Food security is the foremost need of every human society. It is a fundamental right and
government responsibility but still food insecurity is prevalent in rural areas of least developed nations. To cope
with food insecurity, undertaking diverse income generating activities is common as well as key strategy adopted
by rural people. The objective of this study is to assess rural livelihood and food security status of a remote island
named Srilanka Tapu of Sunsari district. A random sampling technique was used to collect primary data from 40
rural household heads using semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive methods were used for analyzing. The
findings revealed that the food security situation of the Tapu is insecure. Most basic infrastructures and social
services needed for people livelihood such as road, electricity sufficient food availability, education, healthcare,
sanitation, etc. were found to be extremely poor. Most of the households are small scale farmers involving
themselves in diverse livelihood activities which are mostly temporary, low-skilled and low paying. However,
people are fulfilling their food needs at every cost but are highly vulnerable to food insecurity. Also, their lives
security is equally vulnerable because of disastrous Koshi River flooding which occurs every year in the Tapu.
The findings therefore critically suggest that food security of remote and vulnerable human settlements should be
at top priority in policy formulation and implementation level. The study also recommends a need for an in-depth
research for making evidence based policy interventions for improvement of diversify rural livelihood along with
sustainable environment
This is an internship report prepared by Mr. Santosh Parmar under the supervision of Dr. M.Mukhtar Alam, ED, Center for Agriculture and Rural Development.
Conceptualization of rural development and planning and its reference to Bangladesh
The term rural development is the process of improving quality of life of the people living in rural areas who live often relatively isolated and sparsely populated area.
Eastern himalayas in India - Environmental perspectivesYASHADA, Pune
PPT lecture about environmental perspectives of eastern Himalayas in reference to India. With photographs sourced from the internet from various photographers. All credit of photographs rest with the photographers. The lecture was used for non-profit teaching only.
Urban ecology: will we act before its too late?Gururaja KV
This talk is given at CiSTUP foundation day, on 4 Jan 2010, IISc, Bangalore. Deals with Urban ecology in general and what I am interested in, in particular. Simple, straight lecture.
This presentation tells about the forest rights acts and highlights the issues in it's implementation, Aid for change work address the underlying issues and its impact on the community
This is an internship report prepared by Mr. Santosh Parmar under the supervision of Dr. M.Mukhtar Alam, ED, Center for Agriculture and Rural Development.
Conceptualization of rural development and planning and its reference to Bangladesh
The term rural development is the process of improving quality of life of the people living in rural areas who live often relatively isolated and sparsely populated area.
Eastern himalayas in India - Environmental perspectivesYASHADA, Pune
PPT lecture about environmental perspectives of eastern Himalayas in reference to India. With photographs sourced from the internet from various photographers. All credit of photographs rest with the photographers. The lecture was used for non-profit teaching only.
Urban ecology: will we act before its too late?Gururaja KV
This talk is given at CiSTUP foundation day, on 4 Jan 2010, IISc, Bangalore. Deals with Urban ecology in general and what I am interested in, in particular. Simple, straight lecture.
This presentation tells about the forest rights acts and highlights the issues in it's implementation, Aid for change work address the underlying issues and its impact on the community
this presentation was done as a part of my MBA in development management course, I was staying in a village in Odisha and analyzing the village by doing a socio-economic study of the village.
What is livelihood?
What is Rural Livelihood?
Importance of Rural livelihood?
how to uplift the livelihood of Rural people?
Various measures to be taken to make the lives of rural people better
Mobility map
Agro climatic zones of jharkhand, rainfall patterns & abiotic stresses VIJAYKUMARSHRIVASTAV2
Jharkhand, agro climatic zones, rainfall patterns, abiotic stress, Jharkhand food security index, central north eastern plateau zones, western plateau zones, south eastern plateau zones
MGNREGA AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A Study of Pannur Village in Chittoor District...Premier Publishers
Women empowerment essentially refers to empowering women to change power relations between them and men in their favour. Public works programmes in India have traditionally offered a unique opportunity for women to earn cash incomes and provide resources particularly to poor women that would enable human capital investment especially for children’s education and nutrition apart from improving women’s bargaining power within the household. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act is no exception. MGNREGA offers 33 percent employment to women, guarantees child care facility at the worksite and provides scope to women to participate in planning and implementation of MGNREGA and in conducting social audit as members of Gram Sabha and of Gram Panchayat. Available research studies have shown that women have participated in MGNREGA on a large scale in most states in India; have received equal wages with men and earned incomes of their own; single women households and female–headed households have particularly benefited by MGNREGA as it provided them minimum incomes and food security; and participating women in general are frequently feeling empowered as they have now some say in decision making. The present study is an attempt to measure the impact of MGNREGA on women empowerment and gender equality and the factors attributed to potential of women empowerment under MGNREGA. The study reveals that MGNREGA can enhance the women empowerment even though the objective of MGNREGA is either women empowerment or gender equality.
