Major soils in India include alluvial soils covering 75 Mha, black soils covering 72 Mha, red soils covering 70 Mha, laterite soils covering 25 Mha, and saline/alkali soils covering 7.5 Mha. Alluvial soils are the most fertile and important for agriculture. Black soils are very dark in color and develop deep cracks. They are classified as vertisols. Red soils get their color from iron oxide coatings. Laterite soils form in tropical climates and are high in kaolinite clay. Salt-affected soils occur in arid regions where salts accumulate due to evaporation. Forest soils include podzolic soils found under coniferous vegetation and brown forest soils developed on