Anticholinergics are drugs that inhibit the pharmacological response of acetylcholine (Ach) by competitively binding to and blocking muscarinic receptors. Their general structure consists of two carbocyclic or heterocyclic rings (R1 and R2) connected by a chain with an ester or ether group (X) and a basic nitrogen substituent. The R3 group can be hydrogen, hydroxyl, or hydroxymethyl. Maximum potency is seen with 2 carbon units between the ring and nitrogen. Older anticholinergics like atropine and scopolamine are non-selective for muscarinic receptor subtypes, while newer drugs show selectivity. Anticholinergics are used to treat
Surfactant is a surface active agent which are used to prevent surface tension and interfacial tension. It is important prevent interfacial fluidity, it is amphiphilic molecule having Hydrophilic head and Lipophilic tail. It is important for poorly water soluble drug and it is important to influencing water solubility of poorly water soluble drug. It is important to prevent the inter and intra subject variability.
It act as solubilizing agent, suspending and emulsifying agent, stabilizing agent, wetting agent, detergent, Foaming agent.
It is important for preparation of Nanoemulsion, Nanosuspension, Microemulsion.
It is important to show antibacterial as well as antimicrobial activity.
It is important for Novel drug delivery system, oral drug delivery system, Targeted drug delivery system.
It is important to influencing oral bioavailability of poorly water soluble drug.
This document summarizes the Dakin reaction, an organic redox reaction where an ortho- or para-hydroxylated phenyl aldehyde or ketone reacts with hydrogen peroxide in base to form a benzenediol and a carboxylate. It discusses the mechanism of the Dakin reaction and its synthetic applications. It also describes Dakin's solution, a hypochlorite solution used as an antiseptic to prevent and treat skin and tissue infections, and reviews its uses, side effects, precautions, and interactions.
Phsicochemical properties according to pci syllubus.
The ability of a chemical compound to elicit a pharmacological/ therapeutic effect is related to the influence of various physical and chemical (physicochemical) properties of the chemical substance on the bio molecule that it interacts with.
1)Physical Properties : Physical property of drug is responsible for its action
2)Chemical Properties :The drug react extracellularly according to simple chemical reactions like neutralization, chelation, oxidation etc.
The document discusses the partition coefficient, which is a measurement of a drug's lipophilicity or hydrophilicity. It defines the partition coefficient as the ratio of the amount of unionized drug distributed between the organic and aqueous phases at equilibrium. It describes how the partition coefficient is measured by dissolving a drug into two immiscible solvents - an organic and aqueous phase - and determining the amount of drug dissolved in each. It outlines a separation method using a separating funnel to dissolve and separate the drug into the two phases, then using analytical techniques like UV spectroscopy to determine the drug concentration in each phase and calculate the partition coefficient.
1) Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid formed by the reaction of malonic acid with urea. Barbituric acid was first synthesized in 1864.
2) Barbiturates are classified based on their duration of action - long acting (>6 hrs), intermediate acting (3-6 hrs), short acting (<3 hrs), and ultra short acting. Their chemical structures determine duration of action.
3) Extensive testing of barbiturate structures has defined structure-activity relationships. Substitutions that increase lipid solubility, like lower alkyl groups at position 5 and N-methylation at position 3, decrease duration of action by enhancing brain penetration and liver metabolism. Replacing the
Anticholinergics are drugs that inhibit the pharmacological response of acetylcholine (Ach) by competitively binding to and blocking muscarinic receptors. Their general structure consists of two carbocyclic or heterocyclic rings (R1 and R2) connected by a chain with an ester or ether group (X) and a basic nitrogen substituent. The R3 group can be hydrogen, hydroxyl, or hydroxymethyl. Maximum potency is seen with 2 carbon units between the ring and nitrogen. Older anticholinergics like atropine and scopolamine are non-selective for muscarinic receptor subtypes, while newer drugs show selectivity. Anticholinergics are used to treat
Surfactant is a surface active agent which are used to prevent surface tension and interfacial tension. It is important prevent interfacial fluidity, it is amphiphilic molecule having Hydrophilic head and Lipophilic tail. It is important for poorly water soluble drug and it is important to influencing water solubility of poorly water soluble drug. It is important to prevent the inter and intra subject variability.
It act as solubilizing agent, suspending and emulsifying agent, stabilizing agent, wetting agent, detergent, Foaming agent.
