This document summarizes research on code switching in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms. It discusses how code switching occurs when teachers and students alternate between the target language (L2) and their shared first language (L1). The use of L1 depends on whether the teacher is a native or non-native speaker. While some argue L1 should be avoided, others believe controlled use of L1 can support L2 learning. Factors like the teacher's language background and students' age influence the amount and purpose of code switching in EFL classrooms.
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This document is a research proposal that aims to study the effectiveness of using code-switching in classroom discussions for Grade 12 students at Agusan del Sur National High School in the Philippines. It discusses code-switching as a phenomenon used in bilingual societies and classrooms. The literature review covers grammatical theories of code-switching and the use of mother tongue-based multilingual education. The research questions examine students' English proficiency with and without the use of code-switching, as well as any differences between pre-tests and post-tests both with and without code-switching. The null hypotheses state there will be no significant differences found.
The document discusses code-switching, which is the alternation between two languages or dialects. It defines different types of code-switching like intersentential, intrasentential, mechanical, and code-changing. It explores reasons for and views on using code-switching in the classroom, as well as functions of teacher and student code-switching. While most educators view code-switching negatively, the researcher aims to study implementing it successfully in a multicultural classroom through their teaching program.
The article examines the beliefs and practices of four experienced university teachers in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) writing in China. It analyzes data collected over two semesters, including classroom observations, interviews, and course materials. The teachers' beliefs and practices in teaching writing are explored, as well as factors that contribute to how their beliefs and practices developed.
An evaluation of_communicative_language_teaching_in_bangladeshAbdus Sobhan
This document summarizes a study that evaluates Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Bangladesh. The study uses a mixed methodology including questionnaires and interviews to examine CLT implementation at the secondary level. Specifically, it aims to understand teachers' perceptions of CLT principles, whether they have moved from traditional teaching views, and what training is needed for successful CLT. The summary identifies challenges implementing CLT in Bangladesh and objectives to improve English teaching and learning based on observations of teachers, students, teaching methods and materials.
This paper analyses the structure patterns of code-switching quantitatively and qualitatively based on EFL classroom discourse. Through the detailed analysis, the paper finds that there are different structure patterns in which teachers often switch their codes in English classroom. These structure patterns are reflected in different language levels: words and phrases level, clausal and sentence level. The functions of code-switching are determined by those structure patterns that teachers will choose for different purposes in the process of teaching.
Students attitude towards teachers code switching code mixingSamar Rukh
This document summarizes a study that examined business students' attitudes toward their teachers' use of code-switching between English and the local language (Urdu) in class, and the impact of this on the students' English language learning. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected through questionnaires given to 100 business students and 6 English teachers at universities in Sargodha, Pakistan. The findings from the student questionnaire showed that most students had a positive attitude toward their teachers' code-switching and believed it helped their understanding and strengthened their English. The teacher questionnaire explored the teachers' views, with most believing code-switching facilitated clearer communication and instruction. In conclusion, the study found that business students generally viewed teachers' code-switch
This document summarizes a paper about the functions of code switching in English language teaching classrooms. It discusses code switching between a native language and the target language in the discourse of both teachers and students. It describes functions like topic switching, building rapport, repetition for clarity, filling gaps in knowledge, and avoiding conflict. It acknowledges debates around both supporting and limiting the use of code switching long term for students learning the target language.
This document is a research proposal that aims to study the effectiveness of using code-switching in classroom discussions for Grade 12 students at Agusan del Sur National High School in the Philippines. It discusses code-switching as a phenomenon used in bilingual societies and classrooms. The literature review covers grammatical theories of code-switching and the use of mother tongue-based multilingual education. The research questions examine students' English proficiency with and without the use of code-switching, as well as any differences between pre-tests and post-tests both with and without code-switching. The null hypotheses state there will be no significant differences found.
