectively serve advertising language from the linguistic field. In other words, pragmatic presupposition can meet some of the requirements of the advertisements. Nowadays people confront a variety of commercial advertisements, such as food advertisements, drink advertisements, digital product and cosmetic advertisements, etc. In fact, advertising language is the core factor which determines the success or failure of one commercial advertisement. Most domestic and overseas scholars have studied advertising language through cooperative principles,rhetoric and systemic-functional grammar, etc. However, they do not pay enough attention to the pragmatic presupposition manifested in both Chinese and English cosmetic advertisements. Therefore, this paper conducts a comparative study based on previous studies of pragmatic presupposition with new data. The data analyzed in this study are taken from some major fashion magazines in America, United Kingdom and China, such as VOGUE, Cosmopolitan,Trends health,etc. These cosmetic advertisements were advertised in the recent 20 years. Through the analysis, it is found that there is no significant difference between Chinese and English cosmetic advertisements in terms of types of pragmatic presupposition manifested. Both Chinese and English advertisers mainly adopt four types of pragmatic presupposition: existential presupposition, factive presupposition, state presupposition and behavior presupposition, and state presupposition takes up the largest proportion. The present study provides a more comprehensive analysis of pragmatic presupposition and classification of it. In addition, the results of this study also could help advertisers and consumers increase their mutual understanding.
As an open social recourse and special language text, linguistic landscape, visibility and salience of languages on public and commercial signs in a given territory or region Landry and Bourhis (1997), and presented on various signs or billboards publicly, can be used as a useful recourse in language learning. Shenzhen, the first Chinese special economic zone, has developed into a fast-growing innovative city. Compared to other cities, Shenzhen has more frequent communications with worldwide visitors. Therefore, its education should be more international and advanced, especially English learning, since English, the most widely used language, is being used in linguistic landscapes increasingly. However, nowadays tedious English learning content and learning methods are unable to meet training requirements of students’ English level in society. Therefore, considering the significance of linguistic landscape in humanities construction and English learning, the government and schools give great importance to the construction of campus linguistic landscape. Through reference to representative research literatures and comparative analysis, this study intends to explore the importance of linguistic landscape in English learning by analyzing differences in campus linguistic landscape between middle schools and universities within Shenzhen from the form and content by introducing the way in which linguistic landscape is presented. And different purposes of its application are introduced in order to understand the application and design of linguistic landscape in different campuses more comprehensively. The research also explores the influence of campus linguistic landscape on students’ English learning, from the perspective of informal environmental penetration, learning material, stirring interest, broadening vocabulary and knowledge and its close relationship with life. This paper adopts the Constructivist learning theory of Piaget (1970). Students establish knowledge about the external world in the process of interaction with the surrounding environment to develop their cognitive structure. This paper concludes that the integration of linguistic landscape can benefit from its educational function to conduct a practice-oriented, teacher-led and student-centered pattern of English learning and improve students’ English learning ability.
Given Folding Beijing’s great importance to Chinese science fictions after winning the 2016 Hugo Award for Best Novelette and Ken Liu’s active engagement in promoting modern Chinese literary works to go global, this paper endeavors to explain how the influences of ideology, poetics and patronage are displayed in Folding Beijing’s English translation from the perspective of Lefevere’s Rewriting Theory. Instead of focusing on the linguistic elements of the translation, the current study attempts to reveal the cultural, social, ideological, and poetical effects on the translator’s decision-making process and tries to explore the reasons for the novelette’s success. It is believed that this paper can, to a certain extent, not only provide beneficial guidance for future practitioners in this translation field, but also offer some reference for the study of translation of Chinese contemporary science fictions.
Speaking in English confidently is a challenging task but very crucial for university students. Graduates with good communication efficiency especially in the engineering field are greatly demanded in the current work industry. Performing confidently is not only important for scoring academic tasks but also to help expand the revenue of the companies at workplace. Thus, a pilot study was conducted to investigate the perceptions of a public technical university engineering undergraduates’ confidence level in speaking English. A mixed method design was employed where a survey and semi-structured interview were conducted for data collection. The participants were selected using purposive sampling method where a total number of 50 undergraduates provided valid responses to the online questionnaire and 5 undergraduates participated in the semi-structured interview. Descriptive statistics using Statistical Package for the Social Science Version 25.0 (SPSS version 25.0) and thematic analysis were adopted for data analyses. The results revealed three main areas that were identified as important to build the students’ confidence in speaking: applying manual skills, familiarization of vocabulary and correct usage of grammar. The findings also highlighted that the participants felt that more public speaking practices should be provided to them to improve their confidence level further in speaking English fluently.
