The document summarizes recent developments in measuring syntactic complexity in second language writing produced through computer-mediated communication. It discusses earlier studies that measured complexity using metrics like T-units and clauses per T-unit. More recent research emphasizes the need for improved measures that account for lexical and phrasal complexity, as clausal subordination alone does not fully capture complexity in academic writing. The author also reflects on limitations of earlier studies and the need for future research using large learner corpora and more nuanced measures of complexity as related to factors like proficiency level and first language background.
In the recent years, many new fields in second language acquisition have emerged. instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) is also among them. ISLA due to Loewen (2015T is an academic subfield that is about learning a language other than the first one. cognitive-inter actionist methods offered efficient features of L2 instruction. This chapter discusses about Loewen definition of ISLA and emphasizes the roles of both native speaker-learner and learner-learner interaction.
This study aims at explaining the confusion that led by the misuse of English grammatical structures when conveying meanings in written English texts. Indicating how committing certain errors in written English structures constrains Sudanese English learnersâ performance. Investigating English grammatical structures experienced by Sudanese learners who are preparing to graduate with B.A. in English. Therefore, the roles that grammatical structures play in models of communicative competence are discussed in this paper. Additionally, the study explains the role of mastering these structures in communicative purposes. The obtained results revealed that Sudanese students are incompetent in using grammar well enough for some real-communicational purpose. Grammatical structures play a role in language communicative competence for the learners of English language. Learnersâ mastery of the language communicative ability is affected when language learners are unable to successfully communicate in L2 without cultural knowledge of what is considered appropriate according to a particular context in the target language.
LITERACY PRACTICES AMONG TERTIARY STUDENTS IN THE WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICAijejournal
Â
Language and critically thinking play a major role in academic performance. In multilingual contexts,
multiple factors account for the way Second Language (L2) learners make sense of the academic texts they
read. The studentsâ multilingual and multicultural diversity impacts on their interpretation of academic
texts. This article is derived from a work with mixed method but focuses on qualitative design. This article
qualitatively analyses how L2 students read and interpret academic texts in South African Universities.
Members of a study group were interviewed both as a group and individually. In the end, studentsâ study
practices towards academic literacy reveals translanguaging as one strategy of interpreting academic. One
argument is that most African Universities have English as a medium of instructions whereas the students
are often from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This diversity tends to influence the way
students read and interpret academic texts.
International Journal of Education (IJE)ijejournal
Â
International Journal of Education (IJE) is a Quarterly peer-reviewed and refereed open access journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Educatioan. The journal is devoted to the publication of high quality papers on theoretical and practical aspects of Educational research.
The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on Educational advancements, and establishing new collaborations in these areas. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews are invited for publication in all areas of Education.
In the recent years, many new fields in second language acquisition have emerged. instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) is also among them. ISLA due to Loewen (2015T is an academic subfield that is about learning a language other than the first one. cognitive-inter actionist methods offered efficient features of L2 instruction. This chapter discusses about Loewen definition of ISLA and emphasizes the roles of both native speaker-learner and learner-learner interaction.
This study aims at explaining the confusion that led by the misuse of English grammatical structures when conveying meanings in written English texts. Indicating how committing certain errors in written English structures constrains Sudanese English learnersâ performance. Investigating English grammatical structures experienced by Sudanese learners who are preparing to graduate with B.A. in English. Therefore, the roles that grammatical structures play in models of communicative competence are discussed in this paper. Additionally, the study explains the role of mastering these structures in communicative purposes. The obtained results revealed that Sudanese students are incompetent in using grammar well enough for some real-communicational purpose. Grammatical structures play a role in language communicative competence for the learners of English language. Learnersâ mastery of the language communicative ability is affected when language learners are unable to successfully communicate in L2 without cultural knowledge of what is considered appropriate according to a particular context in the target language.
LITERACY PRACTICES AMONG TERTIARY STUDENTS IN THE WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICAijejournal
Â
Language and critically thinking play a major role in academic performance. In multilingual contexts,
multiple factors account for the way Second Language (L2) learners make sense of the academic texts they
read. The studentsâ multilingual and multicultural diversity impacts on their interpretation of academic
texts. This article is derived from a work with mixed method but focuses on qualitative design. This article
qualitatively analyses how L2 students read and interpret academic texts in South African Universities.
Members of a study group were interviewed both as a group and individually. In the end, studentsâ study
practices towards academic literacy reveals translanguaging as one strategy of interpreting academic. One
argument is that most African Universities have English as a medium of instructions whereas the students
are often from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This diversity tends to influence the way
students read and interpret academic texts.