It is important for preparation of Nanoemulsion, Nanosuspension, Microemulsion.
It is important to show antibacterial as well as antimicrobial activity.
It is important for Novel drug delivery system, oral drug delivery system, Targeted drug delivery system.
It is important to influencing oral bioavailability of poorly water soluble drug.
This document summarizes the Dakin reaction, an organic redox reaction where an ortho- or para-hydroxylated phenyl aldehyde or ketone reacts with hydrogen peroxide in base to form a benzenediol and a carboxylate. It discusses the mechanism of the Dakin reaction and its synthetic applications. It also describes Dakin's solution, a hypochlorite solution used as an antiseptic to prevent and treat skin and tissue infections, and reviews its uses, side effects, precautions, and interactions.
Phsicochemical properties according to pci syllubus.
The ability of a chemical compound to elicit a pharmacological/ therapeutic effect is related to the influence of various physical and chemical (physicochemical) properties of the chemical substance on the bio molecule that it interacts with.
1)Physical Properties : Physical property of drug is responsible for its action
2)Chemical Properties :The drug react extracellularly according to simple chemical reactions like neutralization, chelation, oxidation etc.
The document discusses the partition coefficient, which is a measurement of a drug's lipophilicity or hydrophilicity. It defines the partition coefficient as the ratio of the amount of unionized drug distributed between the organic and aqueous phases at equilibrium. It describes how the partition coefficient is measured by dissolving a drug into two immiscible solvents - an organic and aqueous phase - and determining the amount of drug dissolved in each. It outlines a separation method using a separating funnel to dissolve and separate the drug into the two phases, then using analytical techniques like UV spectroscopy to determine the drug concentration in each phase and calculate the partition coefficient.
1) Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid formed by the reaction of malonic acid with urea. Barbituric acid was first synthesized in 1864.
2) Barbiturates are classified based on their duration of action - long acting (>6 hrs), intermediate acting (3-6 hrs), short acting (<3 hrs), and ultra short acting. Their chemical structures determine duration of action.
3) Extensive testing of barbiturate structures has defined structure-activity relationships. Substitutions that increase lipid solubility, like lower alkyl groups at position 5 and N-methylation at position 3, decrease duration of action by enhancing brain penetration and liver metabolism. Replacing the
This document discusses various methods for measuring particle size, including microscopy, sieving, sedimentation techniques, the Coulter counter method, and laser diffraction. It provides details on each method, such as the typical particle size ranges they measure, advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
STEREOSPECIFIC REACTION, STEREOSELECTIVE REACTION, OPTICAL PURITY, ENANTIOMERIC EXCESS.. all these topics are explained in this slide with examples and formula.
The document discusses the Knorr pyrazole synthesis reaction which converts hydrazines or derivatives and 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds to pyrazoles using an acid catalyst. The mechanism involves acid-catalyzed imine formation on either carbonyl carbon, followed by attack of the other nitrogen on the other carbonyl group. This forms a diimine compound which deprotonates to generate the final pyrazole product. Several examples of pyrazoles synthesized using this reaction are mentioned, including antipyrine, celecoxib, and metamizole sodium which have various medical applications.
Isomerism an introduction ,Geometrical Isomerism Syn Anti isomerism E-Z Isome...MuhammadBilal1523
Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. There are several types of structural isomerism including chain, positional, and functional group isomerism. Stereoisomers have the same connectivity of atoms but different orientations in space. The main types of stereoisomerism are geometrical isomerism, optical isomerism, and conformational isomerism. Geometrical isomerism occurs due to restricted bond rotation and results in cis-trans, syn-anti, and E-Z isomers.
This document provides an overview of stereochemistry concepts including:
- Stereoisomers such as configurational, conformational, geometrical, optical isomers and relationships between them.
- Rules for assigning R/S and E/Z descriptors using the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority system to name stereoisomers.
- Cis-trans nomenclature for geometrical isomers and its limitations.
- Fischer's D-L notation for distinguishing carbohydrates and amino acid enantiomers and determining configurations.
- Meso compounds which are achiral despite having multiple stereocenters due to an internal plane of symmetry.