This article is mainly focused on the protagonist Savitri of the novel The Dark Room and how she is alienated from herself, from the society and from the world and about her quest for marital identity. Savitri also goes through the crisis of discontent to the quest for happiness. Savitri of the ancient legend is a paragon of virtue and courage who confronts even Death to save her husband is finally victorious. Ironically unlike the legendary Savitri, Narayan’s Savitri chooses to leave home, husband and children once she comes to know of her husband’s infidelity. Contrary to the legend, Savitri is just an ordinary, amiable, housewife. She abandons her gambler and drunkard husband and her family. But her independence proves detrimental to Savitri’s familial peace. Narayan skillfully portrays her every action and in his ironic subtle fashion puts across the artificiality behind it. As a qualitative research, this researcher has taken the text as a ptimary source and interpreted it from existential point of view.
This study aims at stylistically analyzing Men in the Sun in terms of the use of rhetorical questions and polyphony. The main objective is to show the contribution of these stylistic features (rhetorical questions and use of polyphony) in construing meaning and heightening the aesthetic values of novella and show how focus on specific stylistic features helps in analyzing a literary text. The researchers used the analytical approach to examine how the use of rhetorical questions and polyphony helps in constructing the meaning of the novella and highlighting its main themes. This study will be helpful to students of literature who want to better understand stylistic analysis and how writers use stylistic devices to enhance the meaning they want to convey. The study could also serve as a springboard for further studies in this area and could promote academic discourse on stylistic analysis of various Arabic literary works in English translation.
Genesis claims that ancient languages were divinely diversified as the linguistic origin. In consistence, this article presents systematic evidence for biblical etymology related to all major body parts and organs. For instance, heart is to heat, brain is to burn, kidney is to kindle burnt offering, and muscle is to slice to the multiple. Sandal is sacred land, scared is sacred scarf, and tragedy is to tear garment. Both objective and abstract words exhibit biblical match, such as random and ransom as escaping scapegoat randomly chosen. Biblical etymology of morals 德, love 愛, real真, eternity 永, memory, necessity 必, secret 秘, accident, pardon 恕 and mister is also presented. Novel interpretation in biblical etymology is also presented for several affixes such as 辰, 者, per, and m/l+vowel+n. In definitive etymology, numerous words such as generation, espionage, pregnancy and agriculture are presented to bilingually match bible, especially the scripture of Moses, reflecting divine creation.
In a consumer society, "discourse" has become a way of creation. The narrative of object sets a new perspective, showing the non-material components of the material as much as possible, and people’s positive attitude towards the narrative mode also changes the focus of fashion design work. It is intended to analyze clothing narrative from the three aspects of fashion narrative suggestion, discourse structure and how fashion narrative is consumed.
Regarding the origin of language, Genesis claims that ancient languages were divinely diversified. This testimony presents systematic evidence for biblical etymology related to prophet and priest. Priesthood was pivotal in ancient culture, and religious worship is central to civilization. This testimony presents systematic and surprising evidence for relationship of prophet and priest to biblical etymology, indicating that the old testament culture and method of worship are extensively reflected by etymology of words.
Seraph on the Suwanee, the last novel of Zora Neale Hurston, criticized for deviating from resolving oppression, class, race and gender, shapes a white woman protagonist instead of a black woman protagonist. But actually, it depicts the story of Arvay’s attempts to reject both oppression and the mental submission to oppression just as the oppression and resistance of class and gender are greatly concerned in Hurston’s previous works. Arvay Henson, an oppressed and repressed white woman, motivated by a tenacious belief in her own intrinsic worth and in her rights to individual freedom and social respect, attempts to preserve her integrity through withdrawal, resistance in order to seek her love and her independence as well as her self-discovery. This thesis applies Need Hierarchy Theory proposed by an American psychologist Abraham Maslow to study Arvay’s strategies for meeting her deficiency needs and to analyze her persistent efforts for love as well as the satisfactions of her needs at different levels.