Multidisciplinary Journal Supported by TETFund. The journals would publish papers covering a wide range of subjects in journal science, management science, educational, agricultural, architectural, accounting and finance, business administration, entrepreneurship, business education, all journals
An Evaluative Study of the Food Security among BPL Households and Agriculture...inventionjournals
ABSTRACT : The poorest of the poor section of the community which has been marginalized on the basis of the level of poverty i.e BPL household members, are in the worse state and represents the last persons in terms of deficiency of even the lowest minimum level of living required for mere existence. This problem of the BPL households is so grave that they are not only far away from meeting their minimum economic needs and requirements but also faces the crisis of food security. Food availability is a necessary condition for food security. India is more or less self sufficient in cereals but deficit in pulses and oilseeds which is indicated in the food basket provided through PDS under the food security policy in the country. This creates a challenge for the delivery of minimum nutritious diet to the economically deprived sections of the society. The concerning aspect in this picture is not only that in our country we have failed to delivery minimum nutritious diet but we are still short of providing minimum quantity of diet and to all of the economically deprived sections of the society in time. The lack of growth in the employment generation and falling agriculture share has enhanced the problems of food security. The situation is much worse in the case of the rural areas of the country where there are poor opportunities for generating employment. The paper focuses on the gravity of the problem and presents a policy framework for achieving food security for the backward regions of the state.
this presentation was done as a part of my MBA in development management course, I was staying in a village in Odisha and analyzing the village by doing a socio-economic study of the village.
What is livelihood?
What is Rural Livelihood?
Importance of Rural livelihood?
how to uplift the livelihood of Rural people?
Various measures to be taken to make the lives of rural people better
Mobility map
Agro climatic zones of jharkhand, rainfall patterns & abiotic stresses VIJAYKUMARSHRIVASTAV2
Jharkhand, agro climatic zones, rainfall patterns, abiotic stress, Jharkhand food security index, central north eastern plateau zones, western plateau zones, south eastern plateau zones
MGNREGA AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A Study of Pannur Village in Chittoor District...Premier Publishers
Women empowerment essentially refers to empowering women to change power relations between them and men in their favour. Public works programmes in India have traditionally offered a unique opportunity for women to earn cash incomes and provide resources particularly to poor women that would enable human capital investment especially for children’s education and nutrition apart from improving women’s bargaining power within the household. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act is no exception. MGNREGA offers 33 percent employment to women, guarantees child care facility at the worksite and provides scope to women to participate in planning and implementation of MGNREGA and in conducting social audit as members of Gram Sabha and of Gram Panchayat. Available research studies have shown that women have participated in MGNREGA on a large scale in most states in India; have received equal wages with men and earned incomes of their own; single women households and female–headed households have particularly benefited by MGNREGA as it provided them minimum incomes and food security; and participating women in general are frequently feeling empowered as they have now some say in decision making. The present study is an attempt to measure the impact of MGNREGA on women empowerment and gender equality and the factors attributed to potential of women empowerment under MGNREGA. The study reveals that MGNREGA can enhance the women empowerment even though the objective of MGNREGA is either women empowerment or gender equality.
Multidisciplinary Journal Supported by TETFund. The journals would publish papers covering a wide range of subjects in journal science, management science, educational, agricultural, architectural, accounting and finance, business administration, entrepreneurship, business education, all journals
An Evaluative Study of the Food Security among BPL Households and Agriculture...inventionjournals
ABSTRACT : The poorest of the poor section of the community which has been marginalized on the basis of the level of poverty i.e BPL household members, are in the worse state and represents the last persons in terms of deficiency of even the lowest minimum level of living required for mere existence. This problem of the BPL households is so grave that they are not only far away from meeting their minimum economic needs and requirements but also faces the crisis of food security. Food availability is a necessary condition for food security. India is more or less self sufficient in cereals but deficit in pulses and oilseeds which is indicated in the food basket provided through PDS under the food security policy in the country. This creates a challenge for the delivery of minimum nutritious diet to the economically deprived sections of the society. The concerning aspect in this picture is not only that in our country we have failed to delivery minimum nutritious diet but we are still short of providing minimum quantity of diet and to all of the economically deprived sections of the society in time. The lack of growth in the employment generation and falling agriculture share has enhanced the problems of food security. The situation is much worse in the case of the rural areas of the country where there are poor opportunities for generating employment. The paper focuses on the gravity of the problem and presents a policy framework for achieving food security for the backward regions of the state.
The role of women in agriculture: Implications in providing, improving househ...Open Access Research Paper
There has been less recognition to women contribute to agricultural and food security. Women’s work in the agriculture and food security often remains invisible. The research sought to investigate the role of women agriculture in providing household food security and reducing of hunger and malnutrition in rural communities. The research used a survey research design, quantitative and qualitative data was gathered. Findings were that social and economic constraints place barriers around women’s access to agricultural land and empowerment. Women had a high positive attitude to the variables on; interest in contributing to household, understanding of food security and socio-economic development. Men own land and livestock at household level, livestock for women were realized through payment of the bride prize. The country was not food secured, 68% of the household could not afford three meals per day, malnutrition remains at 9% and the four dimension of food security were averaging 23.25%. Given equal treatment, women could produce high crop yield and can play role in food processing, in nutrition, gardening and agricultural cooperatives. Farming and agricultural policies need to address factors that were affecting the potential of women in improving food security. This would help in fully utilization of the roles of women in providing and improving household food security and reduce hunger and malnutrition in the rural communities. Noted implications of not involving and empowering women in agriculture was food insecurity in the rural communities as food availability, accessibility, utilisation and stability was to achieved year around in the communities.
THE ROLE OF YOUTH IN IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND INCOME: A CASE STUDY OF DAVAN...AkashSharma618775
India is the agriculture based country in the world and most of the people were depend on agriculture
mode of life. The major livelihoods in this area of the study are related to irrigation based agricultural practices.