Micellization and their pharmaceutical applicationsMaria Shuaib
Micellization and their pharmaceutical applications. Micelles are aggregates of surfactant molecules that form spontaneously above a critical concentration. They consist of a hydrophobic core surrounded by a hydrophilic shell. Micelles can increase the solubility of poorly soluble drugs and protect drugs from degradation, thus improving their stability and bioavailability. They also show potential for targeted drug delivery applications such as cancer therapy. Factors like critical micelle concentration, temperature, and electrolyte concentration affect micelle formation and properties.
Clemmensen reduction- Heterocyclic and Organic chemistry- As per PCI syllabusAkhil Nagar
The Clemmensen reduction allows the deoxygenation of aldehydes or ketones using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid. This converts the carbonyl group to a methylene group, producing the corresponding hydrocarbon. It is useful for substrates that are stable to strong acid, as the acidic conditions would degrade acid-labile molecules. The mechanism involves zinc carbenoids as intermediates in the reduction, without requiring alcohol intermediates. Zinc amalgam is an alloy of zinc and mercury that dissolves zinc smoothly and evenly in the reaction mixture to facilitate the reduction.
Enantiomers are mirror images of each other that cannot be superimposed. They exist as two different forms with opposite optical rotation. The R/S system is used to name the enantiomers based on the chiral center. Chiral compounds have an asymmetric carbon atom connected to four different groups. Enantiomers interact differently with plane-polarized light, causing optical rotation that can be measured with a polarimeter. A racemic mixture contains equal amounts of both enantiomers, resulting in no net optical rotation. Resolution separates enantiomers from a racemic mixture.
Stereochemistry (Reactions of Chiral Molecules)Ashwani Dhingra
1) Stereochemistry describes reactions involving chiral molecules and stereoisomers. These reactions can generate new chiral centers, retain existing configurations, or form diastereomers.
2) The free radical chlorination of (S)-(-)-1-chloro-2-methylbutane produced six fractions. Four were optically active due to retention or generation of new stereocenters. Two were optically inactive due to bond cleavage forming a racemic mixture or loss of chirality.
3) The mechanisms and stereochemistry of the reactions determine whether optical activity is retained or lost through configurations, diastereomers, racemic mixtures, or achiral products.
This document discusses solubility and distribution phenomena. It defines key terms like solution, solute, solvent, saturated solution, and solubility. It explains that a drug's solubility is important for formulation and bioavailability. The solubility of a substance is influenced by factors like particle size, molecular size, boiling/melting points, and the presence of polar/nonpolar substituents. Solvents are also classified as polar, nonpolar, or semipolar depending on their ability to dissolve different types of solutes through intermolecular interactions like hydrogen bonding.
This document discusses solubilization and micellization. It defines solubilization as preparing an isotropic solution of a normally insoluble substance using a component that provides thermodynamic stability. Factors like particle size, temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solid affect solubilization. Surfactants are used to solubilize substances and form micelles above the critical micelle concentration. Micelles are aggregates of surfactant molecules that allow insoluble substances to be incorporated into their hydrophobic interior.
This document discusses elimination reactions, specifically E1 and E2 reactions. It explains that E1 reactions proceed through a carbocation intermediate and involve a two-step mechanism, while E2 reactions are concerted and involve both the alkyl halide and base in a single step. It also describes factors that influence the reactivity and selectivity of elimination reactions, such as substrate structure, the nature of the leaving group and base, and conformational effects.
Synthesis of benzamide from benzyl chlorideRabia Aziz
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
Synthesis of benzamide from benzyl chloride Lab
Critical micelle concentration refers to the minimum concentration of surfactant above which micelles start to form spontaneously in a solution. It is an important characteristic of surfactants that can be determined through measuring changes in properties like surface tension, conductivity, and turbidity at varying concentrations. Several factors influence the critical micelle concentration, including the structure of the surfactant's hydrophobic group and the presence of electrolytes in the solution.
This document discusses the biological source, isolation, and chemical structure of morphine. It was first isolated from the opium poppy Papaver somniferum in 1804. Morphine has a pentacyclic ring structure and is insoluble in water and some organic solvents. It exerts its effects by interacting with opioid receptors in the central nervous system. The document also discusses morphine metabolism and the importance of various functional groups like hydroxyl groups for receptor binding and activity. Finally, it describes approaches to modify the morphine structure by adding or removing rings to synthesize compounds with analgesic activity.
stereochemistry and drug action ; basic introduction about stereochemistry and stereoisomers ; pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics concept of stereochemistry ; easson Stedman hypothesis ; stereo selectivity criteria .