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2. English Literature and Language Review
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2. Methodology and Data collection
The data of this study was collected through recording 10 teachers in 20 EFL classes of five middle schools.
Before visiting each class, the course teachers were informed that their teaching would be recorded for the purpose
of research. After class, the teachers and some students were interviewed to understand their perspective on code-
switching in classroom. After collecting the recordings, they were transcribed and analyzed quantitatively and
qualitatively. These transcripts are the base of the structural and functional analysis of teachers‟ code-switching.
According to the previous researches and our observation as well, we divided the teachers‟ talk into units of
communication and categorized the units into four types:
(E) Pure English units
(C) Pure Chinese units
E (C) Chinese embedded in English units
C (E) English embedded in Chinese units.
The communication unit, according to Loban (1966), is defined as independent clauses along with attached or
embedded subordinate clauses, also including the elliptical clauses. There are three types of code-switching in
teachers‟ discourse, inter-unit code-switching, intra-unit code-switching and tag-unit code-switching. The analysis
was determined by the position of the switching of the discourse structure.
3. Results
The statistics of the code-switching structure include all the structural parts where the switching occurs, words,
phrases and clauses. Table 1 shows the distribution of code-switching at all levels. In the entire teachers‟ discourse,
there were a total of 4681 switches, of which 1262 were lexical-level switches, which accounted for nearly 27% of
the total switches, and 483 were switches of phrases or phrases, accounting for 10.32%, and the switching of clauses
and sentences reached 2936 times, accounting for 62.72% of the total number of switching.
Table-1. Frequency of switching in different levels
Rank Language levels frequency percentage
1 Word level 1 262 26.96
2 Phrase level 483 10.32
3 Clause and Sentences level 2 936 62.72
Total 4681 100
The switches in the Table 1 include the switching from English to Chinese and from Chinese to English. The
most frequent switching of teachers' discourse is the switch between English and Chinese clauses. This result is
different from the code-switching of fluent bilinguals in other verbal communities (Ho-Dac, 2003).
3.1. Switching at Word and Phrase Levels
Table 1 also demonstrates that teachers use a large number of word-level switching in the teaching process,
either from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, accounting for 26.96% of the total number of code-
switches. Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of switches in different word classes.
Table-2. Word-level Switches Distribution
Rank Word class Switches No. Percentage (%)
1 Noun 449 35.6
2 Adverb 324 25.6
3 Verb 170 13.5
4 Interjection 103 8.2
5 Adjective 101 8.0
6 Preposition 55 4.4
7 conjunction 32 2.5
8 pronoun 28 2.2
Total 1 262 100
Note No. =number
In the English classes, the most frequent switching of a single word is nouns, which account for 35.6% of the
total number of word class switches, more than one-third. This finding is similar to the noun-level switching in some
other studies (Gardner-Chloros, 1995; Ho-Dac, 2003). In his Spanish-English code-switching study, Poplack (1980)
reported that single nouns are more likely to be switched than other word classes. In other English classroom code-
switching studies, nouns are also the most widely used word class for code-switching (Berk-Seligson, 1986;
Nishimura, 1985; Poplack and Sankoff, 1988; Treffers-Daller, 1991).
The second most commonly used switching part of speech is not a verb, but adverbs with 25.6% of the total
word-class switches followed by verbs, which constitutes 13.5 percent of the total switches. Verbs in code-switching
occur much less often than the first two, accounting for only 170 cases of the total switches in the corpus.
3. English Literature and Language Review
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Interjections and Adjectives constitute 8.20 percent and 8 percent respectively while the least frequent switches are
Prepositions, Pronouns and Conjunctions, which constitute 4.4 percent, 2.5 percent and 2.2 percent respectively.
In the quantification of switches, nouns, proper nouns such as names of persons, places, countries, names of
minorities are included. Some letters, technical terms and word translations (English to Chinese or Chinese to
English) are also included. The incident of code-switching to English or Chinese nouns is higher than that of other
word classes. This figure, constituting 35.6 % of the total switches in word classes, is not compatible with that in
other studies (Berk-Seligson, 1986; Poplack, 1980; Treffers-Daller, 1991). Many of the switched nouns are words
which refer to the functions the teachers want to express, for reference specification (directive function), lexical
explanation, and term translation.
