Ss project history

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PRESENTATION BY
NAME - YASH R CHOPRA
STD - 8 – C
ROLLNO - 12
SUBJECT - SOCIAL SCIENCE
TAUGHT BY -TR. PALLAVI NAIR
TOPIC - ENGLISH FA-1 (PROJECT)
SUB. DATE - 28-02-2013
SEMESTER - 2nd
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Topics
 The Revolt of 1857.
 Aftermath of Indian Rebellion.
 Education in British India.
 Starting of Vernacular Education by Some
Reformers.
 Women and Reforms.
 Caste System in British India.
 Efforts to Reduce Social Evils by Reformers.
 Colonialism And De-urbanisation in British India.
 Urban change.
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 The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India
Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the town of Meerut, and soon escalated
into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain
and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region.[3]The
rebellion posed a considerable threat to Company power in that region,[4]
and was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858.[3]The
rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great
Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Uprising of 1857, the
Sepoy Rebellion and the Sepoy Mutiny.
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Causes of the Mutiny
 The causes for the revolt of 1987 was can categorized under 1. Economic Causes 2.
Political Causes 3. Social 4. Religion 5. Military and 6. Immediate causes.
 1. Economic Causes:
 The most important cause of popular discontent was the British policy of
economically exploiting India. This hurt all sections of society. The peasants suffered
due to high revenue demands and the strict revenue collection policy. Artisans and
craftsmen were ruined by the large-scale influx of cheap British manufactured goods
into India which, in turn, made their hand-made goods uneconomical to produce.
People who made a living by following religious and cultural pursuits lost their source
of livelihood due to the withdrawal of royal patronage caused by the displacement of
the old ruling classes.
 2. Political Causes:
 The British policy of territorial annexations led to the displacement of a large number
of rulers and chiefs. The vigorous application of the policies of Subsidiary Alliance and
Doctrine of Lapse angered the ruling sections of the society.
 The annexation of Awadh, on grounds of misgovernment, was greatly resented. The
Nawabs of Awadh had always been loyal to the British. The annexation was widely
seen as a blatant act of back-stabbing by the British. It deeply hurt the sentiments of
the Company’s sepoys because most of them came from Awadh. Moreover, even
under the new regime, the people of Awadh got no relief from oppression. Peasants
had to pay even higher revenue and additional taxes were imposed
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 3. Social Causes:
 The social reforms introduced by the British were looked upon with
suspicion by the conservative sections of the Indian society. Reforms such
as abolition of ‘sati’, legalization of widow remarriage and extension of
western education to women were looked upon as examples of
interference in the social customs of the country. The social discrimination
faced by the Indians due to the British attitude of racial superiority also
led to much resentment. Educated Indians were denied promotions and
appointments to high office. This turned them against the British.
 4. Religious Causes:
 A major cause of the outbreak of the revolt was the fear among the
people that the British government was determined to destroy their
religion and convert Indians to Christianity. The increasing activities of the
Christian missionaries and the actual conversions made by them were
taken as a proof of this fear. The policy of taxing lands belonging to
temples and mosques lent further support to this idea. The belief that
their religion was under threat, united all sections of society against a
common enemy.
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Military Causes:
 Indian soldiers formed seven-eighth of the total British troops in India. As
they were an integral part of the Indian society, they too suffered the
consequences of the oppressive British rule. Besides, they had other
grievances. The Indian sepoys were looked upon as inferior beings and
treated with contempt by their British officers. They were paid much less
than the British soldiers. All avenues of the promotion were closed to them
as all the higher army posts were reserved for the British.
 There were other specific and more immediate causes for the discontent
among the sepoys. The annexation of Awadh inflamed their strong feelings
against foreign rule. They were also influenced by the general fear that their
religion was in danger. The order that forbade the sepoys from wearing caste
and sectarian marks hurt their sentiments deeply. So also the Act of 1816
which required the new recruits to travel overseas, if needed. The Hindu
sepoys resented this as according to the popular Hindu belief, travel across
the sea led to a loss of caste. Another cause of sepoy discontent was the
withdrawal of the Foreign Service allowance (‘batta’), which the sepoys were
getting for fighting outside the country.