The document discusses code-switching, which is the alternation between two languages or dialects. It defines different types of code-switching like intersentential, intrasentential, mechanical, and code-changing. It explores reasons for and views on using code-switching in the classroom, as well as functions of teacher and student code-switching. While most educators view code-switching negatively, the researcher aims to study implementing it successfully in a multicultural classroom through their teaching program.
The article examines the beliefs and practices of four experienced university teachers in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) writing in China. It analyzes data collected over two semesters, including classroom observations, interviews, and course materials. The teachers' beliefs and practices in teaching writing are explored, as well as factors that contribute to how their beliefs and practices developed.
An evaluation of_communicative_language_teaching_in_bangladeshAbdus Sobhan
This document summarizes a study that evaluates Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Bangladesh. The study uses a mixed methodology including questionnaires and interviews to examine CLT implementation at the secondary level. Specifically, it aims to understand teachers' perceptions of CLT principles, whether they have moved from traditional teaching views, and what training is needed for successful CLT. The summary identifies challenges implementing CLT in Bangladesh and objectives to improve English teaching and learning based on observations of teachers, students, teaching methods and materials.
This paper analyses the structure patterns of code-switching quantitatively and qualitatively based on EFL classroom discourse. Through the detailed analysis, the paper finds that there are different structure patterns in which teachers often switch their codes in English classroom. These structure patterns are reflected in different language levels: words and phrases level, clausal and sentence level. The functions of code-switching are determined by those structure patterns that teachers will choose for different purposes in the process of teaching.
Attitude od teachers_and_students_towards_classroom_code_switching-libreStoic Mills
This document summarizes a research study on the attitudes of teachers and students towards code switching in English literature classes at the university level in Pakistan. A questionnaire was used to collect data from 12 teachers and 288 students from 4 universities. The findings show that most students and teachers have a positive attitude towards code switching between English, Urdu, and Punjabi in class. Students reported that code switching helps them better understand concepts and does not confuse them. Teachers indicated they code switch for communication, control, and explanation purposes. Overall, the study found that code switching is viewed positively and as beneficial for teaching and learning in multilingual university classrooms in Pakistan.
Effect of l1 interlinear glosses on l2 reading and translation tasksCeceFrayMartn
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A Survey Of Current Datasets For Code-Switching ResearchJim Webb
This document provides a survey of existing datasets for code-switching research. It begins by defining code-switching and discussing its increased prevalence in social media interactions. It then proposes quality metrics for evaluating code-switching datasets, including number of words, vocabulary size, number of sentences, and average sentence length. The document reviews available datasets categorized by common NLP tasks like language identification, named entity recognition, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. Several datasets for language pairs like English-Hindi, Spanish-English, and Mandarin-English are discussed. In conclusion, the survey finds that while interest in code-switching research is growing, availability of suitable annotated datasets remains limited.
LITERACY PRACTICES AMONG TERTIARY STUDENTS IN THE WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICAijejournal
Language and critically thinking play a major role in academic performance. In multilingual contexts,
multiple factors account for the way Second Language (L2) learners make sense of the academic texts they
read. The students’ multilingual and multicultural diversity impacts on their interpretation of academic
texts. This article is derived from a work with mixed method but focuses on qualitative design. This article
qualitatively analyses how L2 students read and interpret academic texts in South African Universities.
Members of a study group were interviewed both as a group and individually. In the end, students’ study
practices towards academic literacy reveals translanguaging as one strategy of interpreting academic. One
argument is that most African Universities have English as a medium of instructions whereas the students
are often from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This diversity tends to influence the way
students read and interpret academic texts.
International Journal of Education (IJE)ijejournal
International Journal of Education (IJE) is a Quarterly peer-reviewed and refereed open access journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Educatioan. The journal is devoted to the publication of high quality papers on theoretical and practical aspects of Educational research.
The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on Educational advancements, and establishing new collaborations in these areas. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews are invited for publication in all areas of Education.