Directive function usually refers to excluding some hearers and including others in interaction. However, in
classroom where teachers and students share the same native language, teachers could not use code-switching to
specifically address one student while excluding others. In EFL classes, teachers call on specific students to respond
to questions. These name-callings are often inserted in English. For example (In the following examples, T= teacher,
S=student, Ss = more than one student, the italics are originally in Chinese):
1. T: Now, Huang jian ping (Chinese name)
S: Mother is dressing the son.
2. T: How many tiers made of the earth?
In Chinese, OK, in Chinese
Now, Li Qingyuan, could you say, tiers.
This is the earth
Now, this is one world
Other nouns used by teachers serve to explain or translate the target language terms or words. For example:
3. S: and mantle.
T: Yeah, very good, mantle.
Where is the mantle? E EL
M-A-N-T-L-E, mantle
4. T: And it is also called banner dress
Banner dress
And it was called cheongsam.
With verbs, they comprise only 13.5 percent of the total 4681 switches. Most of the switched English verbs are
inserted in Chinese utterance unit for lexical or grammatical explanation. For example:
5. T: There will be
What mistakes have you made?
You will change “be” to what?
6. T: Keep quiet, Keep quiet
Then here keep can be translated into what?
We do not find any single Chinese verb inserted in English matrix utterance unit. This is because English is the
target language the students are learning. Teachers usually use their native language (Chinese) to explain the target
language, not vice versa.
The switched adjectives appear to be only 8 percent of the total switches, which is much low compared to
adverbs (25.6%). One of the reasons may be that adjectives are not widely used or explained than those of adverbs in
our corpus. Most of the switched English adjectives are also mentioned or inserted in teachers‟ Chinese utterances
for lexical or grammatical explanation. We also do not find any switched Chinese adjectives in English matrix
utterance. For example:
7. T: Ok let‟s go on
Look here,
Again distinguish fewer and less, fewer and less
Now, ok, page 4, page 4
8. T: Now look at the paper (…)
Enough money, old enough
Did you see it clearly?
Enough as an adjective, modifying nouns, should be put before nouns.
The switches of adverbs is very high compared to that of other studies, comprising 25.6 percent of the total
switches which is the second most frequent word class of single-word switches in the data. One of the reasons may
be that teachers frequently use the adverbs such as, OK, Now, Yes, First, Next, So, and Chinese adverb 好 (good),
etc. Of all the 324 adverb switches, the most widely used switched adverbs are OK, Now and 好 (good), which
account for more than 72 percent of the total adverb switches. In most of the cases, these switched adverbs are
placed at the beginning of the clause. We find that when these transitional discourse markers appear, language is
usually switched (from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English). For example:
9. T: Good, next.
Now, Paper, paper, paper.
Uncountable noun, Uncountable noun.
Now, a piece of paper, OK.
Ss: A piece of paper.
10. T: Good
4. English Literature and Language Review
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Now, what does it mean in Chinese?
Ss: fewer.
The switching of interjections accounts for 8.20 percent of the total switches, which is relatively higher than that
of adjectives. There is a set of invariable expressions of various kinds switched by teachers, chiefly by young
teachers who like to show some fashions such as Yeah or yes, well, you know, etc. Yeah (or yes) is the most widely
used marker by the teachers. Of all the 103 interjections in the corpus, yeah or yes cases are 80 which comprise
about 80 percent of switches of this word class. Most of these switched interjections are also placed at the beginning
of the clause. Here are some examples:
11. T: Yeah,he later considered this word.
He then realized loving this lady, is it right?
he had always loved me. (recording)
12. T: yeah,your programme is to face everybody?
Of course I‟d like to reach a wide audience.
What does “reach a wide audience” mean?
The occurrence of English prepositions comprises 4.4 percent of the total switches in our corpus, which is
relatively higher than the last two word classes, conjunctions (2.5%) and pronouns (2.2%). Most of the switched
English prepositions are inserted in Chinese utterances when the teachers explain their usages. For example:
13. T: As is followed by a noun of identity.
For example, as a freelance Reporter.
As a teacher, as a nurse.
14. T: I want to apply for the job
Of course, here omitted a „TO‟
For example, you should apply to the company in person.
Conjunctions comprise only 2.5 percent of the total switches. Conjunctions occurred either for the explanation
of the lesson content or for the grammatical usage of the conjunctions proper. For example:
15. T: The earth is surrounded by a lay of atmosphere.
So Pull the air on the surface on the earth
OK, Good, Number 38, Any questions?