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 6. Immediate Cause:
 Discontent and resentment against British rule had been growing among the Indians
for a long time. By AD 1857, the stage was set for a massive revolt. Only a spark was
needed to set the country ablaze. That spark was provided by as small a thing as a rifle
cartridge.
 At this time, the Enfield rifle was introduced in the army. Its cartridges were covered
with a greased paper cover. This greased cover had to be bitten off before the
cartridge could be loaded into the rifle. The news spread that the grease was made of
cow and pig fat. As the Hindus consider the cow sacred and the Muslims do not eat
pit’s meat, both these communities were enraged at such a blatant attempt to harm
their religion. This incident, became the immediate cause of the revolt.
 The first soldier to protest against using the greased cartridges was Mangal Pandey.
He refused to use the cartridges and was hanged. On 24 April 1857, some soldiers
stationed at Meerut also refused to use the cartridges. On 9 May 1857, they were
severely punished for this. This incident sparked off a general mutiny among the
sepoys of Meerut. On 10 May 1857, these rebel soldiers killed their British officers,
released their imprisoned comrades and hoisted the flag of revolt. This was the
official beginning of the ‘Great Revolt’. On 11 May 1857, they reached Delhi. Here,
they were joined by the local infantry. The rebels seized Delhi and declared the
Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar as the emperor of India.
This belief was strengthened when the British furnished the soldiers with cartridges
coated with grease made from the fat of cows (sacred to Hindus) and of pigs
(anathema to Muslims). The British replaced the cartridges when the mistake was
realized; but suspicion persisted, and in Feb., 1857, began a series of incidents in
which sepoys refused to use the cartridges.
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Aftermath of Indian Rebellion
 Shaken by the events of the Indian rebellion of 1857, Britain dissolved the East
India Company and transferred ruling power over India to the Crown. The princely
states were mostly kept intact, though they lost their private armies and were
more closely watched. The all-British units were doubled in number. After the
rebellion, the British became more circumspect regarding rapid modernisation.
Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion, and from it three main
lessons were drawn. At a more practical level, it was felt that there needed to be
more communication and camaraderie between the British and Indians—not just
between British army officers and their Indian staff but in civilian life as well. The
Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and
Brahmins of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, who had formed the core of
the rebellion, were disbanded. New regiments, like the Sikhs and Baluchis,
composed of Indians who, in British estimation, had demonstrated steadfastness,
were formed. The Indian units lost their artillery. From then on, the Indian army
was to remain unchanged in its organisation until 1947.The 1861 Census had
revealed that the British population in India was 125,945. Of these only about
41,862 were civilians as compared with about 84,083 European officers and men
of the Army. In 1880, the standing Indian Army consisted of 66,000 British
soldiers, 130,000 Natives, and 350,000 soldiers in the princely armies.
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 Administrative control of India came under the prestigious Indian Civil
Service which had administrative control over all districts outside the
princely states. At first all-British, it included increasing proportions of
Indians, and totalled about 1000 men. They were very well organised,
well-educated and professional, and avoided the bribes and inside deals
that had made for great wealth among the officials of the defunct East
India Company.
 British decided that both the princes and the large land-holders, by not
joining the rebellion, had proved to be, in Lord Canning's words,
"breakwaters in a storm".They too were rewarded in the new British Raj
by being officially recognised in the treaties each state now signed with
the Crown.At the same time, it was felt that the peasants, for whose
benefit the large land-reforms of the United Provinces had been
undertaken, had shown disloyalty, by, in many cases, fighting for their
former landlords against the British.
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 The agitation unleashed by the acts led to British attacks on
demonstrators, culminating on 13 April 1919, in the Jallianwala
Bagh massacre (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in
Amritsar, Punjab. The British military commander, Brigadier-
General Reginald Dyer, blocked the main, and only entrance-cum-
exit, and ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and
unsuspecting crowd of some 15,000 men, women and children.