This document provides a procedure for synthesizing 7-hydroxy-4-methyl coumarin via the Pechmann reaction. Resorcinol and ethyl acetoacetate are added dropwise to concentrated sulfuric acid with cooling to below 10°C. The mixture is then allowed to react at room temperature for 18 hours before being poured into an ice water mixture. The precipitate is filtered, dissolved in sodium hydroxide solution, and acidified to yield the crude product. Recrystallization from ethanol provides the pure compound with a 97% yield and melting point of 185°C. The reaction follows the general mechanism of coumarin synthesis involving initial formation of a β-hydroxy ester that then cyclizes
Aspirin is synthesized from salicylic acid using acetic anhydride as a reactant. Salicylic acid is reacted with excess acetic anhydride in the presence of phosphoric acid as a catalyst. Water is then added which causes aspirin to precipitate out of solution. The crude aspirin product is analyzed using melting point determination, titration, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The purity and percent yield of the aspirin product are calculated from these analytical methods.
This document discusses various methods for measuring particle size, including microscopy, sieving, sedimentation techniques, the Coulter counter method, and laser diffraction. It provides details on each method, such as the typical particle size ranges they measure, advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
STEREOSPECIFIC REACTION, STEREOSELECTIVE REACTION, OPTICAL PURITY, ENANTIOMERIC EXCESS.. all these topics are explained in this slide with examples and formula.
The document discusses the Knorr pyrazole synthesis reaction which converts hydrazines or derivatives and 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds to pyrazoles using an acid catalyst. The mechanism involves acid-catalyzed imine formation on either carbonyl carbon, followed by attack of the other nitrogen on the other carbonyl group. This forms a diimine compound which deprotonates to generate the final pyrazole product. Several examples of pyrazoles synthesized using this reaction are mentioned, including antipyrine, celecoxib, and metamizole sodium which have various medical applications.
Isomerism an introduction ,Geometrical Isomerism Syn Anti isomerism E-Z Isome...MuhammadBilal1523
Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. There are several types of structural isomerism including chain, positional, and functional group isomerism. Stereoisomers have the same connectivity of atoms but different orientations in space. The main types of stereoisomerism are geometrical isomerism, optical isomerism, and conformational isomerism. Geometrical isomerism occurs due to restricted bond rotation and results in cis-trans, syn-anti, and E-Z isomers.
This document provides an overview of stereochemistry concepts including:
- Stereoisomers such as configurational, conformational, geometrical, optical isomers and relationships between them.
- Rules for assigning R/S and E/Z descriptors using the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority system to name stereoisomers.
- Cis-trans nomenclature for geometrical isomers and its limitations.
- Fischer's D-L notation for distinguishing carbohydrates and amino acid enantiomers and determining configurations.
- Meso compounds which are achiral despite having multiple stereocenters due to an internal plane of symmetry.
Micellization and their pharmaceutical applicationsMaria Shuaib
Micellization and their pharmaceutical applications. Micelles are aggregates of surfactant molecules that form spontaneously above a critical concentration. They consist of a hydrophobic core surrounded by a hydrophilic shell. Micelles can increase the solubility of poorly soluble drugs and protect drugs from degradation, thus improving their stability and bioavailability. They also show potential for targeted drug delivery applications such as cancer therapy. Factors like critical micelle concentration, temperature, and electrolyte concentration affect micelle formation and properties.
Clemmensen reduction- Heterocyclic and Organic chemistry- As per PCI syllabusAkhil Nagar
The Clemmensen reduction allows the deoxygenation of aldehydes or ketones using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid. This converts the carbonyl group to a methylene group, producing the corresponding hydrocarbon. It is useful for substrates that are stable to strong acid, as the acidic conditions would degrade acid-labile molecules. The mechanism involves zinc carbenoids as intermediates in the reduction, without requiring alcohol intermediates. Zinc amalgam is an alloy of zinc and mercury that dissolves zinc smoothly and evenly in the reaction mixture to facilitate the reduction.