16. T: take into account the bad weather
Or say take the bad weather into account
we should take into account of bad weather
The occurrence of English pronouns is also low (2.2 percent) compared to the other word classes. The switched
English pronouns can also be inserted in Chinese clauses, if necessary. For example:
17. T: The job is not available to you.
But if you are not suitable for this job.
You should say You.
18. T: Heat (xxx)
Here omitting an attributive clause introduced by that
That (xxx)
Here, there is an omission of That, which introduces an attributive clause.
Phrases or groups switches, which comprise 10.32 percent of the total switches of all levels, here refer to
phrases or groups of one language inserted in the other one. What is different from other studies is that our data
include many phrases or groups of switches inserted in the other language. Most of these switched phrases or groups
come from lesson content which is going to be explained. The most frequent switched phrases or groups are verb
phrases, preposition phrases and noun groups. For example:
19. T: turn out, yeah, turn out, turn out can be followed by „to be‟
Turn out can be followed to be, also noun or other things
The experiment proves this matter failing.
20. T: Use water instead of petrol.
Instead of, preposition phrase, means replace.
We have another preposition phrase, in place of.
3.2. Switching at the Clause Level
Switching at the clause level involves more than one clause at a time: Switches between two main clauses, i.e.
code-switching occurs at the clause boundaries between the two languages (here refers to inter-unit code-switching).
There are two different situations: one is switching between two utterance units, which are demarcated by different
languages; the other is switches between two utterance units, which belong to different types of unit (for instance,
between English units and Chinese units in which English elements are inserted. These switches may occur in
different directions, either from English to Chinese or vice versa. There are also switches between a main clause and
a dependent clause, i.e. the switched English clause is either a main or a dependent one. These switches are much
less than those switches between main clauses in the data. The frequency of switches at the clause level reveals that
there are 2936 cases of switches at the clause level, representing 62.72 percent of the total switches.
Many cases concerning repeated utterances, which are originally spoken in English or Chinese, are included in
the switching between two utterance units (main clauses) of different languages. In other words, these switches
between two utterance units constitute more or less repetition of what has just been said in the other language. This
5. English Literature and Language Review
137
is one of the features of teacher talk style that is characterized by frequent repetition of linguistic elements from
immediately preceding utterances as emphatic tie-ins with what follows. For example:
21. T: Now, for example
Yesterday he fell off the bike and broken his leg
He fell off bike and broke his leg
Ss: [Broke his leg
T: Broke his leg]
22. T: His dream is realized
His dream is realized
His dream came true.
In the examples 21 and 22, the repeated clauses are used to repeat or explain the preceding utterance unit.
Although this feature of talk style can be found in every teacher‟s speech in EFL classes, it is interpreted in different
ways in the studies of functions of code-switching by some researchers. For example, Gumperz (1982), states that
code-switching could be used or a message repetition. The above examples, therefore, can be explained by assuming
that the teachers want to clarify their message by repeating what is said in the other language or that the code-
switching serves the functions of message repetition (Parks, 1982; Urgese, 1984).
Switching between main and dependent clauses occurs much less frequently than switching between main
clauses in the data. However, once happened, none of the switched clauses violate the syntactic structure of both
languages. One possible explanation may be based on the fact that Chinese and English have a similar word order,
and there is more or less equivalence of word classes between both languages. Muysken (1991), proposes the notion
of categorical equivalence, which is considered not only as a grammatical notion but also from the perspective of
psycholinguistics. Under this perspective, a specific word class is only switchable if it exists in both languages and it
is considered to be equivalent by speakers of these languages. For example:
23. T: Will be like what will weather be like
Will be like
And we can see what will weather be like
What will weather be like
How will be the weather
The weather will be a lot better
24. T: How to say “modern technique” ?
S: <hot discussion> „modern technique‟
T: modern technique, modern techniques.
3.3. Structural Properties of Code-Switching in Teachers’ Discourse
Some researchers (Wu, 1985; Yu, 2001) analyze the structural properties of code-switching through a linguistic
description of their data with no theoretical model, while many others have employed the Matrix Language Frame
model proposed by Myers-Scotton (1993) in their analysis of the structural aspects of code-switching, usually aiming
at identifying the linguistic constraints on code-switching. MLF model can also be applied to examine the structural
features of different types of code-switching in EFL classes. The following sections examine the structural features
of the switched word classes of English and Chinese and analyze the structural features of code-switching based on
MLF model and compare them with those of other studies.