They had assembled peacefully at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled
courtyard, but Dyer had wanted to execute the imposed ban on
all meetings and proposed to teach all Indians a lesson the
harsher way.A total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people
(as according to an official British commission; Indian officials'
estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding 1,137 in the
massacre.

Education in British India
 English Education Act -
 The English Education Act was a legislative Act of the Council of India in
1835 giving effect to a decision in 1835 by William Bentinck, 4th Duke of
Portland, the then Governor-General of British India to reallocate funds the
East India Company was required by the British Parliament to spend on
education and literature in India. Formerly, they had supported traditional
Muslim and Hindu education and the publication of literature in the native
learned tongues (Sanskrit and Arabic); henceforward they were to support
establishments teaching a Western curriculum with English as the language
of instruction. Together with other measures promoting English as the
language of administration and of the higher law courts (replacing Persian),
this led eventually to English becoming one of the languages of India, rather
than simply the native tongue of its foreign rulers.
 In discussions leading up to the Act Thomas Babington Macaulay produced
his famous Memorandum on (Indian)Education which was scathing on the
inferiority of native (particularly Hindu) culture and learning. The Act itself
however took a less negative attitude to traditional education, and was soon
succeeded by further measures based upon the provision of adequate
funding for both approaches. Vernacular language education, however
continued to receive little funding.
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British support for Indian
learning
 When the British Parliament had renewed the charter of the East
India Company for 20 years in 1813, it had required the Company
to apply 100,000 rupees per year “for the revival and promotion
of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of
India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of
the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories.”
This had gone to support traditional forms (and content) of
education, which (like their contemporary equivalents in
England) were firmly non-utilitarian.
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 By the early 1820s some administrators within the East India
Company were questioning if this was a sensible use of the money.
James Mill noted that the declared purpose of the Madrassa
(Mohammedan College) in Calcutta and the Hindu College in Benares
set up by the company had been “to make a favourable impression,
by our encouragement of their literature, upon the minds of the
natives” but took the view that the aim of the company should have
been to further not Oriental learning but “useful learning.” Indeed,
private enterprise colleges had begun to spring up in Bengal teaching
Western knowledge in English (“English education”), to serve a native
clientele which felt it would be more important that their sons learnt
to understand the English than that they were taught to appreciate
classic poetry.
 Broadly similar issues (‘classical education’ vs ‘liberal education’) had
already arisen for education in England with existing grammar
schools being unwilling to give instruction in subjects other than
Latin or Greek and were to end in an expansion of their curriculum to
include modern subjects. In the Indian situation a complicating factor
was that the ‘classical education’ reflected the attitudes and beliefs of
the various traditions in the sub-continent, ‘English education’ clearly
did not, and there was felt to be a danger of an adverse reaction
among the existing learned classes of India to any withdrawal of
support for them.
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Macaulay’s “Minute Upon Indian
Education”
 To remove all doubt, however, Macaulay produced and
circulated a Minute on the subject Macaulay argued that
support for the publication of books in Sanskrit and Arabic
should be withdrawn, support for traditional education
should be reduced to funding for the Madrassa at Delhi
and the Hindu College at Benares, but students should no
longer be paid to study at these establishments.The
money released by these steps should instead go to fund
education in Western subjects, with English
as the language of instruction.
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Sir Charles Wood’s Dispach
on Education
 Wood`s Despatch on Education in 1854 laid the foundation on
which the educational system has since developed. Various
problems related to education in India had become one of the
key concerns of the British government by 1853. In order to
provide a solution, the secretary of state of that time, Sir Charles
Wood, presented a despatch to the directors of the British East
India Company. The despatch expressed that education in English
as well as Indian local languages should be enhanced and
encouraged through out the nation. According to Charles Wood,
the English institutions could serve as the useful model for
education. In 1854, Wood prepared his comprehensive despatch
on the scheme of the future education in India. The despatch
came to be considered as the Magna Carta of English education
in India. The Scheme of education, as proposed by Wood`s
Despatch, envisaged a co-ordinated system of education through
out the country.
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
Universities under Wood`s Despatch
Department of Public Instruction was set up under the Charge of a
Director, in each of the five provinces of the Company`s territories.