How far irrigation has influence on income of youth cultivators? What is the other non-water related factors
influencing income level of youth cultivators? The paper addresses these questions. Irrigation plays an important
role in improving production and productivity of agriculture.
The present research study try to highlight the involvement of youth in agricultural activities and income impact
of irrigation study has been done in Nalluru village of Davanagere district, Karnataka. Consisting of 150
households, having different livelihoods, a set of 55 respondents have been found out whose main occupation is
cultivation and annual income comes under below poverty line (BPL). Among these 55 cultivators a sample of 20
youth cultivators has been selected by using simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR) method
and further required data have been collected for this sample group using a pre-tested questionnaire consisting of
both quantitative and qualitative variables. Finally, conclude the findings of study.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Analysis of Factors Influencing Participation of Farm Households in Watermelo...AJSERJournal
The study analyzed the factors influencing participation of farm households’ in watermelon production in
the study areas. Three local government areas out of Sokoto state were purposively selected. Questionnaire was used
to collect data. Multistage of sampling techniques were used to arrive at the sample size of 181 farm households’ for
the study. Likert scale is used to analyse the level of participation of farm households’, frequency and inferential
statistics were used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that (55.8%) of the farm households are within the ages
of 25-30 years, majority (96.7%) are male It shows that majority (64.0%) of the farm households participated in
watermelon production as a result of higher income generated. Multiple regression analysis result revealed significant
relationships between farm households participation in watermelon production and their socio-economic
characteristics at P<0.05. The constraints faced by the farm households are storage technology and improved
agricultural inputs. Most (63.5%) of the farm households believed that provision of subsidized agricultural inputs and
market accessibility are forms of assistance that will encourages farm households to partake in watermelon production.
It is recommended that government and donor agencies should encourage farm households’ by providing them with
the modern agricultural inputs so as to influence them to participate fully into watermelon production irrespective of
their Socio-economic differences.
Analysis of Factors Influencing Participation of Farm Households in Watermelo...AJSERJournal
The study analyzed the factors influencing participation of farm households’ in watermelon production in
the study areas. Three local government areas out of Sokoto state were purposively selected. Questionnaire was used
to collect data. Multistage of sampling techniques were used to arrive at the sample size of 181 farm households’ for
the study. Likert scale is used to analyse the level of participation of farm households’, frequency and inferential
statistics were used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that (55.8%) of the farm households are within the ages
of 25-30 years, majority (96.7%) are male It shows that majority (64.0%) of the farm households participated in
watermelon production as a result of higher income generated. Multiple regression analysis result revealed significant
relationships between farm households participation in watermelon production and their socio-economic
characteristics at P<0.05. The constraints faced by the farm households are storage technology and improved
agricultural inputs. Most (63.5%) of the farm households believed that provision of subsidized agricultural inputs and
market accessibility are forms of assistance that will encourages farm households to partake in watermelon production.
It is recommended that government and donor agencies should encourage farm households’ by providing them with
the modern agricultural inputs so as to influence them to participate fully into watermelon production irrespective of
their Socio-economic differences.
Food insecurity status at household level in Kamukunji estate, Uasin Gishu C...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Analysis of farmers Participation in Public Agricultural Extension Services: ...Premier Publishers
The study analyzed female-headed and male-headed households’ participation in public agricultural extension services: The Case of Meskan Woreda, Gurage Zone, Ethiopia. The objectives were to assess participation of female-headed and male-headed farmers in major crop and livestock extension packages, and to identify determinants of participation. A multi-stage purposive sampling technique was employed to select Region, Woredas, and Kebeles. Samples were taken from four Kebeles: Wita, Yimariwacho third, Mesrak meskan and Welansho second based agro ecology using probability proportional to size sampling technique. Finally, a total of (143) sampled male (92) and female-headed households (51) were selected by using systematic random sampling method. Sampled household heads survey data were collected using pre-tested structured interview schedule, focus group discussions and key informants interview. Descriptive and Binary logistic were employed to analyze the collected survey data. Among 14 explanatory variables included in to the logit model: land size, Development agent contact frequency, and mass media exposure had positive and statistically significant while sex, age and market distance had negative and statistically significant on Farming household head’s in crop and livestock extension services. The study recommends that, enhancing efficient delivery of services and increasing young age of household head farmers in terms of equal sex participation, farm size, Development agent contact, and mass media access would improve household head farmers’ participation in public agricultural extension services.
Comparative Study of Agricultural Production Diversity and Household Diet Div...BRNSS Publication Hub
This study was conducted to find out agricultural production diversity and household diet diversity
in farming households and examine their statistical relationship. Data on production, consumption,
and socioeconomic factors were collected from the cross-sectional survey using the semi-structured
questionnaire in 2018, in which 120 respondents (60 from Kailali district and 60 from Syangja district)
were interviewed. Agricultural production diversity was defined from species count for each household,
and household diet diversity was obtained from dietary diversity score (DDS) using 12 food groups by
the FAO in preceding 24 h recall period. Data analysis in the SPSS showed that the average species
count of each household was 11.79 with average crop and livestock count of 7.95 and 3.88, respectively.