International Journal of Education (IJE)ijejournal
Â
International Journal of Education (IJE) is a Quarterly peer-reviewed and refereed open access journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Educatioan. The journal is devoted to the publication of high quality papers on theoretical and practical aspects of Educational research.
The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on Educational advancements, and establishing new collaborations in these areas. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews are invited for publication in all areas of Education.
1
Annotated Bibliography 2
Tense Errors in English Second Language
Budiharto, R. A. (2019). Native language interference on target language writings of Indonesian EFL students: An exploratory case study. Indonesian EFL Journal, 5(1), 107-116.
Authors argue that the native language influences the proficiency and quality of the students learning English as a second language. Using a mixed-method design, the authors examined 22 English essays written by EFL students of Indonesian origin. The results proved that the Indonesian language influenced the students writing quality, with lexicon-semantics and grammar constituting more significant and more recurrent errors in their writing.
The study used a scientific method to yield generalizable results that prove that the native language influences the English learning experience among immigrants. The study is essential in riveting that EFL students face English language proficiency problems and need assistance with teaching methodology and remedial to improve English language learning success. Compared with other studies, the standard errors of tenses in most immigrants are thus profitable in advising English teachers on the appropriate teaching tools.
Garrido, C. G., & Rosado Romero, C. (2012). Errors in the use of English tenses. Ăkala, revista de lenguaje y cultura, 17(3), 285-296.
The authors investigate the tense errors made by first-year Spanish students learning to be EFL teachers at Universidad San SebastiĂĄn. The researchers used a hierarchy of complexity and explanation of studentsâ main errors design. They argue that after one year of formal instruction, English aspects and tense errors were common among the Spanish students learning EFL. The researchers identified the main problem as inaccurate matching of tenses and English aspects to correct contexts. A scientific statement stating strategy is used to convey the findings in this paper. Empirical data is displayed with statistical differences and significance used to illustrate the argument.
The authors reveal a high level of credibility. This is because they used a scientific, statistical data collection and analysis method. The tools used were credible, and the sample size was adequate. The findings are generalizable and present information on the critical issue of matching tenses and English aspects to their context as an area that requires close consideration in training English teachers as a second language. This is important in my study because it shows that learning the second language among immigrants faces context matching and tense use. The information will therefore help design a teaching methodology that will assist Spanish immigrants successively in learning English tenses and related aspects.
Mocciaro, E., & Young-Scholten, M. (2022). Why and How Grammar Matters for Post-puberty Immigrants with Limited Formal Schooling. In English and Students with Limited or Interrupted Formal Education ...
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
In article was discussed importance of multimedia in teaching English and mainly English vocabulary. This article devotes to teaching vocabulary with the help of multimedia, its advantages and disadvantages to teaching English in EFL and ESP classes. by Nurmurodova Shakhnoza Ibragimovna 2020. Using multimedia for vocabulary teaching . International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 6 (Mar. 2020), 73-74. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i6.115. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/115/112 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/115
Lakia Scott and Chance W. Lewis, University of North Carolina at Charlotte. P...William Kritsonis
Â
Lakia Scott and Chance W. Lewis, University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, www.nationalforum.com
Directions
Length:Â ~3-4 typed, double-spaced pages (approx. 750-1000 words)
Content: The reviews will follow a summary/response organization. The following questions should help guide your review:
Summary:Â
· General comments: The goal of this part of your review is to demonstrate your comprehension of the study. As such, assume your target audience is non-experts in SLA research. Avoid highly technical details and jargon, opting instead for more accessible language and descriptions, i.e., âyour own words.â There should be no need for any quotes in this summary.
· Content: Your summary should address the following questions:
· What were the goals of the study? What were the researchers hoping to find out as a result of the study? What were the gaps/limitations in our understanding that they were hoping to address? (Note: You do not need to summarize their entire literature review, but should provide some basic background to contextualize the study.)
· How did they attempt to address the research questions? Summarize the methodology employed. Who were the participants? What data-collection methods/instruments were used? What was analyzed, compared�
· What were the key findings? (Note: No need to discuss detailed statistical findings. Simply summarize the important findings). How did the researcher(s) interpret these findings in relation to their research questions and previous research discussed in their literature review?
Response:
· General Comments: The goal of this part of your review is to demonstrate your intellectual interaction with the research you have read.
· Content: Your response should address the following questions:
· What new terms or concepts have you learned from this article? (Donât just list terms/concepts, but briefly explain them.)