This Department was entrusted with the charge of reviewing the
progress of education in the province and submit an annual report to
the government. Universities, based on the model of London
Universities, were proposed for Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. Even
the administrative body of the University followed the models laid
down by the London University. Moreover, a University might set up
professorship in various branches of learning. The Wood`s Despatch
gave support for the promotion of the women education in India.
The ideals and methods advocated in Wood`s Despatch had
dominated the educational scenario of India for a protracted period
of time. During this period India witnessed a period of complete
westernisation of the educational system. The Western system of
education gradually replaced the indigenous methods of education
and learning. Most of the educational institutions during this time
were run by the European teachers, who were the part of the
Education Department of the Government of India.
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Starting of Vernacular Education
in Some Reformers
 Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
 Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for
girls. When the first schools were opened in the mid nineteenth century, many
people were afraid of them. They feared that schools would take away girls
from home and prevent them from doing their domestic duties. Therefore,
most educated women were taught at home by their liberal fathers or
husbands.
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
 Roy believed education to be an implement for social reform. In 1817, in
collaboration with David Hare, he set up the Hindu College at Calcutta. In 1822,
Roy founded the Anglo-Hindu school, followed four years later by the Vedanta
College, where he insisted that his teachings of monotheistic doctrines be
incorporated with "modern, western curriculum"; Vedanta College offered
courses as a synthesis of Western and Indian learning. Roy supported induction
of western learning into Indian education. He advocated the study of English,
science, western medicine and technology. He spent his money on a college to
promote these studies.
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Sir SyedAhmed Khan
Sir Syed began promoting Western-style scientific education by
founding modern schools and journals and organising Muslim
entrepreneurs. Towards this goal, Sir Syed founded the Muhammedan
Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 with the aim of promoting social and
economic development of Indian Muslims.
Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi's model of education was directed toward his alternative vision
of the social order: "Gandhi’s basic education was, therefore, an
embodiment of his perception of an ideal society consisting of small,
self-reliant communities with his ideal citizen being an industrious, self-respecting
and generous individual living in a small cooperative
community.Gandhiji established NaiTalim Schools. NaiTalim is a spiritual
principle which states that knowledge and work are not separate.
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Women and Reforms
 Women`s reforms in British India were the outcome of the commendable
role played by various reformers who took up the cause of women`s
oppression with passion. They did a commendable of job of taking up the
cause of women`s freedom from traditional modes of bondage. Indian
society at the time was a completely oppressive one as far as women were
concerned. There were myriad issues faced by Indian women for centuries
and they served to keep the women in a submissive role. Various outdated
and harmful practices such as child marriage, Sati, female infanticide,
polygamy, lack of women`s education and many more such evils were
rampant in society and required an urgent redressal. It was with an aim of
resolving these various issues that the campaign for reforms was
undertaken..Issues like child marriage as well as raising the marriageable
age of women, widow remarriage, women`s education and Sati were some
of the burning issues that were taken up at the time. A major surge in
reform activities came about with the coming of the British in India as they
were able to provide a boost to the works of the Indian reformers who were
championing women`s cause.
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 Across India, there is a long list of reformers who undertook major
efforts on women`s behalf. Reformers were found throughout
India and among all communities. They addressed a number of
issues, most of them relating to marriage and the importance of
female education. What is especially interesting about these
nineteenth-century reformers is their activism.
 In Bengal, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed female
education and led the campaign to legalize widow remarriage, and
Keshab Chandra Sen, a leader of the Brahmo Samaj, sought to
bring women into new roles through schools, prayer meetings,
and experiments in living. By the turn of the century, Swami
Vivekananda, the leader of an activist order of Hindu monasticism,
was arguing that women could become a powerful regenerative
force. In North India, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of
the Arya Samaj, encouraged female education and condemned
customs he regarded as degrading to women. These included
marriages between partners of unequal ages, dowry, and
polygamy.