Average DDS was 7.7 with minimum value 4 and maximum value 10. Agricultural production diversity
and household diet diversity were positively correlated (0.249, at 0.01 level). Household diet diversity
was positively correlated with size of landholding and size of kitchen garden. The consumption behavior
shows that 100% of household have consumed cereals, 75% have consumed milk products, 52% have
consumed fruits, and only 21% of the respondents have consumed meat and egg in the last 24 h recall
period. Percentage of household consuming milk and milk products were higher in Syangja, whereas
households consuming meat, egg, and fish were higher in Kailali. Wheat items were major alternative
staple food in Kailali, whereas maize, millet, and wheat items were common alternative staple foods in
Syangja. This study suggests that diversified agricultural production system is a promising strategy to
provide diversified diet and ultimately improve food and nutrition security of farming households.
“Problems of Rural Farmer: A Case Study Based on the Lowphulabori Village und...iosrjce
Rural farmers account for the greater part of the population of any developing country such as India.
Government of the developing countries have major responsibility for ensuring that there is adequate rural
development in their various communities and local governments which would lead to effective and efficient
agricultural system, that will not only supply food and animal protein but also foster the utilization of natural
resources in a sustainable manner. When the rural farmers lack access to knowledge and information that
would help them achieve maximum agricultural yield, they will not only grope in the dark but will be driven to
the urban centers in search of formal employment.
In Assam over 70 percent of the state’s population relies on agriculture as farmers, as agricultural labours or
both for their livelihood. In terms of the state domestic product (SDP), the agriculture sector contributed over
19 per cent of the state income in 2010-11. We all know that majority of the people of Assam live in villages as
farmer. Therefore, it is necessary to find out the problems of rural farmers and to solve their problems, like
poverty, lack of knowledge about modern technology, illiteracy, lack of knowledge about market demandable
agricultural commodities, irrigation system, flood, drought etc. The present study attempts to investigate the
problems of rural farmers of the study area. For this both primary and secondary data have been used. Thirty
(30) S.T. villagers from Lawphulabori village were the sample of the study and they were selected through
random sampling method from the study area. For collecting data, a self prepared tool/questionnaire and
interview was used by investigators and analysis the data. The finding of the study reveals that there are so
many problems among the rural farmers of the Lowphulabori village
Similar to Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka Tapu of Sunsari District, Eastern Nepal (20)
The effect of functionalized carbon nanotubes on thermalmechanical performanc...IJRTEMJOURNAL
The new approaches for preparing nanocomposite coating by modificated carbon nanonotubes
(CNTs) and epoxy resin was done in the study. thermal-mechanical performance of nanocomposite coating was
investigated and the results were reported in this paper. The physic-chemical techniques such as Differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) were used to characterize the thermal
performance of Epoxy nanocomposite coating. The test techniques for mechanical properties of paint coating as
adhesion, hardness, impact resistance and bending strength were employed in the work. The results indicated
that CNTs were dispersed in epoxy coating with only ratio of 0.1 wt% enhanced the Glass Transition
Temperature (Tg), decomposition temperature of epoxy coating and improved mechanical properties
significantly. Also functionalized CNTs can be reinforced thermal-mechanical of the epoxy coating better than
neat CNTs.
Study of desalination processes of seawater from the desalination plant of La...IJRTEMJOURNAL
The use of water for food purposes requires excellent physicochemical quality. To contribute to
the control of water quality. Water treated by reverse osmosis is aggressive and demineralize can not be used
directly as a source of drinking water. The objective of this work is to study, physics-chemical analyzes of raw
water, pretreated osmosis and treated (permeate) and produced water (reservoir) at the desalination plant of
seawater Laayoune (SDL), located in southern Morocco. For this, we have followed several qualitative
parameters such as pH, conductivity, turbidity
Multi products storage using randomnessIJRTEMJOURNAL
The following Project shows the benefits of a research established into a multi-products
warehouse belongs to an automotive industry supplier. The main goal was applied a tool recognizing the rules
for distribution and material storage. Once the research was completed, the benefits were, the idle times
reduction per hours/week by the two initial processes. The politics for storage assignment and location, propose
a system to improve the space into this areain order to avoid material management and flow issues. It is
important to mention, the system proposed could be applied into warehouses with storage size and space
restricted by sorting area, also different material types, production settings and physical specifications for
which set warehouses with traditional management of distribution without slack, involves lack of materials,
pieces without records, incorrect location assigned, stock error.
Existence results for fractional q-differential equations with integral and m...IJRTEMJOURNAL
This paper concerns a new kind of fractional q-differential equation of arbitrary order by
combining a multi-point boundary condition with an integral boundary condition. By solving the equation which
is equivalent to the problem we are going to investigate, the Green’s functions are obtained. By defining a
continuous operator on a Banach space and taking advantage of the cone theory and some fixed-point theorems,
the existence of multiple positive solutions for the BVPs is proved based on some properties of Green’s functions
and under the circumstance that the continuous functions f satisfy certain hypothesis. Finally, examples are
provided to illustrate the results.
A study on financial aspect of supply chain managementIJRTEMJOURNAL
The more common approaches used in the SCM consider only the physical logistic operations
and ignore the financial aspects of the supply chain. The main objective to incorporate financial aspects in
supply chain management is to strengthen managerial decisions concerning financial flows in supply chains,
while empirical knowledge about financial supply chain management (FSCM) is in its early stages. This paper
presents a model for FSCM which financial planning in addition to operation planning is decided in it. The
main contribution of this paper is to define two approaches for Financial Supply Chain Management and to
compare them. This financial approaches are: Traditional financial approach and new financial approach.