A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF CODE-MIXING AND CODE SWITCHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOL...ResearchWap
Language can be said to be the most complex and detailed aspect of human existence. It is the DNA of human behaviour and culture as the people’s history and memory is embedded in it. This memory encapsulated in language also determine, among other things, how they used language and how language uses them. This volatile characteristic of language has birthed, directly and indirectly, such bridge studies such as sociolinguistics which is
the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society , including cultural norms , expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society (Wikipedia)
The organic feature language implies that it surfaces in the its use. A person fluent in more than one language would often find his or herself segueing from one language to another and consequently one language system to another. Language affects perception and in the expression of thought verbally, these varying thought patterns is seen.
This switching isn’t just in moving from one language to another but can be seen in the use of systems of one language in another showing a consciousness that is tied to a language even when one has extensive command of the one presently in use. This is how pidgins are born: the establishment of unique systems in language use across bilingual users. Against this backdrop, we would be doing a sociolinguistic study of code-mixing and code switching in secondary schools in Nigeria.
A Critical Overview Of Communicative Language TeachingJoe Andelija
This document provides an overview of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) through a literature review. It begins by defining CLT as an approach that emphasizes developing students' communicative competence over grammatical mastery. The origins of CLT in Britain in the 1960s are then discussed, noting dissatisfaction with prior methods. Major characteristics of CLT are outlined, including a focus on language functions over forms, emphasis on fluency alongside accuracy, and use of authentic materials and tasks to engage students in meaningful communication. Both advantages and disadvantages of implementing CLT are acknowledged.
English to Malay (Bahasa Melayu) Translation: Syntactical Issues Involving Ti...inventionjournals
For speakers of other languages who are interested in learning Bahasa Melayu, English has always been a useful tool to understand Bahasa Melayu easily as English is internationally well-know and widely used language and is also comparable with Bahasa Melayu. Unlike English, Bahasa Melayu does not have various types of tenses to indicate what happened in the past, in the present or in the future time. Bahasa Melayu however has its own unique way to show different aspects of time reference such as by adding the word ‘telah’ for past events and ‘akan’ for future events. This is actually one of the problems faced by Bahasa Melayu learners when constructing sentences to refer to various aspects of time reference. Thus, this study seeks to provide an insight to Bahasa Melayu learners and focuses on sentence construction involving time reference. This study used both qualitative and quantitative approach in achieving the objectives of the research. A short text taken form Readers’ Digest article entitled ‘Rebirth of the Feral Child’ was chosen as a tool to examine the various types of tenses available in English. We found that Simple Past Tense, Past Continuous Tense, Past Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Tense caused problems when English sentences were translated to Malay sentences. This study is hoped to provide a brief and clear explanation to the foreign learners of Malay and Malay learners of English on how the sentence construction in both English and Malay are different to each other especially those that are related to the time reference.
A Critical Review Of Translation A Look ForwardDon Dooley
This document summarizes a research article that discusses the field of translation studies. It begins by outlining the importance of translation in today's globalized world for facilitating cross-cultural communication and understanding. It then provides definitions of translation proposed by various scholars and discusses translation's historical role in language teaching. The document also summarizes different types and classifications of translation proposed by scholars like Catford and Jakobson. Finally, it briefly outlines the history of translation studies from ancient times to the present.
The document discusses code switching, which refers to switching between languages or dialects within a single interaction or discourse. It occurs commonly in Hong Kong, where Cantonese, English, and Mandarin are used. The research aims to study how common code switching is among Hong Kong people, the frequency of its use, and the reasons behind it. Code switching is an important part of daily life in Hong Kong, though some view it as making the language a "second-class" one. It is a cultural feature that has been present for a long time.
This document discusses translation equivalence theories and approaches. It begins by reviewing previous studies on translation equivalence, noting two opposing ways of translating - formal equivalence (word-for-word) and dynamic equivalence (focusing on meaning and readability). It then discusses Nida's distinction between formal and dynamic equivalence, and Newmark's semantic and communicative translation approaches. The document concludes that a translator may use any equivalence concept applicable to their translation.