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 In western India, Mahadev Govind Ranade founded the National
Social Conference to focus attention on social reforms. At the same
time, the Parsee journalist Behramji Malabari captured the attention
of the British reading public with his articles in `The Times` on the
evils of child marriage and the tragedy of enforced widowhood for
young women. Dhondo Keshav Karve offered a practical solution
with his institutions in Pune to educate young widows to become
teachers in girls` schools. In South India, R. Venkata RatnamNaidu
opposed the Devadasi system while Virasalingam Pantulu worked for
marriage reform. Both sought to increase opportunities for female
education.
Thus mentioned were some of the major social reformers in different
parts of India who played a rather important role in bringing about
awareness regarding the disparaging condition of women in society.
It was this increased awareness and constant campaign for social
change which ultimately led to a change in women`s position in India.
The social reformers` ideas on gender were rooted in personal
experience, and during their lives they attempted to change those
with whom they lived and worked.
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Caste System in British India
 `Varna` literally means group in Sanskrit. With the advent of the
Aryans the ancient Indian society got divided into four sections-
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. The reference to the Varna
System can be traced back to the religious texts of the land. In
Mahabharata (Anusasana Parva, Chapter 163) it is said: "O Devi, if
even a sudra is actually engaged in the occupation and pure behavior
of a brahmana, he becomes a brahmana. Moreover, a Vaishya can
become a Kshatriya. Therefore, neither the source of one`s birth, nor
his reformation, nor his education is the criterion of a brahmana. The
vritti, or occupation, is the real standard by which one is known as a
brahmana." So it is not birth but one`s karma that decided his class.
The class system gave way to caste system. The caste of an individual
was decided by his birth. Hence, a rigid one replaced the flexible
Varna system. The caste system in ancient India divided the masses
and brought in inequality and suppression.
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The Indian caste system was primarily divided into four main sections: -
1. Brahmin : At the top of the social hierarchy were the Brahmins. The sages
of Indian culture are all Brahmins.They were wise men who imparted
knowledge and wisdom to the society. They were highly respected in the
ancient Indian society. They were the advisors in the royal courts. In the post
Vedic Age they became oppressive and exploited and misguided the society.
2. Kshatriya : The warrior or the ruling class ranked second in the Varna
System. They were the protectors of the society. The Kshatriyas were
depicted as gallant, courageous and intelligent. They were the true patriots.
With the evolution of the caste system their position in society more or less
remained the same.
3. Vaishya : This was the merchant class. The caste system had little effect on
them. They were the moneyed class and contributed a great deal in the
economic growth of the nation. The Vaishyas were also responsible for
introducing Indian culture to the other nations. The Brahmins kept them in
good humor as Vaishya community constructed temples and other buildings
for social cause.
4. Sudra : The worst hit by the caste system in India were the Sudras. Though
they were looked down as dasas and dashyus, yet they are not discriminated.
In the post Vedic ages there evolved a new section of sudras known as the
Untouchables. They were social outcasts because they could not belong to
any caste and did menial jobs. They were denied entry into the mainstream.
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Efforts by Social Reformers
to reduce Social-Evils
 In British India , there were many social (Orthodox)
Evils which literally misguided and exploited our
country.Social-evils like sati,child
marraige,polygamy, lack of women`s
education,caste system,untouchability and
discriminations were common in India society.
 To reduce and then remove this from society many
british officers shown some kindness and made
many norms against this evils.
 Indian Reformers also fought against this evils to
uplift India and women’s poor condition in society.
 Let us now see about them in brief.
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British Response to Indian
Orthodox
 In 1835 English was made the medium of instruction in India's
schools. Western-educated Hindu elites sought to rid Hinduism
of controversial social practices, including the varna caste
system, child marriage, and sati. Literary and debating
societies established in Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay
(Mumbai) became forums for open political discourse.
 Even while these modernising trends influenced Indian society,
many Indians increasingly despised British rule. With the British
now dominating most of the subcontinent, they grew
increasingly abusive of local customs by, for example, staging
parties in mosques, dancing to the music of regimental bands
on the terrace of the Taj Mahal, using whips to force their way
through crowded bazaars (as recounted by General Henry Blake
,and mistreating Indians (including the sepoys).In the years
after the annexation of Punjab in 1849, several mutinies broke
out among the sepoys; these were put down by force.