Traditional financial approach integrates physical goods flows and financial flows. New financial approach
considers in making decisions other financial indicators such as market to book value, liquidity ratios, capital
structure ratios, and return on equity, sales margin, turnover ratios and stock security ratios, among others.
Moreover, the new approach applies the change in equity instead of the traditional approach measures of profit
as the objective function to be maximized in the presented model. To show the attributes of the presented
approaches, the results of the new approach and the traditional approach is compared. The findings indicate
that the traditional approach leads to lower change in equity compared to the financial approach. Also, the
results clearly reveal the better improvement of using the new approach over the traditional approach, and
convince the decision makers to take advantage of the new approach.
With mounting concerns over the state of our planet, there is continuing demand that chemists
and chemical engineers should develop greener chemical processes and products. In the 1990s, with the
growing awareness of the hazardous impacts of the chemical industry, the green chemistry revolution was
launched by American chemists Paul T. Anastas and John Warner. Green chemistry is the kind of chemistry that
seeks to minimize pollution, conserve energy, and promote environmentally friendly production. This paper
provides a brief introduction to green chemistry.
Assessment of Building Failure: The Case of Saint Thomas’s Anglican Church, A...IJRTEMJOURNAL
There have been incessant reports of the collapse of buildings resulting in the loss of lives and
properties globally. However, there has been a dearth of information regarding any findings about the collapse
of building structures. An extensive study of causes of selected building collapse in Nigeria and abroad is carried
out in this work by visiting some locations of building collapse, reading journals and newspaper articles on
structural defects and testing rubbles collected from collapsed areas. This study therefore examined the general
causes of the collapse of some buildings particularly the reasons for the collapse of Saint Thomas’s 2-storey
Church Hall, Akure. Laboratory testing was carried out in this study to investigate the causes of collapse using
samples from the site of the collapsed building. An appraisal of the structural drawings of the collapsed building
was also investigated. Findings revealed that the building collapsed due to poor design, bad construction
materials and inadequate supervision. The paper concludes that buildings collapse can be reduced in Nigeria by
avoiding all. It recommended use of only duly registered professionals in the building industry for construction.
Data warehousing is a technique for collecting and managing data from multiple internal and
external sources to provide meaningful business insights. Data warehouses are designed to give a long-range
view of data over time and provide a decision support system environment. They are a vital component of
business intelligence, which is designed for data analysis and reporting. They are used to provide greater
insight into the performance of a business. This paper provides a brief introduction on data warehousing
Resource recycling and waste-to-energy: The cornerstones of circular economyIJRTEMJOURNAL
"Circular Economy" is the pursued goal of sustainable development of mankind for the 21st
century. In short, the fundamental spirit of circular economy is the concept of "Zero Waste". The example used
in our daily lives means 100% of waste treatment, leaving no trace. At this time, it would be an ideal goal that
the waste could be fully recovered into available raw materials or energies. In particular, "waste-to-energy" is
a key factor, because all the wastes are almost related to energy. Resource recycling of waste metal from the
household garbage is the best example. When smelting metals, the refining industry needs to reduce the metal
oxides (mineral materials) to metals, such as steel, aluminium, copper, etc. The reduction processes consume
considerable portion of energy for the entire smelting process, for example, 70.6% for steel and 77.4% for
aluminium. However, if the waste metallic products can be fully recovered, as long as by melting and reshaping,
the original oxide metal reduction processes that consume a lot of energy can be avoided. On the other hand,
when the general garbage cannot be recovered as a resource, they can be converted into fuel or electricity by
biological or thermal treatment. Another more important human waste utilization is the waste paper recycling.
The production of one tonne of raw pulp emits about 6 tonnes of carbon, consuming about 100 cubic meters of
water, using about 200 kilograms of chemical raw materials, and draining 300 tonnes of toxic waste water. The
entire papermaking process is how terrible environmental pollution! The recycled pulp of one tonne can save
energy 10-13GJ.The proportion of paper waste in Taiwan 2015 is 34.69% and the estimated amount is 2.5
million tonnes. If the paper waste could be fully recycled, it could save energy about 0.725 million kloe (kilolitre oil equivalent). In other words, it virtually reduces Taiwan's oil imports of 4.56 million barrels and CO2
emissions of 2.5 million tonnes annually.
Survivin Immunoreactivity in the Gastric Mucosa of Rats Feedind with Carpet S...IJRTEMJOURNAL
Survivin has been studied many times because of its overexpression in several types of cancer
including lung, kidney, skin, endometrium, stomach, colon, breast, prostate, over, hematologic, head and neck
cancers, histopathology features and polymorphisms in the promoter region which belongs to the inhibitör of
apoptosis gene family by researchers. There is no study of survivin immunoreactivity in the gastric mucosa of the
rats fed with carpet shell clam grown in the Dardanelles. In this study, it was aimed to investigate the effects of
carpet shell clam fed rats on survivin production in the gastric mucosa. The carpet shell clam given as food to the
rats were removed from the Dardanelles Çardak region. Four groups of rats are included in the study, group 1
(n=6), control group fed with standard rat food, group 2 (n=6), 75% carpet shell clam and 25% standard rat
food daily, group 3 (n=6), 75% carpet shell clam and 25% standard rat food every two days, group 4 (n=6), 75%
carpet shell clam and 25% standard rat food every three days. To detect survivin localization in the tissues, the
LAB-SA Detection System was used. Survivin immunoreactivity was detected of epithelial cells in the gastric
mucosa of rats fed with carpet shell clam. After the immunohistochemical staining processing all gastric tissue
samples are evaluated in terms of survivin immunoreactivity with light microscopy and image analysis software.