With the frequency of specific word classes, table 2 shows the different percentages of word classes in cases of
switching. These findings seem to suggest implicitly that certain word classes are more likely to be switched than
others. However, these figures cannot simply be accounted for in terms of syntactic constraints without taking into
account the syntactic systems of the two languages. It is therefore necessary to examine and contrast the structure
properties of switched word classes of two languages.
3.3.1. Features of Word’s Morphological Change
One salient feature of Chinese nouns is that they do not contain any notion of number in themselves. As the
Chinese nouns have no obligatory marking of singular or plural, they are invariant in form. The Chinese nouns
themselves remain the same regardless of whether they are singular or plural. In this respect, they are like
uncountable nouns in English such as paper, water, weather, etc. The following examples taken from the data give
more clarification.
25. T: 1 2 3 5, 1 2 3 5, Ok, ok, next, now,
Here is problem, isn‟t it
Then we, then we give some advice
Ss: suggestion, suggestion
26. T: We say it is a Theatre
Some theatre is not so good.
27. T: They two group can’t match
In the above utterance unit, whether they are countable nouns or uncountable nouns, all switched English nouns
are in singular form, although some of them are preceded by the Chinese indefinite numerals “一些 (some) ” , “有些
(some)”, or the unit number “两个(two)”, and the plural marker “都(all)”. The reason why all switched English
6. English Literature and Language Review
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nouns are in singular form may be attributed to the fact that in Chinese, as a matrix language, all the switched
English nouns take no forms of plural, conforming to the Chinese grammar.
From the point of view of English, these examples appear to violate grammatical requirements for the speaker,
e.g. no explicitly expressed number (singular or plural). In fact, there are no such grammatical requirements in
Chinese because the expression of such grammatical categories is only governed by discourse context.
With respect to the structural equivalence and contrast of English and Chinese nouns, it could be said that both
English and Chinese nouns allow pre-modification with numerals, pre-modifiers, definite/indefinite articles (for
English) or classifiers (for Chinese). The Chinese speakers can freely select noun items from English in the place of
matrix Chinese utterance. In other words, the Chinese language appears to permit a great deal of freedom in the
selection of nouns for syntactic combination.
In the above examples, the absence of articles in matrix Chinese is maintained when an English noun is inserted.
The required articles are omitted, featuring undetermined nouns from the point of view of English usage. These
English nouns themselves do not designate specific individual items. However, they are definite from the point of
view of the discourse context.
We do not find English verbs as main verbs in matrix Chinese language. Most of the switched English verbs,
just like nouns, are only inserted as items in Chinese utterances. For example:
28. T: The density (xxx)
If a matter has more density?
We see here there is a „Say‟
What does this Say mean?
29. T: Remain is a link verb
Since the teachers are secondary bilinguals (Li Wei, 2000), they can hardly insert an English verb as a main verb
in Chinese utterance unit. The following examples are odd and unacceptable:
30. * this street straightly extends to department store1
。
31. * He go shopping
Although we do not find these examples in our teachers‟ discourse, it is possible to find these switches in
balanced bilinguals in other speech communities because of the similar positions of both Chinese and English verbs.
In daily conversation, English verbs are used in different contexts in the matrix Chinese language, for example:
32. You really refuse him?
Finally, Linda agreed too.
3.3.2. The Syntactic Features of Code-Switching
The switching of single English adjectives, including switching between adjective and nouns, has been well-
documented in the code-switching studies (Pfaff, 1979; Poplack, 1980; Treffers-Daller, 1994). These researchers
found that the occurrence of adjectives is most often found in the predicative position, as shown by Pfaff (1979) in
her study of English-Spanish code-switching. She gives an example of switched adjectives:
33. I‟m not terca.
(I‟m not stubborn.)
Because the similar placement of Chinese and English adjectives which is also most often found in the
predicative position, it is possible for them to be switched in the other language. The following example highlights
this point.
34. T: False, it should be Possible, possible.
The switches of the Spanish adjective Terca and English adjective Possible can be explained in the light of the
equivalence constraint, i.e. switching is possible when the order of switched word classes is similar in both
languages. Thus, because the two adjectives can be in the predicative position as shown in the above examples, the
switches of Terca and Possible are possible.