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 Raja Ram Mohan Roy (may 22, 1772 – September 27, 1833) was a
founder of the Brahma Sabha in 1828 which engendered the Brahmo
Samaj, an influential Indian socio-religious reform movement. He is best
known for his efforts to abolish the practice of sati, the Hindu funeral
practice in which the widow was compelled to sacrifice herself on her
husband’s funeral pyre. It was he who first introduced the word
"Hinduism" into the English language in 1816. For his diverse
contributions to society, He is regarded as one of the most important
figures in the Indian Renaissance. Ram Mohan Roy's impact on modern
Indian history was a revival of the pure and ethical principles of the
Vedanta school of philosophy as found in the Upanishads.
 Mahatma Gandhi (2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) (Father of the
Nation, Rashtrapita, was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of
India during the Indian independence movement. He was the pioneer of
'satyagraha'—resistance to tyranny through mass civil disobedience,
firmly founded upon ahimsa or total non violence—which led India to
independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom
across the world. Gandhi led nationwide campaigns to ease poverty,
expand women's rights, build religious and ethnic amity, end
untouchability, and increase economic self-reliance.
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 Annie Besant (October 1, 1847 – September 20, 1933) was a
prominent theosophist, women's rights activist, writer and orator
and supporter of Irish and Indian self-rule. In 1908 Annie Besant
became President of the Theosophical Society and began to steer
the society away from Buddhism and towards Hinduism. She also
became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National
Congress. When war broke out in Europe in 1914 she helped launch
the Home Rule League to campaign for democracy in India and
dominion status within the Empire which culminated in her election
as president of the India National Congress in late 1917.
 Swami Vivekananda (January 12, 1863 – July 4, 1902) was the
founder of Ramakrishna Mission. Swami Vivekananda was also
known as a great scholar. His real name was Narendra Nath Dutta.
Vivekananda is considered to be a major force in the revival of
Hinduism in modern India. He was considered a key figure in the
introduction of Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and America. He
introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's Religions at
Chicago in 1893.
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 Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891) was a philosopher, academic,
educator, writer, translator, printer, publisher, entrepreneur, reformer, and
philanthropist. His efforts to simplify and modernize Bangla prose were
significant. Vidyasagar championed the uplift of the status of women in
India, particularly in his native Bengal. Unlike some other reformers who
sought to set up alternative societies or systems, he sought, however, to
transform orthodox Hindu society from within. Vidyasagar introduced the
practice of widow remarriages to mainstream Hindu society. In earlier times,
remarriages of widows would occur sporadically only among progressive
members of the Brahmo Samāj. Vidyasagar took the initiative in proposing
and pushing through the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 (26th July) in India.
He also demonstrated that the system of polygamy without restriction was
not sanctioned by the ancient Hindu Shastras.
 B. R. Ambedkar (14 April 1891 — 6 December 1956) was an Indian jurist,
political leader, Buddhist activist, philosopher, thinker, anthropologist,
historian, orator, prolific writer, economist, scholar, editor, revolutionary and
the revivalist of Buddhism in India. He was also the chief architect of the
Indian Constitution. Ambedkar spent his whole life fighting against social
discrimination, the system of Chaturvarna — the Hindu categorization of
human society into four varnas — and the Hindu caste system.

Colonialism And De-urbanisation
in British India
 By the middle of the century, the British had already gained direct
or indirect control over almost all of India. British India contained the
most populous and valuable provinces of the British Empire and thus
became known as "the jewel in the British crown".
 Colonialism
 I n the late eighteenth century, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras rose in
importance as Presidency cities. They became the centres of
British power in the different regionsof India. At the same time, a
host of smaller cities declined. Many towns
manufacturingspecialized goods declined due to a drop in the
demand for what they produced.Old trading centres and ports could
not survive when the flow of trade moved to newcentres. Similarly,
earlier centres of regional power collapsed when local rulers were
defeated by the British and new centres of administration emerged.