Survivin immunoreactivity was detected 0% in the first group, 83.33% in the second group, 61.83% in the third
group and 32.67% in the fourth group. There was statistically significant difference between the survivin
immunoreactivity in the gastric gland cells of the rats in the experimental and control groups (p> 0.05). Survivin
production in the gastric mucosa of rats suggests that consumption of carpet shell clam may cause tissue damage.
Security and Crime Management in University Libraries in NigeriaIJRTEMJOURNAL
Security and prevention of crime in university library is very paramount duties of librarian. The
survival of a library depends to a large extend on how secured its collections are, security of library resources
constitutes serious challenge facing university libraries in Nigeria. The paper, therefore, investigates security and
crime management in university libraries in Nigeria using university of Jos and university of Ilorin libraries. The
study adopted a descriptive survey method. The population of the study comprised 108 library personnel and
16,012 registered library users in two university libraries. While the sample size consisted of all the 108 library
personnel, and 2% of the registered users to make a total of 428 respondents. Questionnaire and interview with
the university librarians of the selected university libraries were the instruments used for data collection. Data
were analysed using frequency distribution and percentages. Results revealed that security breaches included
stealing/theft of library materials, mutilation of library materials, and non-return of borrowed items. It also
showed inadequate funding, selfish interest of the culprits and lack of institutional security policy in the library.
Base on the findings, that staff security training, electronic security system should be introduced and improve
funding of university libraries among others. Recommendation orientation of users and staff should be done from
time to time in university libraries to mention but few.
Influence of heat treatment on Vitamin C Levels in Oyster MushroomIJRTEMJOURNAL
The study was conducted to investigate the influence of heat treatment during drying process of
Oyster mushroom in the tropics. Mushroom growing is carried out under carefully controlled conditions mostly
in bulk in specific designed tunnels with aerated floors. There are two main purposes, firstly pasteurization; to
free the compost from undesirable microbes and pests and secondly conditioning; to become mushroom specific
by getting clear of ammonia and free of readily available carbohydrates. Through proper manipulation of
temperature and ventilation these two primary objectives are accomplished. Mushrooms have been identified as
an underutilized crop in Africa, with many nutritive and health benefits. It does not require much land and
investment. However, it is highly perishable and there is need to process it to lengthen its shelf life by drying.
However, there is need to ensure that the nutrients are not lost in the process. It is for this reason that this
project investigated the effect of drying on nutrient levels in mushroom. Vitamin C levels were monitored in the
course of drying at 80⁰C, 60⁰C, 50⁰C, 40⁰C and in direct sunlight. It was concluded that the temperature that
gave the best drying rate with minimal nutrient loss was 60⁰C. In general, more than half the Vitamin C is lost
during the range of drying temperatures investigated.
Optimization of Design Parameters for Crane Hook Using Finite Element AnalysisIJRTEMJOURNAL
The Crane hooks are very at risk segments that are regularly utilized for mechanical purposes.
In this way such segments in an industry must be produced and composed in an approach to convey most extreme
execution without failure. Failure of a crane hook essentially relies upon three central point i.e. measurement,
material, overload. The undertaking is worried towards expanding the safe load by fluctuating the cross-sectional
measurements of the four distinct segments and diverse materials. The chose areas are square, circle, and
trapezoidal. The territory stays consistent while changing the measurements of the four unique segments. The
crane hook is demonstrated utilizing catia programming. The pressure and life investigation is finished utilizing
ANSYS 18.1 workbench. The ordinary worry along add up to misshaping, stress and life’s according to the
materials considered. It is discovered that trapezoidal cross segment yields most extreme load of 4000 KG to 5000
KG for steady cross segment zone among four cross segment.