Analysis Of The Quot Gone With The Wind Quot And Its Simplified Version In ...Renee Lewis
This document analyzes and compares the original novel "Gone with the Wind" and its simplified version in terms of their lexical structures. It finds that the simplified version has a lower percentage of similar words, content words, and key words compared to the original. It also has a higher density and lower consistency ratio, indicating it is more compact but may decrease its pedagogical value for vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. The document used a software program called Wordsmith 4.0 to digitize and analyze the word lists and frequencies in the two versions.
The document discusses code switching, which is defined as changing between two or more languages or language varieties in the context of a single conversation or piece of writing. It provides examples of code switching in daily conversations between individuals from different educational backgrounds and professions. The document also examines code switching in the classroom between teachers and students, noting that it can aid teaching and learning by helping explain concepts in multiple languages. Finally, it discusses reasons for code switching, such as lack of fluency in the other language, building confidence, gaining the attention of listeners, and ensuring understanding across educational levels.
Role of mother tongue in learning english for specific purposesNelly Valenzuela
This document summarizes a research study that examined students' perceptions of using their native language and translation in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses. The study surveyed 55 students across 3 specializations about their use of translation and native language in various language activities. The results showed that students' need for native language support varied depending on their English proficiency level, with less proficient students requiring more native language use. Students generally agreed that translation and native language were useful supports, especially for vocabulary, reading, and listening activities. The findings provide insights into balancing the use of native language and translation in ESP courses to best support students at different proficiency levels.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
Task-Based Language Teaching, an analytic approach focusing on form, with a task-based syllabus starting with output and putting emphasis on learning outcomes, may have a positive impact on the development of learners’ language proficiency and thinking skills in L2 classrooms. By implementing a TBLT approach which is free from the limitation of synthetic approach focusing on forms and analytic approach focusing on meaning, L2 learners can benefit from its efficiency promoting both in communication competence and linguistic awareness. In addition to the advantage of TBLT approaches, a task-based syllabus, as one of the typical backward design, focusing on output or learning outcomes, are more effective in enhancing learners’ language proficiency than that in other syllabuses focusing on input or process. Moreover, learners’ thinking skills can be achieved in a task-based syllabus integrating language proficiency with thinking skill tasks.
Translation procedures of biological terms in bilingual biology 1 student tex...Pungki Ariefin
This document summarizes the background and objectives of a research study analyzing the translation procedures of biological terms in a bilingual biology textbook. Specifically:
1) The study will analyze the translation procedures used for biological terms classified as nouns and noun phrases in the "Bilingual Biology 1 Student Textbook Year X".
2) The study aims to identify the most dominant biological terms, translation procedures, and evaluate the appropriateness of the translations.
3) The results are intended to provide guidance for translators and enrich findings from previous translation procedure studies analyzing different text types.
This document is a student's final year project submitted to the University of Portsmouth in April 2014. It investigates code-switching between Cantonese and English in Hong Kong TV programs. The project contains 5 chapters, including an introduction, literature review on definitions and motivations of code-switching, methodology, data analysis and discussion, and conclusion. A questionnaire was used to collect data from local Hong Kong people on their motivations for code-switching and the influences of TV programs. The results showed that Hongkongese may code-switch to show solidarity, social status or avoid embarrassment. TV programs have influenced some viewers' language habits or attitudes, with some following the code-switching used by actors
Applying Corpus-Based Findings To Form-Focused Instruction The Case Of Repor...Justin Knight
The document summarizes a study that compared how reported speech is presented in English language textbooks versus how it is used in real language based on corpus data. The study found that textbooks focus mainly on indirect reported speech and backshifting verbs to past tense, but neglect many structures used in natural language. Corpus data from two studies of reported speech was then used to identify 10 principles for how it should be taught. The document proposes applying these corpus-based findings to design classroom activities and materials for teaching reported speech that are grounded in theories of second language acquisition.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
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LITERACY PRACTICES AMONG TERTIARY STUDENTS IN THE WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICAijejournal
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Language can be said to be the most complex and detailed aspect of human existence. It is the DNA of human behaviour and culture as the people’s history and memory is embedded in it. This memory encapsulated in language also determine, among other things, how they used language and how language uses them. This volatile characteristic of language has birthed, directly and indirectly, such bridge studies such as sociolinguistics which is
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3) The results are intended to provide guidance for translators and enrich findings from previous translation procedure studies analyzing different text types.