This process is often described as de-urbanisation. Cities such as
Machlipatnam, Surat andSeringapatam were deurbanized during
the nineteenth century. By the early twentieth century, only 11 per
cent of Indians were living in cities.
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 Taxes in India decreased during the colonial period for most of India's
population; with the land tax revenue claiming 15% of India's national
income during Mogul times compared with 1% at the end of the
colonial period. The percentage of national income for the village
economy increased from 44% during Mogul times to 54% by the end of
colonial period. India's per capita GDP decreased from $550 in 1700 to
$520 by 1857, although it later increased to $618, by 1947.
 The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and
the population also grew at 1%. The result was, on average, no long-term
change in per capita income levels, though cost of living had
grown higher. Agriculture was still dominant, with most peasants at the
subsistence level. Extensive irrigation systems were built, providing an
impetus for switching to cash crops for export and for raw materials for
Indian industry, especially jute, cotton, sugarcane, coffee and tea.
India's global share of GDP fell drastically from above 20% to less than
5% in the colonial period
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Urban change
 While British supremacy did not change the fact that India was
becoming rapidly urbanized, it did lead to new alignments and
priorities, since the controlling power was now different. A
number of new towns and new suburbs were built to house the
British, and the pattern of new town planning changed. India
was still divided into administrative districts as under the
Mughals, and the towns which functioned as district
headquarters were the ones where most of the new
architecture was built.
The planning and urban design policies of the British followed
certain principles – (a) their perceptions of the nature of the
Indian city, (b) the fear of further revolts along the lines of the
Mutiny of 1857,, and (c) planning techniques already in use for
Britain’s industrial cities.
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 The economic boom of the later half of the 19th century translated into
frenetic building activity in British India. The application of urban design
guidelines resulted in the unified character that old British settlements in
India still possess. These urban design projects could not fail to be
influenced by precedents in Britain: the Royal Crescent at Bath by John
Wood, and the Quadrant in Regent’s Park, London by John Nash were
particularly influential, translating into Elphinstone Circle in Bombay. British
architecture progressed from single buildings set in open surrounding to
more densely packed urban schemes.

In addition to major urban design schemes, it was the civil lines and the
cantonments which remain today a major evidence of 19th century British
presence, and which in turn have influenced much middle-class housing
development in modern India. The cantonments and civil lines both were
generally laid out as gridiron planned communities with central
thoroughfares (the famous ‘Mall Roads’), with tree-lined streets, regularly
divided building plots and bungalows as the main housing type. Churches
and cemeteries, clubs, race and golf courses, and other trappings of an
easy civil life were soon to follow.
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Urban Design-The Cantonment
The Cantonment was a British military
settlement which was to spread out all over
India wherever the British were present in
sizable numbers. Originally conceived as a
military base for British troops, the
cantonment also began to house civilians
who were associated with servicing the
military, and developed into a full-fledged
mini-city of its own. The second half of the
19th century saw this transformation
complete. Bangalore cantonment had, for
example, a population of 100,000 by the
early 20th century and consisted of public
offices, churches, parks, shops and
schools. It was an entity distinct from the
old city – traffic between the two had to
stop at a toll-gate and pay entry tax. The
cantonment thus developed into a
European town in India, whose main house
type was the bungalow.
6
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Urban Design-The The Bungalow
 The bungalow’s design evolved
as a type over a hundred
years. While the actual model
for a bungalow remains
controversial, it appears to
have dual origins: the detached
rural Bengal house sitting in its
compound (from the word root
bangla – from Bengal), and the
British suburban villa. It was a
fusion of these two types that
led to a building form which
would later become an
enduring symbol of the Raj.
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 The first bungalows inhabited by the East India Company
agents were initially the same as the kutcha local ones, but
gradually outstripped their origins to become an accurate
reflection of hierarchy amongst the English community. The
typical residential bungalow for the wealthy.The British
showed a hierarchical system no less developed than the
complex caste system which they ascribed to India.