Enantiomers are mirror images of each other that cannot be superimposed. They exist as two different forms with opposite optical rotation. The R/S system is used to name the enantiomers based on the chiral center. Chiral compounds have an asymmetric carbon atom connected to four different groups. Enantiomers interact differently with plane-polarized light, causing optical rotation that can be measured with a polarimeter. A racemic mixture contains equal amounts of both enantiomers, resulting in no net optical rotation. Resolution separates enantiomers from a racemic mixture.
Stereochemistry (Reactions of Chiral Molecules)Ashwani Dhingra
1) Stereochemistry describes reactions involving chiral molecules and stereoisomers. These reactions can generate new chiral centers, retain existing configurations, or form diastereomers.
2) The free radical chlorination of (S)-(-)-1-chloro-2-methylbutane produced six fractions. Four were optically active due to retention or generation of new stereocenters. Two were optically inactive due to bond cleavage forming a racemic mixture or loss of chirality.
3) The mechanisms and stereochemistry of the reactions determine whether optical activity is retained or lost through configurations, diastereomers, racemic mixtures, or achiral products.
This document discusses solubility and distribution phenomena. It defines key terms like solution, solute, solvent, saturated solution, and solubility. It explains that a drug's solubility is important for formulation and bioavailability. The solubility of a substance is influenced by factors like particle size, molecular size, boiling/melting points, and the presence of polar/nonpolar substituents. Solvents are also classified as polar, nonpolar, or semipolar depending on their ability to dissolve different types of solutes through intermolecular interactions like hydrogen bonding.
This document discusses solubilization and micellization. It defines solubilization as preparing an isotropic solution of a normally insoluble substance using a component that provides thermodynamic stability. Factors like particle size, temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solid affect solubilization. Surfactants are used to solubilize substances and form micelles above the critical micelle concentration. Micelles are aggregates of surfactant molecules that allow insoluble substances to be incorporated into their hydrophobic interior.
This document discusses elimination reactions, specifically E1 and E2 reactions. It explains that E1 reactions proceed through a carbocation intermediate and involve a two-step mechanism, while E2 reactions are concerted and involve both the alkyl halide and base in a single step. It also describes factors that influence the reactivity and selectivity of elimination reactions, such as substrate structure, the nature of the leaving group and base, and conformational effects.
Synthesis of benzamide from benzyl chlorideRabia Aziz
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
Synthesis of benzamide from benzyl chloride Lab
Critical micelle concentration refers to the minimum concentration of surfactant above which micelles start to form spontaneously in a solution. It is an important characteristic of surfactants that can be determined through measuring changes in properties like surface tension, conductivity, and turbidity at varying concentrations. Several factors influence the critical micelle concentration, including the structure of the surfactant's hydrophobic group and the presence of electrolytes in the solution.
This document discusses the biological source, isolation, and chemical structure of morphine. It was first isolated from the opium poppy Papaver somniferum in 1804. Morphine has a pentacyclic ring structure and is insoluble in water and some organic solvents. It exerts its effects by interacting with opioid receptors in the central nervous system. The document also discusses morphine metabolism and the importance of various functional groups like hydroxyl groups for receptor binding and activity. Finally, it describes approaches to modify the morphine structure by adding or removing rings to synthesize compounds with analgesic activity.
stereochemistry and drug action ; basic introduction about stereochemistry and stereoisomers ; pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics concept of stereochemistry ; easson Stedman hypothesis ; stereo selectivity criteria .
This document provides a procedure for synthesizing 7-hydroxy-4-methyl coumarin via the Pechmann reaction. Resorcinol and ethyl acetoacetate are added dropwise to concentrated sulfuric acid with cooling to below 10°C. The mixture is then allowed to react at room temperature for 18 hours before being poured into an ice water mixture. The precipitate is filtered, dissolved in sodium hydroxide solution, and acidified to yield the crude product. Recrystallization from ethanol provides the pure compound with a 97% yield and melting point of 185°C. The reaction follows the general mechanism of coumarin synthesis involving initial formation of a β-hydroxy ester that then cyclizes
Aspirin is synthesized from salicylic acid using acetic anhydride as a reactant. Salicylic acid is reacted with excess acetic anhydride in the presence of phosphoric acid as a catalyst. Water is then added which causes aspirin to precipitate out of solution. The crude aspirin product is analyzed using melting point determination, titration, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The purity and percent yield of the aspirin product are calculated from these analytical methods.