The most frequent used adverbs in teacher talk in the corpus are Ok, Now in English and 好 (good) in Chinese.
In most of the cases, these switched adverbs are placed at the beginning of the clause. We do not find cases in which
the switched adverbs modify other adverbs or adjectives, although they may appear in other positions of the
utterances. For example:
35. Yeah, sit down, good, next
36. T: Old enough
Yeah, old enough
Old enough, OK
How to say strong enough?
Ss:Strong enough
It should be noted that these switched adverbs, whether in English or Chinese, can be allowed to be either
sentence-initial or sentence-final.
Although there are many cases of switched interjection in natural discourse, very few interjections are observed
in teacher discourse. The most frequently used interjection is Yeah and some teachers used it more frequently than
others. However, interjections like Yeah are less restricted than any other word class in the positions in which they
occur. For example:
37. T: Yeah, Yeah, when meeting, before meeting next time, how long it will last.
1
*mark here refers to the unacceptable utterance.
7. English Literature and Language Review
139
Yeah, it is long or it wasn't long or what?
Now who can translate
now, Xu Zheng, translate
38. T: Here means ‘officiate at a marriage’, yeah, ‘officiate at a marriage’.
Yeah, this story is for what? And made something.
Very funny.
Yeah, this word marry cause it.
The above examples demonstrate that Yeah can be put in different positions of the utterances. The switched
prepositions, conjunctions and pronouns are usually inserted as items in the matrix languages, English or Chinese. In
most of cases, Chinese is a matrix language, while English conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns are inserted
items. For example:
39. T: I did not want to tell my parents anything
The (xxx) worried about me if I did
Then here anything and the following thing,
Here it should be because
40. T: although
Still is an adverb not conjunction
Then can it be used with „Although‟?
The above examples demonstrate that the cases of switched pronouns, conjunctions and preposition are related
to their grammatical usage of these words in the lesson content. They can also be put in different positions in
teachers‟ utterances. On the other hand, Chinese words or phrases will be inserted in English utterances. In other
words, English as a Matrix Language will supply the grammatical framework, and when there is a switch, elements
from the embedded language they get inserted into that framework. For example:
41. T: You know this person is [Zhou Xingchi
Ss: Zhou Xingchi]
T: This one is Zhang Baizhi
This one is Mo Wenwei
42. T; How to say „modern technique‟?
Ss; <hot discussion> „modern technique‟
T: modern technique, modern techniques,
Traditional technique how to say?
S: Traditional technique
Of course, we would also like to see an example of code-switching using English as a matrix language because
in English as a foreign language classroom, English is an unmarked language. From the expectations of classroom
teaching, teachers and students hope to use unmarked words. Unfortunately, the corpus has a large number of
phenomena of code-switching using Chinese as a matrix language.
4. Discussion
Code-switching occurs at some point of the utterance structure. There are three types of code-switching in
teachers‟ discourse, inter-unit code-switching, intra-unit code-switching and tag-unit code-switching. We have
picked out those switches from English to Chinese and those from Chinese to English (Chinese is the native
language of both teachers and students) and analyzed the structure of these switches in terms of where they happen,
within or between the units, looking closely at the structure of the switching parts and dividing them into several
types in terms of the structural level. In the above sections, we focused on the nature and frequency of code-
switching in our data. The corpus of this study includes all the cases of code-switching used by the informants
(teachers and students). We have first approached the frequency of the switches at word, phrase, clause, and sentence
levels to describe the overall code-switching pattern. In presenting quantitative aspects of switched word classes, a
major part of these sections has been taken up with the description of switching word classes. The result shows that
there are different distributions of switched word classes in the data from those of other studies. We have also
concentrated on code-switching at the clause level. At last, we have discussed the contrasting properties of Chinese
and English word classes, and described the structural properties of teachers‟ code-switching.