 The early bungalows had long, low classical lines and
detailing. The Gothic revival in England brought about a
corresponding change in bungalow design – spawning
buildings with pitched roofs and richly carpentered details
including such features as the ‘monkey tops’ of Bangalore. The
Classical bungalow with its Doric, and later, in New Delhi for
instance, Tuscan orders became a symbol not only of an
European heritage but also of the military and political might
of Britain. That the bungalow continues to evoke associations
of wealth and power is evident from its continued relevance as
a building type in India today.
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Bungalow

 The Indian economy under British rule underwent a phase of
arrested development. This was so, inspite of the fact that most pre-requisites
for economic development were met by India even prior
to the British advent. These were; a prosperous agriculture,
significant indigenous industry, sizable exports, abundance of
minerals and ores, and above all, a surplus which could be
invested. Thus, India had the potential for economic growth. With
the advent of the British came modern business, technology, capital,
and the political institution. The obvious question that follows is
that, why did not India experience any significant economic
progress. The answer to this lies in the nature of colonial relationship
between Britain and India.
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Urban Design-The Railways
 India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century
which was the fourth largest in the world. The railways at first
were privately owned and operated. It was run by British
administrators, engineers and craftsmen. At first, only the
unskilled workers were Indians.
 The East India Company (and later the colonial government)
encouraged new railway companies backed by private investors
under a scheme that would provide land and guarantee an annual
return of up to five percent during the initial years of operation.
The companies were to build and operate the lines under a 99
year lease, with the government having the option to buy them
earlier.
 Two new railway companies, Great Indian Peninsular Railway
(GIPR) and East Indian Railway (EIR) began in 1853–54 to
construct and operate lines near Bombay and Calcutta. The first
passenger railway line in North India between Allahabad and
Kanpur opened in 1859.
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 Soon several large princely states built their own rail systems and
the network spread to the regions that became the modern-day
states of Assam, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. The route mileage
of this network increased from 1,349 kilometres (838mi) in 1860 to
25,495 kilometres (15,842 mi) in 1880 – mostly radiating inland from
the three major port cities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. Most of
the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised
by British engineers. The system was heavily built, using a wide
gauge, sturdy tracks and strong bridges. By 1900 India had a full
range of rail services with diverse ownership and management,
operating on broad, metre and narrow gauge networks.
 The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts
in Britain. There were railway maintenance workshops in India, but
they were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair locomotives.
 India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money
and expertise into a very well built system designed for military
reasons (after the Mutiny of 1857), and with the hope that it would
stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and too expensive for
the small amount of freight traffic it carried
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Telecommunication
 The history of Indian telecom can be started with the
introduction of telegraph. The Indian postal and telecom sectors
are one of the worlds oldest. In 1850, the first experimental
electric telegraph line was started between Kolkata and Diamond
Harbour. In 1851, it was opened for the use of the British East
India Company. The Posts and Telegraphs department occupied a
small corner of the Public Works Department,[11] at that time.
 Subsequently, the construction of 4,000 miles (6,400 km) of
telegraph lines connecting Kolkata (then Calcutta) and Peshawar
in the north along with Agra, Mumbai (then Bombay) through
Sindwa Ghats, and Chennai (then Madras) in the south, as well as
Ootacamund and Bangalore was started in November 1853.
William O'Shaughnessy, who pioneered the telegraph and
telephone in India, belonged to the Public Works Department,
and worked towards the development of telecom throughout
this period. A separate department was opened in 1854 when
telegraph facilities were opened to the public.
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Industry
 The entrepreneur JamsetjiTata (1839–1904) began his
industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning,
Weaving, and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. While
other Indian mills produced cheap coarse yarn (and later cloth)
using local short-staple cotton and cheap machinery imported
from Britain, Tata did much better by importing expensive
longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex
ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer
yarn that could compete with imports from Britain.
 In the 1890s, he launched plans to move into heavy industry
using Indian funding. The Raj did not provide capital, but
aware of Britain's declining position against the U.S. and
Germany in the steel industry, it wanted steel mills in India so
it is did promise to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not
otherwise sell.The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), now
headed by his son DorabjiTata (1859–1932), opened its plant
at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908. It used American technology,
not British and became the leading iron and steel producer in
India, with 120,000 employees in 1945. ][ NEXT

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