This document describes an experiment to synthesize aspirin. Students will learn the process of preparing aspirin through acetylation of salicylic acid with acetic anhydride. They will purify the product and test for the absence of salicylic acid using ferric chloride to form complexes. The history of aspirin's development is outlined from its identification in willow bark to its commercial production. Aspirin's structure and the two-step industrial synthesis from phenol and carbon dioxide is also summarized.
This document describes the preparation of aspirin from salicylic acid. Aspirin is synthesized through an esterification reaction, where salicylic acid reacts with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulfuric acid as a catalyst. This replaces the phenolic hydroxyl group of salicylic acid with an acetyl group, forming aspirin and acetic acid as a byproduct. Specifically, 10g of salicylic acid is reacted with 14mL of acetic anhydride and 2mL of sulfuric acid by heating on a water bath for 30 minutes. The crude aspirin product is then purified by recrystallization in ethanol. The percentage yield of aspirin is then calculated based on the theoretical
This document describes the synthesis of aspirin from salicylic acid and acetic anhydride. Sulfuric acid is used to catalyze the reaction by protonating acetic anhydride. This allows the acyl group to be transferred from acetic anhydride to salicylic acid, forming aspirin. The reaction mechanism and protocol for synthesizing aspirin in the lab are provided. Infrared spectroscopy is used to analyze the product and confirm aspirin formation by identifying characteristic carbonyl peaks that are present in aspirin but absent in salicylic acid.
The document discusses how the concentration of acid in low-dose and high-dose aspirin tablets may change over time after expiration. It states that the concentration of acid in low-dose tablets increases after expiration, while the concentration in high-dose tablets decreases. However, the claim is not strongly supported due to experimental errors. The document then describes an experiment using expired and non-expired low-dose and high-dose aspirin tablets to measure the concentration of acid.
Analysis of analgesics and antipyretics.induhdghcfgfgftf
The document summarizes analytical methods for several analgesics and antipyretics. It discusses classification of analgesics and antipyretics and their mechanisms of action. Specific analytical methods covered include titrimetric, spectrophotometric, chromatographic and colorimetric assays for drugs like aspirin, diclofenac sodium, aceclofenac, ibuprofen, paracetamol, analgin and antipyrine. Gravimetric, colorimetric and polarographic methods are described for the analysis of antipyrine.
Different dosage with qualitative and quantitative analysisTanvir Raihan
This document discusses quantitative and qualitative analysis of different pharmaceutical dosage forms. It begins by defining dosage forms as drug products marketed in a specific mixture and dose. It then categorizes dosage forms by physical form (solid, semisolid, liquid, gaseous) and route of administration (oral, topical, etc.). Several common oral dosage forms are described in detail, including tablets, capsules, and liquid preparations. Methods for qualitative analysis of an oral suspension and topical cream are provided. The document concludes with descriptions of two quantitative analysis techniques - potentiometric titration and conductometric titration - and examples of their application to specific drug products.
This lab report describes experiments to separate and identify unknown compounds through solvent extraction and recrystallization. Bezoic acid and 1,4-dichlorobenzene were extracted from an unknown powder sample using sodium hydroxide and a separatory funnel to separate the acid and organic compound into different layers. The compounds were then identified by comparing their melting points to literature values. The goal was to purify an impure compound through recrystallization to remove impurities and allow identification of the compound as N-Phenylsuccinimide by matching its melting point.
Salicylic acid can be synthesized into aspirin through an acid-catalyzed reaction with acetic anhydride. In this experiment, students reacted 1g of salicylic acid with 2.5mL of acetic anhydride using sulfuric acid as a catalyst. This produced 0.68g of aspirin, with a percent yield of 52.12%. Tests on the product showed the presence of unreacted salicylic acid, indicating impurities. The synthesis of aspirin provides an example of organic synthesis and students can analyze reaction yields and purities.
This document is an extended essay chemistry experiment investigating how different tablet coatings affect the dissolution of aspirin in various pH levels. The student prepared pH solutions replicating stomach and intestinal pH and dissolved uncoated, buffered, and enteric coated aspirin tablets in them. They then used back titration to calculate the percentage of aspirin dissolved. The results showed enteric coated tablets dissolved significantly less than uncoated and buffered tablets in stomach pH, demonstrating the coatings protected the aspirin. Uncoated and buffered tablets dissolved more uniformly across all pH levels.