· How do the findings relate to your own experience with and/or ideas about language acquisition? Any surprises? Confirmations? Anything about which you remain skeptical? (If relevant, how do findings relate to other course readings or discussions?) Â
· What questions has this studyâthe methodology, the findings, etc.âraised for you? What do you suspect might be the answer to your questions?Â
Applied Linguistics 2014: 35/2: 184â207 ïżœ Oxford University Press 2013
doi:10.1093/applin/amt013 Advance Access published on 13 July 2013
Dynamics of Complexity and Accuracy: A
Longitudinal Case Study of Advanced
Untutored Development
*BRITTANY POLAT and YOUJIN KIM
Georgia State University
*E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
This longitudinal case study follows a dynamic systems approach to investigate
an under-studied research area in second language acquisition, the development
of complexity and accuracy for an advanced untutored learner of English. Using
the analytical tools of dynamic systems theory (Verspoor et al. 2011) within the
framework of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (Skehan 1998; Norris and
Ortega 2009), the study tracks accuracy, syntactic complexity, a ...
Essay School Life Is The Best Of Life. WrAngel Evans
Â
Academic Paper Writing Service
http://HelpWriting.net/Essay-School-Life-Is-The-Best-Of-Life.- đ
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1
Annotated Bibliography 2
Tense Errors in English Second Language
Budiharto, R. A. (2019). Native language interference on target language writings of Indonesian EFL students: An exploratory case study. Indonesian EFL Journal, 5(1), 107-116.
Authors argue that the native language influences the proficiency and quality of the students learning English as a second language. Using a mixed-method design, the authors examined 22 English essays written by EFL students of Indonesian origin. The results proved that the Indonesian language influenced the students writing quality, with lexicon-semantics and grammar constituting more significant and more recurrent errors in their writing.
The study used a scientific method to yield generalizable results that prove that the native language influences the English learning experience among immigrants. The study is essential in riveting that EFL students face English language proficiency problems and need assistance with teaching methodology and remedial to improve English language learning success. Compared with other studies, the standard errors of tenses in most immigrants are thus profitable in advising English teachers on the appropriate teaching tools.
Garrido, C. G., & Rosado Romero, C. (2012). Errors in the use of English tenses. Ăkala, revista de lenguaje y cultura, 17(3), 285-296.
The authors investigate the tense errors made by first-year Spanish students learning to be EFL teachers at Universidad San SebastiĂĄn. The researchers used a hierarchy of complexity and explanation of studentsâ main errors design. They argue that after one year of formal instruction, English aspects and tense errors were common among the Spanish students learning EFL. The researchers identified the main problem as inaccurate matching of tenses and English aspects to correct contexts. A scientific statement stating strategy is used to convey the findings in this paper. Empirical data is displayed with statistical differences and significance used to illustrate the argument.
The authors reveal a high level of credibility. This is because they used a scientific, statistical data collection and analysis method. The tools used were credible, and the sample size was adequate. The findings are generalizable and present information on the critical issue of matching tenses and English aspects to their context as an area that requires close consideration in training English teachers as a second language. This is important in my study because it shows that learning the second language among immigrants faces context matching and tense use. The information will therefore help design a teaching methodology that will assist Spanish immigrants successively in learning English tenses and related aspects.
Mocciaro, E., & Young-Scholten, M. (2022). Why and How Grammar Matters for Post-puberty Immigrants with Limited Formal Schooling. In English and Students with Limited or Interrupted Formal Education ...
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
In article was discussed importance of multimedia in teaching English and mainly English vocabulary. This article devotes to teaching vocabulary with the help of multimedia, its advantages and disadvantages to teaching English in EFL and ESP classes. by Nurmurodova Shakhnoza Ibragimovna 2020. Using multimedia for vocabulary teaching . International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 6 (Mar. 2020), 73-74. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i6.115. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/115/112 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/115
Lakia Scott and Chance W. Lewis, University of North Carolina at Charlotte. P...William Kritsonis
Â
Lakia Scott and Chance W. Lewis, University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, www.nationalforum.com
Directions
Length:Â ~3-4 typed, double-spaced pages (approx. 750-1000 words)
Content: The reviews will follow a summary/response organization. The following questions should help guide your review:
Summary:Â
· General comments: The goal of this part of your review is to demonstrate your comprehension of the study. As such, assume your target audience is non-experts in SLA research. Avoid highly technical details and jargon, opting instead for more accessible language and descriptions, i.e., âyour own words.â There should be no need for any quotes in this summary.