Macroeconomic stability in the DRC: highlighting the role of exchange rate an...IJRTEMJOURNAL
This study is part of a macroeconomic approach and seeks to identify the role of the rate of
economic growth and the exchange rate in controlling the macroeconomic framework. The approaches adopted
in this paper are part of Keynesian thinking on macroeconomic stability using the macroeconomic stability
index proposed by Burnside and Dollars (2004) and A. Amine (2005). Our results argue that economic growth
is causing macroeconomic stability and that the exchange rate is negatively and significantly accounting for
macroeconomic stability in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Reserves Estimating Carbon in Forest City District Village Bongohulawa GorontaloIJRTEMJOURNAL
The estimation of Carbon stock and carbon sink in the City Forest of Bongohulawa village,
Regency of Gorontalo (Guided by. The research was aimed to know volume growth of trees planted in the
Village District Bongohulawa Gorontalo, to calculate the volume and content of carbon biomass in the city
forest and green line (left-right path) and average carbon sequestration/tree/species. Research was conducted
in village of Bongohulawa during 4 (fourth) month; started from March until June 2011. The execution of data
collecting [of] was performed within this research area-location through observation and measurement of trees
and forest stand. For green line research area 100% inventory was upllied and for City Forest line plot
sampling was implemented. For city forest sample plots measurement was conducted in 10 sample units (each
unit sampling of 0.25 ha). Tree diameter, tree hight (total and commercial hight) and crown diameter of all tree
species within research line (green line) and research plots (city forest) was measured. Based on the research
data and its calculation, the results show that: Casuarina junghuhiana can store more carbon than other tree
species. From the inventory conducted in 3 km of green line along the road (6 meters width observations) of the
village Bongohulawa, 366 trees (consist of 7 tree species) were measured. Those tree species namely Casuarina
junghuiana 102 trees, sandalwood 46 trees, mango 7 trees, jackfruit 6 trees, Albizia 1 tree, mahogany 202 trees,
headland 2 trees. Crown cover of those tree species is 3032.54 m2
. The result of calculation also indicated that
Casuarina has higher carbon stock than other tree species that is 33.56 tons (equal with 52% of total crbon
stock). Further calculation indicated that during the period of 19 years (since 1992) Casuarina can strocked
carbon average of 1.77 tons/year. The average diameter increment of individual Casuarina tree species is about
1.72 cm/year. Furthermore, for Swietenia magrophilla King, with an average diameter increment of 1.40
cm/year, the leaves of this tree species can absorbed carbon of 18.1233 tons within green line of both sides of
the road. For research plots within City Forest which located in the valey the results of the research show that
the crown cover of 124 trees is about 1,359.67 m2, then carbon absorbtion is about 0.15 ton/tree or about 7.8
kg/tree/year. Within the research area of City Forest (located both in the valey and hill) totally there are 1,353
trees (consist of 13 tree species) and carbon absorption of the canopy is about 25.521 tons. Further calculation
results also indicated that carbon absorption of small trees ( poles) is about 25.521 tons and for sapling is
about 78.163 tons or 39,0815 tons/ha then fionally for mature trees is about 39.813 tons or 15,925 tons/ha.
An Analysis of Tourism Competitiveness Index of Europe and Caucasus: A Study ...IJRTEMJOURNAL
This study aims to find the association-ship between the Regional Rank of the Travel and
Tourism Competitiveness Index and its Indicators in 37 European countries. The cross-sectional data of the 37
European countries are collected from the World Economic Forum report- 2015. The statistical software
package, SPSS v. 20.0 is used to analyze the data. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), Multi-co-linearity, Multiple
Regression, and Residual Analysis are the tools used to analyze to achieve out the objective of the study. RR:
Regional Rank of the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index is used as the dependent variable and TI:
Tourism Services Infrastructure, GP: Ground & Port Infrastructure, BE: Business Environment, PT:
Prioritization of Travel and Tourism, and CR: Cultural resources & business travel are used as the independent
variables. It is found that there is an inverse relationship between the dependent variable and all the
independent variables along with the statistical significance. It is recommended that the governments of the
European countries and the respective agents of these countries should be made aware of learning the findings
of this study to promote their countries which can be victorious in lowering their Regional Rank of the Travel
and Tourism Competitiveness Index.
Translation Errors of Public Signs in English Subtitle: Residents’ Poor Forei...IJRTEMJOURNAL
China is in an Age of Economy Thriving and Technology Advancing. This strike
increasing international visitors. In the foreigners, very few of them are able to communicate in
Chinese, which means that it is significant to provide accurate information to the foreign friends by
their understandable codes. For instance, in a hotel, a foreigner needs to know which way to go for
their daily activities without enquiring at the reception desk. These requirements are served by public
signs, e.g. the location of a canteen. Actually, this service is a challenge of Chinese people’s English
level. In recent years, as a lack of contextually linguistic and cultural knowledge, there are some
errors of translation on public English signs, resulting in some inconvenience to the oversea
travelers. This paper will analyses these problems in root and then advance prospective resolutions.
What are the determinants of the non-reimbursement for SMEs in Central Africa...IJRTEMJOURNAL
This article aims to determine the factors that are the cause of the non-repayment of credits
received from financial institutions by Cameroonian SMEs. This choice is sometimes. This non-repayment is
often caused by factors related to the environment and the functioning of SMEs. It aims to analyze and highlight
the factors that put Cameroonian SMEs in a situation of inability to repay the receivables received from
financial institutions. To achieve this goal, we opted for a mixed approach: Inductive (exploration on the
ground) and hypothetico deductive. To do this, we first analyzed the content of the interviews conducted with 15
SME managers and owners and tested data collected from a questionnaire administered face-to-face with 185
Cameroonian SMEs. . We used descriptive analysis and explanatory analysis. Our results show that the tax rate,
the mismanagement of managers, poor accounting and unforeseen situations have a significant positive
influence on the non-repayment of loans, while the age and size of SMEs exert significant negative influence on
the non-repayment of loans by Cameroonian SMEs.
Multivariate regression methods with infrared spectroscopy to detect the fals...IJRTEMJOURNAL
Recently, food safety and guaranteed of food marks have become more important subjects of
foodstuff production and the marketing of processed foods. This paper demonstrates the ability of Mid Infrared
spectroscopy coupled with multivariate regression tools to detect vegetable butter (as adulterant) in a binary
mixture with traditional cow’s butter. Blends of traditional cow’s butter with different percentages of vegetable
butter were measured using Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Mid Infrared Spectroscopy (ATRFTMIR). Spectral and reference data were firstly analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA) to check
outliers samples; and improve the robustness of the prediction models to be established. Multivariate regression
methods as Principal component regression (PCR) and Partial least square regression (PLSR) were used to
establish calibration model. Excellent correlation between ATR-FTMIR analysis and studied butter blends was
obtained R2 = 0.99; with Root Mean Square Errors of Prediction < 3.04, Limit of Detection 9.12% (By PCR)
and 6.06% (by PLSR), and Relative Prediction Errors as low as 3.13.