B. Pharm. (Honours) Part-III Practical, Analytical Pharmacy,MANIKImran Nur Manik
a) Assay of acetyl salicylic acid in aspirin tablets.
b) Assay of sodium salicylate tablets
c) Determination of potency of penicillin tablets.
d) Non- aqueous assay of phenobarbitone tablets.
e) Determination of calcium in solid & liquid dosage form by complexometric titration.
f) Assay of promethazine hydrochloride.
g) Assay of methamphetamine hydrochloride
h) Assay of aluminum hydroxide gel.
i) Assay of milk of magnesia
j) Assay of magnesium and aluminum from antacid preparation.
k) Determination of iodine value, saponification value, acid value and R.M. value of oils and fats
This document summarizes an experiment using fluorescence spectroscopy to determine the amount of aspirin in pharmaceutical tablets. Standard solutions of salicylic acid were used to generate a calibration curve with an R2 value of 0.9941, indicating the data was linear. The calibration curve was then used to determine the concentration of acetylsalicylic acid extracted from aspirin tablets, which ranged from 2.739 to 4.363 ppm. The average mass of aspirin measured was within 2.46% of the listed amount, supporting the suitability of this technique for quantitative analysis of acetylsalicylic acid in tablets.
This document provides instructions and procedures for 12 organic chemistry laboratory experiments to be conducted by students in an Organic Chemistry Laboratory course. The experiments cover various fundamental organic chemistry techniques including synthesis of aspirin, determination of melting points, distillation, extraction, thin layer chromatography, isolation of natural products, free radical chlorination, SN1 and SN2 reactions, dehydration reactions, Grignard synthesis, computational chemistry, and multiple step synthesis. Detailed procedures are provided for each experiment along with background information on the principles and techniques involved.
Similar to Solubility of aspirin 2 Physical Pharmacy Lab (14)
1. The document discusses kinetics and factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions such as concentration, temperature, surface area, and catalysts.
2. It explains concepts such as the rate of reaction, instantaneous rate, rate laws, reaction order, molecularity, activation energy, and the Arrhenius equation.
3. Examples of zero-order, first-order, and second-order reactions are provided along with explanations of pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order reactions that can occur when one reactant is in excess.
Milling is a mechanical process that reduces the particle size of solids. It has several pharmaceutical applications such as increasing the surface area and dissolution rate of low soluble drugs. The size distribution of milled particles can be measured using microscopy, sieving, or sedimentation methods. There are different types of mills that operate via cutting, attrition, impact, or compression and produce varying degrees of particle size reduction from coarse to fine to microfine. Factors like the starting particle size, desired final size, material properties, and amount must be considered when selecting the appropriate mill for pharmaceutical processing.
Mixing
An operation in which two or more components (in a separate or
roughly mixed condition) are treated so that each particle lies as
nearly as possible in contact with a particle of each of the other
ingredients.
Biopharmaceutic
• It is the science that examined the interrelationship between
physicochemical properties and the dosage form in which the drug is given , route of administration and its affect on the rate and extent of systemic drug absorption , metabolism and excretion
1) Isotonic solutions have the same osmotic pressure as body fluids like blood and tears. A 0.9% solution of sodium chloride is isotonic with these fluids.
2) Solutions meant for the body should be isotonic to prevent tissue swelling or shrinkage. Isotonic solutions do not cause discomfort upon application.
3) The tonicity of solutions can be measured using the haemolytic or colligative methods. The haemolytic method observes red blood cell changes in test solutions, while the colligative method measures properties like freezing point depression.
1) The document discusses states of matter and phase equilibria. It defines key terms like phase, component, and degree of freedom.
2) The phase rule establishes the relationship between the number of phases (P), components (C), and degrees of freedom (F) in a system. F = C - P + 2.
3) Examples of one- and two-component phase diagrams are presented, including the phase diagram for water and carbon dioxide. Phenol-water diagrams demonstrate tie lines and lever rule calculations.
Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is to be contrasted with thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a process occurs but in itself tells nothing about its rate.
Solubility is a property referring to the ability for a given substance, the solute, to dissolve in a solvent. It is measured in terms of the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at equilibrium. The resulting solution is called a saturated solution
In the physical sciences, a partition coefficient or distribution coefficient is the ratio of concentrations of a compound in a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium. This ratio is therefore a comparison of the solubilities of the solute in these two liquids.
