Small ruminant nutrition jvma

Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Introduction to
Small Ruminant
Nutrition
JVMA Small Ruminant Medicine
Workshop

Nutrient Requirements
• Will vary according to:
– Stage of Production
– Environmental Adjustments
– Animal size and breed
– Body Condition Scoring
• Nutrients of Importance includes:
– Energy
– Protein
– Minerals
– Vitamins
– Fibre

Nutritional Stages
• Lamb and kid
• Yearlings
• Adult male
• Adult female
Rumen function is important
regardless of the stage of production

The Importance of Rumen
Function
• Rumen is heavily muscled to promote grinding,
churning and sorting of feed items
• Methane and CO2 makes up the majority of gases
produced
• Papillae line the rumen and are responsible for the
absorption of these gases which are critical to the
maintenance of the animal
• Movement from high fibre to high concentrate should
be done gradually to allow the papillae to adapt
– High carbohydrates = high butyric and propionic acid =
increased papillae growth

Function
• Microbial population in the rumen consists of
bacteria, protozoa, and fungi
• Bacteria are grouped according to shape and
size or substrate
– products such as cellulose, hemicellulose, starch,
sugars, intermediate acids, protein, and lipids
– These bacteria produce methane

Function
• The methane-producing bacteria remove H gas by
reducing CO2 with H gas to form methane.
– Keeps the H concentration in the rumen low
– allows methanogenic bacteria to promote the growth
of other bacterial species and provides for a more
efficient fermenta-tion.
• Removal of H encourages hydrogen-producing
species to produce more H and thus alter their
metabolism towards higher yielding pathways.
– Results in the synthesis of more microbial cells, which
increases available protein to the ruminant.

Function
• Higher numbers of protozoa are generally
found in the rumen when high digestibility
diets are fed.
– Some protozoa numbers are higher when diets
contain large amounts of soluble sugars and other
types predominate with high starch diets.
• The protozoa actively ingest bacteria as a
source of protein.
– Limiting the amount available to the animal in the
small intestine.

Rumination and Saliva Production
• Rumination is a by-product of evolution
• animals can ingest large quantities of food in a
short time and then chew their “cud” at
leisure later
• Rumination decreases particle size and
increases surface area
• It enhances degradation by microbes

• Direct correlation between rumination time
and saliva production
• Saliva acts as a natural buffer because it
contains sodium, bicarbonate, phosphates
• Controls pH in rumen, despite the acids
produced by fermentation

• Diet control = saliva control
• Decreasing chewing time, decreases saliva
production
• Drastic decrease in saliva results in acidosis,
altering the rumen environment and negatively
impacting animal production
• Long hay and forages high in fibre increases
rumination time
• High concentrates, finely chopped forages and
silage decreases rumination time

NEONATAL NUTRITION

A Tale of Two Animals

Road to Success:
Colostrum
• Colostrum Management should follow the
3Qs and 1C
– Quickly
– Quantity
– Quality
– Cleanliness
(adapted from R.W. Johnson and J. Drackley)

Feeding Schedule
Lamb and Kids
• 10-20% of body weight
in colostrum within 12
hours of birth
• Critical not just for
immunity but for
optimal growth
Growth &
feed intake
Disease

Colostrum and Survival
Antibodies from colostrum protect
animals until active immunity Calf survival rates by IgG Levels

Antibody absorption 2 hours of age
and 24hours of age

Impact of Contaminated Treats

Colostrum and Growth:
Failure of Passive Transfer (FPT)
• Calves with FPT (< 10mg IgG/mL serum):
– Increased time to first calving (Can Vet. J, 1986
50:314)
– Decreased ADG to 180 days (J. Dairy Sci. 1998,
71:1283)
– Decreased milk and fat yield in first lactation
• Each unit of serum IgG > 12mg/mL = + 8.2 kg increase
in ME milk (J. Dairy Sci. 1989, 72:552)

Colostrum sources (lambs and kids)
Dam Best source
Another female in flock
Best substitute
Thaw properly, if frozen.
A female in another flock (similar
disease status)*
Next best substitute. Thaw properly, if
frozen.
Ewe or doe
animal
Lower in nutrition
Milk from Jamaica Hope breeds higher in fat
compared to Holstein
Colostrum supplement
Nutritious, but no antibodies
Use to supplement colostrum
Colostrum substitute Contains antibodies
Homemade colostrum Lack of antibodies
Lamb or kid milk replacer
Not an adequate substitute for colostrum.
Feed after 24 hours.
* Dam with single kid or lamb usually has extra colostrum