· Content: Your summary should address the following questions:
· What were the goals of the study? What were the researchers hoping to find out as a result of the study? What were the gaps/limitations in our understanding that they were hoping to address? (Note: You do not need to summarize their entire literature review, but should provide some basic background to contextualize the study.)
· How did they attempt to address the research questions? Summarize the methodology employed. Who were the participants? What data-collection methods/instruments were used? What was analyzed, compared�
· What were the key findings? (Note: No need to discuss detailed statistical findings. Simply summarize the important findings). How did the researcher(s) interpret these findings in relation to their research questions and previous research discussed in their literature review?
Response:
· General Comments: The goal of this part of your review is to demonstrate your intellectual interaction with the research you have read.
· Content: Your response should address the following questions:
· What new terms or concepts have you learned from this article? (Donât just list terms/concepts, but briefly explain them.)
· How do the findings relate to your own experience with and/or ideas about language acquisition? Any surprises? Confirmations? Anything about which you remain skeptical? (If relevant, how do findings relate to other course readings or discussions?) Â
· What questions has this studyâthe methodology, the findings, etc.âraised for you? What do you suspect might be the answer to your questions?Â
Applied Linguistics 2014: 35/2: 184â207 ïżœ Oxford University Press 2013
doi:10.1093/applin/amt013 Advance Access published on 13 July 2013
Dynamics of Complexity and Accuracy: A
Longitudinal Case Study of Advanced
Untutored Development
*BRITTANY POLAT and YOUJIN KIM
Georgia State University
*E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
This longitudinal case study follows a dynamic systems approach to investigate
an under-studied research area in second language acquisition, the development
of complexity and accuracy for an advanced untutored learner of English. Using
the analytical tools of dynamic systems theory (Verspoor et al. 2011) within the
framework of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (Skehan 1998; Norris and
Ortega 2009), the study tracks accuracy, syntactic complexity, a ...
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2. Susana Sotillo An Update on Discourse Functions and Syntactic Complexity
Language Learning & Technology 167
SLA researchers had adopted the minimal terminable unit or T-unit used in first language acquisition
studies that had been defined as a main clause and all associated dependent clauses (Hunt, 1965). The T-
unit, mean length of T-units, and clauses per T-unit were measures adopted by SLA researchers
investigating the development of L2 writing skills and learnersâ overall proficiency in the target language.
Despite criticism of the use of the T-unit and clauses in assessing syntactic complexity, these were used in
the 2000 study because they were easily identifiable by team members analyzing learner samples and
constituted low-level inference categories. The general assumption at the time was that longer units and
more subordination reflected greater complexity. These and related measures continued to be used as
syntactic complexity measures to gauge their relationship to L2 proficiency by scholars in extensive
surveys of L2 writing research (Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki, & Kim, 1998), meta-analyses of empirical
research on grammatical complexity (Ortega, 2003), and corpus-based analyses measuring college-level
ESL writersâ language development (Lu, 2011).
The assumptions concerning T-units and clausal subordination were challenged by Biber, Gray, and
Poonpon (2011) who conducted corpus-based analyses of 28 grammatical features in academic research
articles contrasted with face-to-face conversations. Their findings showed that measures of clausal
subordination describe only one kind of complexity and that the T-unit is primarily a measure designed to
capture the extent to which an L1 or L2 writer uses dependent clauses. Empirical evidence is presented
for the claim that clausal subordination is more common in conversation than in academic writing, and
that non-clausal features embedded in noun phrases represent âthe most important kinds of complexity
devices in academic writingâ (p.32).
This challenge to established measurements of syntactic complexity has only recently been addressed by
some SLA researchers such as Parkinson & Musgrave (2014), who used phrasal complexity measures to
investigate the writing of advanced learners (undergraduate and graduate university students). Phrasal
complexity as an additional means of assessing advanced L2 proficiency was first introduced by Norris
and Ortega (2009). More recently, following an intensive four-week program, Mazgutova and Kormos
(2015) reported changes in syntactic structure, conditionals, and relative clauses in the writing of two
groups of learners with different degrees of proficiency. However, growth in phrasal elaboration measures
which include modification of nouns via adjective and prepositional phrases, complex nominals in subject
position, and multiple modifiers of a noun were found primarily among lower-proficiency L2 writers.