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension between two liquids, between a gas and a liquid, or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants. The word surfactant is a blend of surface-active agent
Supercritical fluids are substances above their critical point where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist. They have densities nearer to liquids and diffusivities nearer to gases. Their properties can be tuned by adjusting pressure and temperature. Supercritical fluids like carbon dioxide are replacing organic solvents in industrial purification due to their environmental benefits. They are used in extraction, particle formation, and drug delivery due to their ability to dissolve materials like liquids while diffusing through solids like gases.
Nanosuspensions accelerate drug substance dissolution rates by increasing surface area and reducing particle size. The key to nanosuspension development is the identification of a suitable delivery system, such that nano-technology.
Biotechnology is technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms or parts of this to develop or create different products. Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the concept of biotechnology (use of yeast (= living organism) to produce the desired product)
LPHNPs presentation is an illustration about the hybrid liposomes , types , methods and application , that gives a good idea about nanoparticles technology , the information has been collected from different references .
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
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There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
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Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune Disease
Solubility of aspirin 2 Physical Pharmacy Lab
1. Physical Pharmacy
Lab - 2 -
Solubilization of Aspirin
Assistant Lecturer Ahmad A.Yosef
2018/2019
1
2. Introduction
Acetylsalicylic acid is the scientific name of the
aspirin, yet currently explored by various companies
for commercial benefits.
Soluble formulations of aspirin are currently
available on the market. Basically, it is slightly
soluble in water; hence, aspirin needs
enhancements to be solubilized as:
2
4. For instance, Aspirin is soluble, effervescent tablet containing aspirin. The
effervescence and favourable pH condition required for solubility of aspirin
are facilitated by:
incorporating sodium bicarbonate and citric acid in the formulation.
Aspro Clear reported to provide faster relief of pain than plain aspirin tablets.
Another method is by forming dipole-dipole interaction.
Kinds of forces
Generally, there are two kinds of forces, or attractions, which operate in a
molecule:
intramolecular and intermolecular.
Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a
molecule.
Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules (Figure: 1).4
5. 5
Intermolecular forces are much weaker than the
intramolecular forces of attraction but are
important because they determine the physical
properties of molecules like
6. Physical properties
melting point Boiling pointEnthalpies of fusion And vaporization
1.Hydrogen bond.
2.London dispersion forces, under
the category of van der Waal forces
3.Dipole-dipole Interactions:
Therefore, the intermolecular force:
7. 7
These forces occur when the partially positively charged part of a molecule
interacts with the partially negatively charged part of the neighboring
molecule (Figure 2).
Dipole-dipole interactions are the strongest intermolecular force of
attraction.
Dipole –Dipole interaction
8. 8
Part l:
MATERIALS :Acetyl salicylic acid , tri-sodium citrate, distilled water, phenol
red , sodium hydroxide and filter paper
GLASS WARE and EQUIPMENTS : conical flasks, graduated pipettes, funnel,
burette. In addition to electrical balance.
Experimental Work
Part ll: Experimental method
1. Add 1 g of Aspirin to the following flasks then :
2. Add 50 mL of distilled water to each flask.
3. Shake the flasks for 10 min., then apply filtration step. (Rinse the flask
with the first portion of the filtrate).
4. Take 10 mL of the filtrate solution and titrate with NaOH (0.1N) using
phenol red as an indicator.
5. Record the end point taking into account the end point appears when
the color changes from yellow to pink.
6. Finally, plot percent of aspirin dissolved versus grams tri-sodium citrate
9. 9
When the amount of tri-sodium citrate is higher than that required for
dissolving aspirin, the excess will dissociate to citrate ion and sodium ion, the
later will form with water NaOH which results in the reaching the end point
faster, and less than the real end point.
The chemical factor will be:
1 M.wt Aspirin = 1 M.wt NaOH
1eq.wt of aspirin = 1eq.wt of NaOH
180 g = 1L of 1N NaOH
180/1000 g = 1ml of 1N NaOH
180/1000* 0.1 = 1ml of 0.1N NaOH
Each 1ml of 0.1N NaOH = 0.018 g Aspirin
End point * chemical factor = g aspirin dissolve in 10ml
Multiply the results by 10 = g%.