Colostrum Replacement for Kids
Homemade
• 740 ml animals milk (goat
milk preferable)
• 1 beaten egg
• 1 teaspoon cod liver oil (as a
laxative)
• 1 teaspoon glucose sugar
Or
• 600 ml milk
• 1 tsp castor oil
• 1 small egg
Commercial

Milk and Milk Replacer

Feeding Schedule
Lamb and Kids
• 10-20 % of body weight in milk daily (a 10kg
lamb or kid should receive 1.5 to 1.9 litres of
milk divided into 4-6 feedings daily)
• Milk replacers: 20% protein, 20% fat, whey
proteins

Milk Replacer Protein Sources
Preferred Acceptable as partial
substitute
Marginal
Dried whey protein
concentrate
Soy protein isolate Soy flour
Dried skim milk Protein modified soy
flour
Modified potato
protein
Casein Soy protein
concentrate
Dried whey Animal plasma
Dried whey product Egg protein
Modified wheat
protein

Milk or Plant Based Protein

Creep Feeding
Lamb and Kids
• Must be palatable if going to be successful
• Start by 3-4 weeks of age
• Must consume 0.25 kg daily until weaning if
increased performance is to be attained
• Should provide an additional 0.5 kg of weight
gain for each 1.8-3.2 kg of feed consumed

Omasum
Abomasum
Rumen
Reticul.

Effect of Creep Feeding on Weight
Gains of Kids
Adapted from Stanton, 2012

Digestion and Absorption in Ruminants

Milk Milk & Grain Milk & Hay
6 Week Calves

Milk Milk & Grain Milk & Hay
8 Week Calves

Weaners
• Early weaning at 3-4 weeks of age
• Preferably delay until 8-12 weeks of age
• Stressful!
• Accustom animals to drinking out of a water trough
and eating out of a feeder prior to weaning
• Offer free-choice good-quality hay/fodder for the
first 2 days of weaning
• Concentrate feed offered at 1% of body weight per
day

Finishing
• Can finish on high-quality forage
• Feedlot or semi-intensive situations
• Stepwise feeding program where lambs and
kids get more grain/concentrate as they get
larger
• High grain diet during this period may
predispose to urinary stones, enterotoxemia
and bloat

Finishing
• Slowly introduce animals to this diet over 2-4
weeks and vaccinate against problematic
diseases
• High risk of production diseases

Yearlings
• Most females gain 0.25-0.5 lb daily from
weaning until breeding.
• Keep the body condition score between 2.5
and 3.5.
• Most males gain 0.75 lb daily during this
period.
• Monitor males for production-related
diseases!

Adult Male
• Maintain prebreeding BCS of 3-4 as they will
lose weight during the breeding season
• Feed a concentrated energy-protein
supplement 4-6 weeks before breeding season
• 1-2 lb of concentrate daily is reasonable
• Outside of breeding season, maintain on a
maintenance feed

Adult Female
• Maintenance
• Pasture or range settings suffice
• Breeding
• Flushing: increased nutrition (energy) before and
during early breeding increases the ovulation rate
• Do not overcondition!
• Provide lush pastures or supplement with 0.33-1 lb of
10-20% crude protein grain/head/day
• Start 2 weeks before male is introduced and continue
for 2-3 weeks after
• BCS of 2.5-3 are optimal

Adult Female
• Early-middle gestation
• Requirements not greatly increased over maintenance
• Maintain BCS of 2.5-3 and monitor every 2-3 weeks

Adult Female
• Late gestation
• 70% of fetal growth occurs during the last 6 weeks of
gestation
• Substantial increase in energy needs
• Feed between 1/3-1 lb grain daily per head depending
on size of animal
• Maintain BCS of 2.5-3
• Promote adequate energy intake
– Ewes: 2.2 lbs daily during final 4 weeks
– Does: 1-2 lbs daily during final 4-6 weeks

Adult Female
• Lactation
• Peak milk production 2-3 weeks after birth
• Rapid decline 8-10 weeks after birth
• Requires adequate levels of proteins prior to lactation
• Addition of fat to increase the energy density of the
diet (do not exceed 4-5% of the diet)

Nutritional Phases in the
Production Cycle-Goats Summary
• Move clockwise starting
at top of innermost circle.
• Continue through the next
cycle or move to next shell
after 360°.
• Note that there are two
possible routes after the
kid is weaned.
(Tisch, 2006)

Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD 43
Metabolic Disorders Arising From Unbalanced Diets
Cause Symptoms Treatment
Milk fever Sudden decrease in blood
calcium levels.
Decreased intake and milk
yield. Kidding paralyses,
death
Feeding management prior to
kidding to stimulate animal’s
ability to mobilise body calcium
Grass tetany Low blood magnesium
levels
yield. Muscular staggers,
death
Feed magnesium supplements
Ketosis or
acetonaemia
Animal rely on fat reserves
for energy during early
lactation
yield, Characteristic smell
of breath
Feed well balanced diet during
early lactation
Lactic acidosis
(grain poisoning)
& laminitis
Rumen pH becomes very
low due to high starch
intake
yield.
Include rumen buffers in diet and
sufficient roughage
Bloat Build up of foam in rumen
which stops gas from
escaping
Left side of cow is swollen.
Animal stands up and lies
down frequently
Put hose down oesophagus,
administer oil, stab left flank to
release gas
Urea toxicity Ammonia poisoning Rumen stops moving,
death
Feed toxicities Anti-nutritional factors in
diet.
Sickness and death Identify cause and remove from
diet
Forages

Hypocalcemia
• Primarily a problem in dairy goats
• Ewes susceptible in late gestation and early lactation
• Greatest calcium demand for non-dairy animals is 3-
4 weeks prior to birth
• High producing dairy goats have problems after birth
• Signs
• Stiff gait, tremors, tetany, constipation, decreased rumen
contractions, etc.
• Diagnosis
• History and signalment
• Serum Ca < 4-5 mg/dl

Hypocalcemia
• Treatment
• 50-100 ml of a 23% calcium borogluconate solution IV
• 50-100 ml of calcium chloride SQ
• Monitor heart rate: stop if slows or the rhythm
changes!
• Prevention
• Diet low in calcium
• Low cation-anion ratio

Hypomagnesemia
• Grass tetany
• Problem in animals grazing lush pastures
during early spring
• Reduced absorption of magnesium due to
high nitrogen and potassium levels in the
forage
• Clinical signs
• Ewes 2-4 weeks after lambing
• More common in ewes with twins
• Excitability, convulsions, muscle spasms, increased
respiratory rate, dead in pasture

Hypomagnesemia
• Diagnosis
• Serum magnesium < 1.5 mg/dl or post-mortem
magnesium levels in CSF, urine or anterior eye chamber
fluid
• Treatment
• 20-25% calcium borogluconate and 50 ml of 4-5%
magnesium
• Prevention
• Offer high-magnesium mineral supplements before
growth of lush forage and before lambing

Copper Toxicosis
• More common in sheep
• Results from chronic accumulation in the liver
due to getting excess dietary Cu in relation to
molybdenum or sulfate
• Sources of excess Cu
• Trace mineral mixtures and feeds for cattle and horses
• Clinical signs absent during accumulation
phase
• Acute disease
• Off feed, lethargy, depression, diarrhea, weakness,
hemolysis, jaundice, port-wine colored urine

Copper Toxicosis
• Diagnosis
• Blood Cu levels 10-20 x normal (50-200 µg/dl)
• Kidney Cu levels postmortem (> 100 ppm)
• Liver Cu levels postmortem (> 350 ppm)
• Treatment
• Usually unsuccessful
• Prevention
• Avoid high dietary Cu, high Cu-Mo ratio, Cu-containing
foot baths, etc.

Concentrate Overload
• Rumen acidosis
• Forage-fed animals suddenly introduced to a high
concentrate diet
• Fermentation of carbohydrates  decrease in rumen
pH  lactic acidosis  death of rumenal protozoa 
fluid from circulatory system drawn into the rumen
 dehydration and shock
• Chronic changes
• Liver abscesses
• Laminitis
• Fungal rumenitis

• Clinical signs
• Anorexia, depression, weakness
• Severe dehydration, toxemia
• Colic, distended abdomen, diarrhea
• Diagnosis
• Rumen pH < 5.5
• Few protozoa
• Large gram-positive rods

• Treatment
• Correct shock, dehydration, acid-base abnormalities
• IV fluids with 5% sodium bicarbonate
• Anti-inflammatories
• Rumen transfaunation
• Thiamine supplementation
• Systemic antibiotics
» Penicillin
• Prevention
• Introduce concentrate feeds slowly over 2-3 weeks
• Rumen buffers
• Minimum crude fibre content of 20%

Protein Overload
• Urea-ammonia toxicity
• Dull, depressed, muscle tremors, frequent urination
and defecation, excess salivation, increased respiration,
ataxia, tetanic spasms and death
• Treat with vinegar and water via stomach tube
• Do not feed excessive levels of protein or non-
protein nitrogen

Bloat
• Frothy bloat
• Diets promoting formation of stable froth
• Ingestion of legume forages or hay, lush cereal grain
pastures
• Free gas bloat
• Diets promoting excessive gas formation
– Grain diets in animals unadapted to diet
• Failure to eructate
– Esophageal obstruction
– Various other conditions
• EMERGENCY!