Following this new strand of research, Kreyer and Schaub (2015) undertook an empirical, corpus-based
study of the acquisition of phrasal complexity in intermediate learner language based on the Marburg
corpus of intermediate learner English, a longitudinal corpus of written exam texts produced by German
learners of English from grades 9 through 12. The findings obtained were mixed as lexical sophistication
varied considerably among students. The findings also showed that task description has an effect on
performance. Since Biber et al. (2011) used expert academic writersâ samples, the model put forth may be
simplistic in Kreyer and Schaubâs view in that it leaves out aspects that go beyond grammar such as
studentsâ ability to synthesize information and produce coherent and cohesive academic texts. Also, since
the model by Biber et al. is based on the output of expert writers, it is a level of writing competence
seldom achieved by many native and nonnative speakers of a target language. Many proficient speaker-
writers of an L2 produce error-free essays and reports required in most work environments, but rarely
adopt the writing model of expert academic writers.
CONTRIBUTION AND IMPACT
With respect to the intellectual and practical contributions of my 2000 article, studies by young scholars
pursuing a similar type of research in the United States and abroad were informed by my research design
and findings. This motivated them to include new measures or approaches that would capture syntactic
complexity and the value of computer-mediated interaction among L2 or FL learners (e.g., Evnitskaya,
2008). As of this writing, my 2000 Language Learning & Technology article has been cited 516 times.
4. Susana Sotillo An Update on Discourse Functions and Syntactic Complexity
Language Learning & Technology 169
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
In the last ten years, significant advances in syntactic complexity have been made by scholars
investigating the relationship between various syntactic or lexical complexity measures and the language
development of learners, and between syntactic complexity and the development of conversational and
pragmatic competence in computer-mediated environments (e.g., Kreyer & Schaub, 2015; Lazarte &
Barry, 2008; Lu, 2011, 2012; Mazgutova & Kormos, 2015; Parkinson & Musgrave, 2014; Sherratt, 2007;
Vyatkina, 2012). From a CALL and CMC perspective, a computational method used to analyze L2
learner writing corpora as proposed by Lu (2011) opens the door for a large-scale investigation into
particularized language learner groups and lengthy CMC discourse analysis, whether synchronous or
asynchronous. Also, a recent study by Lu and Ai (2015) demonstrates that, in addition to proficiency
levels, the L1 background of college-level L2 writers must be taken into consideration in the design of
syntactic complexity measures.
FUTURE NEEDS
Given the challenge posed by Biber et al. (2011) for better measures that capture the complexities found
in professional academic writing for the empirical study of complexity in student writing development,
and the role of task types and proficiency levels (Biber et al., 2014), we need investigations that use both
qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis that would help us visualize what factors account for
successful writing development in ESL and FL traditional and computer-mediated environments. As
Ortega (2015) points out in a recent review of syntactic complexity in L2 writing, the use of learner
corpora, more complex designs, carefully stipulated parameters, and powerful statistics will yield a more
refined understanding of how to measure syntactic complexity.
After years of teaching native and nonnative undergraduate and graduate students, I have observed that
one of the most important skills successful native and nonnative academic writers gradually acquire is the
ability to synthesize vast amounts of information and present coherent and cohesive arguments to
persuade their reader audience. This needs to be addressed in future studies of syntactic and lexical
complexity that aim to measure development in writing and speaking in academic settings. Likewise,
studies of discourse functions that account for successful interaction in a variety of institutional settingsâ
the workplace, government offices, hospitals, classroomsâare needed in this and related fields such as
intercultural communication.
Pursuing this new line of research will lead to a more nuanced view of syntactic and lexical complexity in
the gradual development of L2 and FL writing skills. Instruction and interaction affect learnersâ progress
since these take place in a variety of settingsâthe traditional classroom that requires face-to-face
interaction and computer-mediated environments where interaction among students and between teacher
and students is strongly encouraged. All these factors would need to be included in future studies of L2
learnersâ language development.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Susana M. Sotillo teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in linguistics, mobile language
communication, and language and culture at Montclair State University. She has taught online and hybrid
courses and is currently investigating code-switching in digitally-mediated discourse and as a learning
strategy in the foreign language classroom. Her interests also encompass the fields of corpus linguistics
and SLA.
E-mail: sotillos@mail.montclair.edu
5. Susana Sotillo An Update on Discourse Functions and Syntactic Complexity
Language Learning & Technology 170
REFERENCES
Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Reppen, R. (1998). Corpus linguistics: Investigating language structure and use.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Biber, D., Gray, B., & Poonpon, K. (2011). Should we use characteristics of conversation to measure
grammatical complexity in L2 writing development? TESOL Quarterly, 45(1), 48â59.
Biber, D., Gray, B., & Staples, S. (2014). Predicting patterns of grammatical complexity across language
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