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Code Switching in an EFL Environment
Article in Linguistics and Literature Studies · November 2015
DOI: 10.13189/lls.2015.030601
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3. 260 Code Switching in an EFL Environment
despite the different definitions and types. As Holmes [11]
(pp.35) suggested, ‘a speaker may similarly switch to
another language as a signal of group membership and
shared ethnicity with an addressee’.
2. Purpose of the Study
Despite the fact that a lot of related studies already exist,
the purpose of the current study is to focus on the reasons for
code switching within an English foreign language
classroom rather than a general term, which, as mentioned
previously, it can also occur on an everyday basis by
bilinguals, or multilinguals, in their homes and communities.
In addition, the current study does not provide any new
evidence but instead makes a reference on previous research
studies as far as whether the mother tongue should exist
during second language teaching; the role of the teacher and
learners’ age.
3. Code switching in the EFL Classroom
As it can be seen from the research [8], code switching is
unavoidable in an EFL classroom environment. Factors such
as the teacher and the use of mother tongue within the
language classroom seem to be one of the most important
reasons for code-switching.
The target language will only be used when the teacher is
native or does not share the same L1 with all the students.
Some studies [4, 13, 21] have shown that using the mother
tongue in the classroom, and therefore code switching from
L1 to L2, is not necessarily an unfortunate situation as long
as it is controlled by the teacher without going over the top
with it. Since the teacher is the one who can allow code
switching, researchers [17, 34] have suggested that this
should be considered as an advantage within the foreign
language classroom.
The discussion that follows provides clear evidence on the
reasons code switching takes place in foreign language
classrooms, the importance of the mother tongue and
whether there is a preference of having a native teacher on a
non-native one.
3.1. Using the L1 While Teaching the L2
There has been an important reference, during the past
years, whether teachers and students should or should not use
the L1 while teaching the L2. Some researchers are in favour
of using L1 while teaching the L2 [6, 31] but there are also
others [3, 23] who disagreed and believed that learners do
not have to understand everything said by the teacher and
thus there is no real need for code switching. They also
believed that one is able to avoid the use of the mother
tongue by following certain techniques within the second
language classroom whereas Chambers [3] explained that
language becomes real and learners built their own language
system only when the L2 is being used within classroom.
Avoiding the use of L1 in the foreign language classroom
has been suggested since the 19th
C with the existence of the
Direct Method and later on with the Audio-lingual Method
[29]. In classroom environments, such as the foreign
language ones, it is the only place for most students where
they can communicate by using the L2; and as Krashen [12]
argued, students’ exposure to the target language leads to
real communication and effective learning.
On the other hand, researchers such as Cook [6] and Sterns
[31] stated that, students’ mother tongue is important in
foreign language classrooms. Cook [7] argued that the
classroom ‘is a natural code switching situation’ (p. 406)
and that code switching is ‘a highly skilled activity’ (p. 408).
Cook [7] and Scrivener [30] not only disagreed, but also
explained the importance of the L1, by giving suggestions
and some techniques on how to use the mother tongue while
teaching the L2. Along with his suggestions, Cook [7] also
explained the importance of encouraging the use of the target
language rather than eliminating the mother tongue, and that
this should be the teachers’ focus.
Cook [7] (pp.418) also explained that code switching is
not necessarily a situation, which should be avoided as in
fact he moved on by saying that deliberate and systematic
use of the L1 will ‘develop L2 activities, such as
code-switching, for later real life use’.
