Stress and strain
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The document defines stress and strain in rocks. It explains that stress can be compressive, tensional, or shear as a result of plates moving or pressing against each other. Strain is the adjustment rocks undergo due to stress, which can result in changes to volume, shape, or fracturing. There are three types of strain: elastic, where rocks return to their original shape after stress; plastic, where rocks are permanently deformed after stress; and fracture, where rocks break or crack.
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Fault
A fault is a break or fracture between two blocks of rocks in response to stress.
One block has moved relative to the other block.
The surface along which the blocks move is called a fault plane.
Faulting produced the earthquakes.
Thus earthquakes may occur because:
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b) Movement or re-activation of an already existing fault.
Ch19 building the earths surface
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This document discusses how the movement of tectonic plates leads to the formation of folds and faults in rocks. It defines folds as bent rock layers due to compression, and faults as fractures between blocks of rock. There are three main types of folds - anticlines that arch up, synclines that arch down, and monoclines that bend rock layers. The three main types of faults are normal faults from tension, reverse faults from compression, and strike-slip faults from shear stresses. Stresses like compression, tension and shearing can cause rocks to fold, fracture or slip, resulting in plastic deformation or elastic deformation.
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2) Slip occurs due to the movement of dislocations through the crystal. When a crystal is stressed beyond its elastic limit, dislocations cause steps by slipping planes that divide the crystal into blocks.
3) The motion of dislocations leading to a macroscopic shape change is that dislocations form by pushing a plane in the crystal, and steps occur when dislocations leave the crystal, ultimately leading to a deformed rhombus shape.
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There are several types of stresses that can cause earthquakes, including tension, shearing, and compression. Tension occurs when rocks are pulled apart, shearing when rocks slip past each other, and compression when rocks are squeezed together. Normal faults are caused by tension in the earth's crust and form when the hanging wall above the fault is pulled away from the footwall below. Compression stress can squeeze and fold rocks, contributing to the formation of mountains.
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Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy from faulting or breaking of rocks deep within the earth. The majority of earthquakes occur along plate boundaries where tectonic plates are converging, diverging, or sliding past one another. Earthquakes generate seismic waves that radiate out from the hypocenter or focus, including P waves, S waves, and surface waves. The location and magnitude of earthquakes can be determined through analysis of seismic wave arrival times recorded by seismographs. Larger earthquakes pose significant hazards through ground shaking and can potentially trigger destructive tsunamis.
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This document discusses crustal deformation and geologic structures. It describes the different types of stresses that cause deformation, including compressional, tensional, and shear stresses associated with convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries. It also explains how rocks deform through folding, faulting, and fracturing in response to these stresses. Specific structures covered include folds like anticlines and synclines, as well as normal, reverse, thrust, and strike-slip faults. The document concludes by discussing how geologists measure and map the orientation of rock layers and faults.
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Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 6
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Stress and strain
- 1. Presented by: Robbie Liza E. Caytiles
- 2. Stress a force that tends to compress, pull apart or distort a rock
- 3. A. Compressive Stress -Results from the movement of two pressing plates pressing on a stationary plate. (Image courtesy of Michael Kimberly, North Carolina State Univ.)
- 4. B. Tensional Stress -The effect of one part of plate moving away from fixed plate. (Image courtesy of Michael Kimberly, North Carolina State Univ.)
- 5. C. Shear Stress -Results from one sliding motion of two plates which pass one another by one plate sliding past another fixed plate. (Image courtesy of Michael Kimberly, North Carolina State Univ.)
- 6. Strain The adjustment to which could result into a change volume or shape or could lead to breaking.
- 7. A. Elastic Strain -Wherein flexibility of rocks units are displayed by going back to their original shape after they are freed from stress. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=strain
- 8. B. Plastic Strain -Occurs when rock units are deformed either by molding or bending after the stress was released. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=strain
- 9. B. Fracture Strain -When rock units break or crack. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=strain