In terms of switches at the word (or phrase) level, we have analyzed the structure of code-switching and found
some structure patterns in teachers CS. It was shown that single words are frequently switched in teacher‟s talk,
especially nouns, verbs, adverbs, different syntactic word classes switching at a different rate. Switches of nouns are
the most common. By contrast, some others (pronouns, prepositions and conjunctions) occur much less, even no
single switch of article is found. According to Meyers-Scotton‟s MLF model, one word or phrase can be inserted in
the matrix language if it cannot violate the morpheme order from the ML. Another possible explanation can be that
single words such as those exist in both languages, and more importantly, are considered as categorical equivalent
(Muysken, 1995). Muysken proposes that one of the important conditions for switching of single words is that the
switched word classes are considered as equivalents by speakers of the involved languages. Focusing on the
structural equivalence and contrast of word classes in both languages, it has been demonstrated that English switched
word classes are patterned like the structure of the Chinese counterparts. Given the surface similarities between the
word order in both languages, most switches occur at points around which the word order of the two languages
corresponds. The categorical and word order equivalence between the two languages plays a critical role in teachers‟
code-switching.
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140
In terms of switches at the clause level, the results reveal that the most of switches (62.72 percent of the total
switches.) was at the clause level. Switches between two utterance units (clauses or sentences) of different languages
are many cases concerning repeated utterances which are originally spoken in English or Chinese. In other words,
these switches between two utterance units constitute more or less repetition of what is said in the other language.
This is one of the features of teacher talk style that is characterized by frequent repetition of linguistic elements from
immediately preceding utterances as emphatic tie-ins with what follows. We argue that it can be interpreted in
different ways in the studies of functions of code-switching by some researchers. The examples in the data,
therefore, can be explained by assuming that the teachers want to clarify their message by repeating what is said in
the other language or that the code-switching serves the functions of message repetition (Gumperz, 1982). Switching
between utterance units occurs in a wide variety of grammatical positions. Examination of these switches between
units reveals that none of the switched clauses violate the syntactic structure of both languages. This may be due to
the fact that Chinese and English have a similar word order, and there is more or less equivalence of word classes
between both languages. This may support Muysken‟s notion of „categorical equivalence‟ (Muysken, 1991) which
suggests that a specific word class is only switchable if it exists in both languages, and the Equivalence Constraint
formalized by Sankoff and Polack (1981).
With the respect of the structure properties of teachers‟ code-switching, we have first examined the structural
features of the switched word classes of English and Chinese, and then analyzed the structural features of code-
switching based on MLF model, and finally compared them with those of other studies.
That all switched English nouns are in singular form may be attributed to the fact that in Chinese as a matrix
language, all the switched English nouns take no plural forms, conforming to the Chinese grammar. However, from
the point of view of English, these switches appear to violate grammatical requirements for the speaker, e.g. no
explicitly expressed number (singular or plural). In fact, there are no such grammatical requirements in Chinese
because the expression of such grammatical categories is only governed by discourse context. Because we consider
the language which has the verb as the matrix language in intra-unit utterances, we do not find English verbs as main
verbs in matrix Chinese language. Most of the switched English verbs, just like nouns, are only inserted as items in
Chinese matrix utterances.
Whether the switched words (phrases) are Chinese or English, they do not violate the grammar of the matrix
language when they are inserted. In other words, either of the languages can be taken as a ML and supply the
grammatical framework, and when there is a switch, elements from the embedded language get inserted into that
framework. With respect to the structural equivalence and contrast of English and Chinese nouns, the Chinese
speaker can freely select lexical items from English in the place of Chinese matrix or vice versa, without violation of
the grammar of either language.
5. Conclusion
As the major parts of speech in English and Chinese languages are roughly the same, such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives, etc., a single word in one language is more likely to be switched into a single word in another language.
According to Muysken (1995), an important condition for the switching of a single class of speech is that the speaker
regards the switching of the two classes of speech as equivalent, that is, category equivalent. From the comparison of
the structural equivalence and the lexical category of the two languages, the structural patterns of the transformed
English word classes are similar to those of Chinese. Because English and Chinese have similarities in the surface of
the word order, most of the conversions take place in the corresponding word order points of the two languages.
From the data point of view, the frequency of different syntactical word categories is different. For example, the
conversion of nouns is the most common and the proportion is the highest. In contrast, the conversion of articles in
English did not appear in this corpus. From the results of the analysis above, the conversion of syntactical words is
closely related to the structural equivalence and contrast of the two languages. The likelihood of the same part-of-
speech switching is high, and the likelihood of different word-class switching is small, such as the English article.
The equivalence between word category and word order in two languages is an important factor that causes code
switching.
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