Bloat
• Pass stomach tube of free gas bloat
• Frothy bloat: administer hand soap or
vegetable oil
• Prevention
• Limit access to above dietary changes
• Add ionophores (monensin) to diet

Urinary Calculi Prevention
• No supplemental P
• Add Ca to 2.0-2.5 Ca:P ratio
• No milking ration
• Plenty of clean/warm water
• Salt
• Ammonium chloride .5%

Nutritional Recommendations
• Free choice fresh, good quality water
• Each ewe/doe with at least 1 foot of water trough
space
• Energy
• Structural carbohydrates: bulk of diet
• Fat: 4-5% maximum
• Protein
• Minimum of 7% dietary crude protein needed for normal rumen
bacterial growth and function
• Minerals
• Calcium-phosphorus ratio between 1:1 and 2:1
• NaCl at 0.5% of diet

Nutritional Recommendations
• Make feed changes slowly!
• Avoid excessive carbohydrates and protein in
diet
• Ensure appropriate stocking density for
forages
• Use BCS as a guideline

Meat Goat Production Handbook, Langston University, 2007

USE OF FORAGES AND OTHER
SUPPLEMENTS

Forages are Crops and should be
treated as such
• Three types of forages:
– Grasses (average CP
10.6%)
– Legumes (19.4% CP)
– Non – leguminous
shrubs and trees (>
12%CP)
• Managing leaf:stem
ratio is important Feed value of fodder decreases with
growth stage at harvest
Tisch, 2006)

Grass - Legume Combinations
Possible advantages
• Improvement in nutritive
value of forage on offer
• Possible nitrogen fixation in
soils
Limitations
• Difference in optimal
harvest intervals for the two
species results in non –
persistence of the legumes.
Siratro/Pangola grass

Pastures
Utilization and Management
• Pastures are utilized in two ways:
– Grazing – animals are allowed to do their own harvesting.
• During this process they return organic matter to the system.
– Cutting or zero-grazing – forage is harvested and brought
to the animal.
• During this process there is no return of organic matter to the system.

Grazed Pastures
Systems of Utilization
• Rotational Grazing – a system in which a single
pasture is subdivided into smaller paddocks
and animals are moved from paddock to
paddock in a systematic pattern.
• e.g. An 8 - paddock , 4 - day rotation will give
each paddock a 28 day rest period .
• In choosing a cycle one must consider the
species being grazed since different species
have different recovery rates.

• Set-Stocking – also known as continuous
grazing.
– This is a system in which animals remain on the
same pasture for an extended period of time.
– This system is not recommended for intensive
livestock production.
Grazed Pastures

Grazed Pastures
• Occasional Grazing – in this system grazing is
limited to restricted areas set aside for specific
periods such as during a dry spell(forage
banks).
• Leguminous trees or shrubs are the species
generally utilized in this system.
• These trees or shrubs should be cut back 2 or
3 times each year to prevent them becoming
too tall or woody.

Cutting/Zero Grazing Systems
• Forages harvested for daily feeding (green
chop).
• Forages harvested for conservation.
• Forages harvested from forage banks during
dry periods.

Zero Grazed Pastures
• Allows for an increase in carrying
capacity through the use of high
producing forages such as king
grass.
• Allows for the production of high
quality feeds for specific groups
such as fatteners and lactating
animals.
• Reduces losses from trampling
and selection that is experienced
on grazed pastures .
Disadvantages
• Labour intensive or heavy
machinery required
• Forage will be harvested
and transported and should
therefore be located close
to the site at which it will be
utilized.
Advantages

Forage Conservation
• Ensures a continuous supply of forage
throughout the year
• achieved by harvesting and storing forage
material as either silage or hay.
• Both processes can be carried out on a large
or small scale.
• Includes silage, hay and leaf meals.

Silage
• Forage is allowed to ferment in the absence of air
and in the presence of suitable soluble
carbohydrates.
• Acidification of the forage material acts as a
preservative.
• Stable for years as long as it is not exposed to air
with no decrease in nutrient value.

Best time to use Silage

Hay
• Fodder dried to a
moisture content of 15%
or less
• Can be stored for several
months without great
deterioration in quality.
• Requires large scale
production and costly
machinery

Leaf Meal
Mulberry
This is the dried leaves of legumes or non – leguminous shrubs.
Gliricidia

Multi-Nutrient Blocks
• One of the least expensive means of rectifying
the deficiency in forage quality
• High percentage of rumen by-pass nutrients,
most notable urea and molasses (FOA, 2007).
• Decreases labour cost and increases forage intake
• Excellent supplement during dry period
– At Bodles animals fed combination of 1/3 level
concentrate + MNB performed as well as those
receiving 100% concentrate
– Basal diet was pangola hay

Thank you

Small ruminant nutrition jvma

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