Littlewood and Yu [17] agreed and suggested ways on
how to use the L1 and the target language in the classroom,
especially when, in most foreign language classrooms, the
teacher has the same mother tongue with the learner. They
also referred to a variety of studies [20, 32] and their similar
results; teachers choose to use the L1 for grammar
explanation and discipline.
Turnbull [33] also agreed with the use of L1 during the
classroom, but he also stated that teachers should not overuse
it and do not forget that, for some learners, the only contact
they have with the L2 is during classroom activities.
Levine [15] (pp.334) explained that there is indeed a place
for the mother tongue in the language classroom in terms of
‘anxiety reduction or simple validation of learners’ identity
in their dominant language’.
Different studies throughout the past years have also
shown that the amount of L1 usage within the EFL classroom
can vary, depending on the situation, the learners and the
teacher.
Duff and Polio [8] examined thirteen different L2 classes
and found that the L1 was used on continuously and that
some teachers did not realize they were code switching.
Gearon as cited in Turnbull [33] also examined six
secondary French teachers’ and found that most code
switching occurred within the sentence, and that all teachers
were aware of the use of the mother tongue, because they felt
that using the L1 helped students understand more.
Turnbull [33] studied four teachers of French in Canadian
secondary schools and found that the use of L1 (English)
varied from 28% to 76%.
4. Linguistics and Literature Studies 3(6): 259-263, 2015 261
Macaro [21] explained that, since code switching occurs
because learners find it easier to communicate in classrooms
where the teacher has the same L1 as the learners, it is
extremely difficult to use only the target language. He also
suggested that if there was no use of the L1, and teachers had
to explain new vocabulary, it would be much more difficult
for learners to learn, and that teachers would probably find
other ways, such as miming. He explained that ‘if the same
mime is repeated long enough, the students may stop
listening to the spoken language altogether and just
understand from the mime’ (pp.73-74).
Research has shown [20, 22] that both teachers and
students code switch from the L1 to the L2, and, Cook [7]
suggested that new teaching methods and techniques should
be used and adopted by teachers, in order for L1 to be
positively used within the foreign language classroom.
3.2. Native and Non-native Teachers
The issue of having a native, or a non-native teacher, has
worried a lot of researchers [5, 18, 19, 21] and whether one is
more accepted than the other, largely depends on the learners
and their demands and beliefs.
Traditionally, having native teachers in a school was seen
as more privileged rather than a non-native teacher.
Sutherland [32], talked about the advertisements of private
language schools that often make a reference to native
teachers, and consider it as an important qualification.
Honey as cited in Sutherland [32] talked about the
necessity of having native teachers in an EFL environment
since they would be able to guide non-native teachers. A
native teacher would therefore use the target language
throughout the lesson and not have to switch from L1 to L2,
and vice versa. This, however, does not necessarily mean
that it would offer better results. As Zimmerman [36]
explained, native teachers might use a certain variety of the
language and, therefore, cause more confusion to the learners.
On the other hand, non-native teachers have a clearer accent
and are more aware of the learners’ feelings and thoughts.
What seems to be quite important is the fact that there are
more non-native teachers rather than native teachers.
Sutherland [32] talked about the advantages and
disadvantages of having both kinds of teachers. He
explained that non-native teachers have the advantage of
using their L1 as well to explain certain difficulties; that is,
when the teacher and the learner have the same mother
tongue. Sutherland [32] quoted Seidlhofer and explained that
non-native teachers might choose to use L1 for further
explanation, but native teachers have the advantage of
providing learners with new language when needed.
When teachers code switch from one language to the other,
they help learners experience the ease of using the target
language without overusing the L1 and forgetting about the
L2. As Macaro [21] explained, according to some findings,
teachers choose to code switch and use the L1, when learners
have difficulties and become irritated. Teachers, according to
Macaro [21], either bilinguals or natives, seem to be
convinced that code switching might be regrettable but at the
same time necessary during the lesson.
Ferguson examined how, native teachers, and non-native
teachers, were seen by their students in terms of students’
general attitudes, and findings showed that there was a
preference towards non-native teachers. Meadows and
Muramatsu [24] also examined students’ attitudes towards
native teachers or non-native teachers in an American
University. They chose four different languages, Japanese,
Chinese, Spanish, Italian, and organized them in two groups;
Asian and European. Data showed mixed results; Italian and
Asian students showed preference towards the native
teachers, whereas Spanish students preferred non-native
teachers.
Shin and Kellogg 2007, as cited in Sutherland [32] found
that a Korean teacher of English asked her students more
questions compared to a native teacher. Sutherland [32]
concluded, based on the results from Shin and Kellogg that
‘the claim that native teachers provide the most exposure to
English may not always be true’.
Therefore, a non-native teacher may not be a disadvantage
since it does not depend only to them but to students as well.
Research [24, 32] has shown that learners will switch from
L1 to L2 despite the teachers’ mother tongue.
3.3. Learners’Age and Second Language Acquisition
Ever since Penfield and Roberts [27] and later Lenneberg
[14] have argued about the timeframe on learners’ age of
second language acquisition and learning, there has been a
lot of discussion on whether such a period actually exists and,
if so, how it influences learners.
It has been argued by Lenneberg [14] that learners who
acquire a second language are able to do so until the age of
puberty; a time also known as Critical Period Hypothesis
(CPH).
Some have supported this view, but at the same time it was
declined by others; and according to a variety of studies [1, 2,
26] it is possible to learn a second language after the age of
puberty.
As far as code switching in an EFL classroom, younger
learners seem to be the ones who code switch more, only
because learners at that age do not have the knowledge or
vocabulary needed to fully understand and communicate by
only using the target language. Macaro [21] suggested that if
there was no use of the mother tongue, while teaching the
target language, other issues would be raised. He provided as
an example the listening activities and the pre-listening ones.
‘If the language the students are going to hear in the
listening activity contains considerable amounts of new
language, it may be extremely difficult for the teacher to
provide the contextual clues in the L2 as these will be as new
as the language the students are going to be listening to in
the actual aural text’ (p. 76).
Whereas, when teaching older students, code switching
5. 262 Code Switching in an EFL Environment
should only be used for guidance and making learners feel
more confident about the tasks they need to fulfill.
When a bilingual child learns two L1s, it is different from
learning the L1 and then the L2 in a later stage. A bilingual
child has been exposed to two or even more languages from
birth, whereas the second language learner, usually, from the
age of five and onwards comes across the new language.
Despite the fact that, some might argue that the exposure in
both situations, occurs within the Critical Period, it is still not
the same, because, most of the times, L2 learning takes place
in monolingual environments, and thus learners only use it
within the classroom.
Most of the research, focused on whether CPH exists, and,
therefore, there is little evidence on code switching and the
role of the learners’ age.
4. Conclusions
As it has been earlier discussed, the issue of code
switching in an EFL classroom seems not only to be
unavoidable but necessary. The importance on this is when
and how code switching should take place. As some of the
researchers explained [7, 21, 32], teachers ought to find a
place for the mother tongue, while teaching English, in order
to help learners achieve the best possible results, without
forgetting the target language.
Other than finding the perfect place for the L1 in a foreign
language classroom, teachers should also remember the
importance of the L2 and in what ways it can help learners to
actively participate in the classroom rather than just follow
their teachers’ guidelines.
When teachers choose to code switch from the L2 to the
L1, and vice versa, they should only choose to do so for
better results, to motivate students or even to clarify certain
tasks. It is quite understandable that code switching will
occur more with young learners rather than older learners,
because of young learners’ limited knowledge of vocabulary.
As it has been shown from previous research, opinions and
beliefs on learners’ preferences as far as their teacher varies,
so as the amount of code switching that takes place in the
classroom. Each classroom is unique and each teacher,
native or not, should decide on the techniques which will be
used for better understanding, based upon their learners’
needs.
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