An Analysis of Tourism Competitiveness Index of Europe and Caucasus: A Study ...IJRTEMJOURNAL
This study aims to find the association-ship between the Regional Rank of the Travel and
Tourism Competitiveness Index and its Indicators in 37 European countries. The cross-sectional data of the 37
European countries are collected from the World Economic Forum report- 2015. The statistical software
package, SPSS v. 20.0 is used to analyze the data. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), Multi-co-linearity, Multiple
Regression, and Residual Analysis are the tools used to analyze to achieve out the objective of the study. RR:
Regional Rank of the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index is used as the dependent variable and TI:
Tourism Services Infrastructure, GP: Ground & Port Infrastructure, BE: Business Environment, PT:
Prioritization of Travel and Tourism, and CR: Cultural resources & business travel are used as the independent
variables. It is found that there is an inverse relationship between the dependent variable and all the
independent variables along with the statistical significance. It is recommended that the governments of the
European countries and the respective agents of these countries should be made aware of learning the findings
of this study to promote their countries which can be victorious in lowering their Regional Rank of the Travel
and Tourism Competitiveness Index
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka Tapu of Sunsari District, Eastern Nepal
1. Invention Journal of Research Technology in Engineering & Management (IJRTEM)
ISSN: 2455-3689
www.ijrtem.com Volume 2 Issue 9 ǁ September 2018 ǁ PP 40-50
|Volume 2| Issue 9 | www.ijrtem.com | 40 |
Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka Tapu
of Sunsari District, Eastern Nepal
1,
Pratima Rai, 2,
Dhyanendra Bahadur Rai
1,
National College, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Kathmandu University
2,
Associate professor, Central Department of Geography Tribhuvan University
ABSTRACT : Food security is the foremost need of every human society. It is a fundamental right and
government responsibility but still food insecurity is prevalent in rural areas of least developed nations. To cope
with food insecurity, undertaking diverse income generating activities is common as well as key strategy adopted
by rural people. The objective of this study is to assess rural livelihood and food security status of a remote island
named Srilanka Tapu of Sunsari district. A random sampling technique was used to collect primary data from 40
rural household heads using semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive methods were used for analyzing. The
findings revealed that the food security situation of the Tapu is insecure. Most basic infrastructures and social
services needed for people livelihood such as road, electricity sufficient food availability, education, healthcare,
sanitation, etc. were found to be extremely poor. Most of the households are small scale farmers involving
themselves in diverse livelihood activities which are mostly temporary, low-skilled and low paying. However,
people are fulfilling their food needs at every cost but are highly vulnerable to food insecurity. Also, their lives
security is equally vulnerable because of disastrous Koshi River flooding which occurs every year in the Tapu.
The findings therefore critically suggest that food security of remote and vulnerable human settlements should be
at top priority in policy formulation and implementation level. The study also recommends a need for an in-depth
research for making evidence based policy interventions for improvement of diversify rural livelihood along with
sustainable environment.
KEY WORDS : Food security, diverse livelihood, vulnerable, lives insecurity, sustainable
I. INTRODUCTION
The economy of Nepal is agrarian with 80 percent of the populations deriving their livelihood from agriculture
(Davis & Li, 2013) and in rural areas, the majority adopting subsistence agriculture as the mainstay of their
livelihoods (CBS, 2011). Also, poverty in Nepal is concentrated in the very sector and is predominantly a rural
phenomenon. In 2010/11, 27 percent of the rural population lives below the poverty line as compared to 15 percent
of the urban population (Davis & Li, 2013). Nepal’s poverty is attributed to many factors. Among many,
remoteness and traditional livelihood strategies undoubtedly are the greatest constraint for growth and prosperity
(Karkee, 2008). Nepal faces considerable problems in terms of soft infrastructure (clinics, schools, service centers)
and hard infrastructure (roads, electricity) in most of the remote areas. Nepal’s poor road infrastructure which is
one of the least developed in the world prevents the development of markets and hence, the growth of farm and
non-farm incomes (WFP, 2005). Similarly, Nepal’s population has a diversity of ethnic groups and languages
with a caste system in addition with gender asymmetry which defines their access to resources and opportunities
(FAO, 2010). Because of these structural problems, primarily women followed by populations living in certain
geographical areas, identifying with certain caste/ethnic groups and practicing certain livelihoods are particularly
vulnerable groups. These groups comprise approximately 38 percent of the national population (CBS, 2011).
Food security and sustainable livelihoods both emphasize household well-being over time; both focus on access
to food and incomes; and both demonstrate a concern with risk and vulnerability. Poverty, food insecurity, and
livelihood are closely related in Nepal as households which are vulnerable to food insecurity have insufficient
livelihood assets (human, social, natural, physical and financial) to produce enough food or earn sufficient income
to purchase food and manage shocks. Consequently, they cannot meet their essential food and non-food
consumption needs, thereby impairing their labor productivity and ability to engage in livelihood activities (CBS,
2011). These households therefore have a high exposure to shocks and stresses that reduce their income or food
production and require additional expenditures. All these situations often serve rural livelihood to be food
insecure. In Nepal, rural livelihood is characterized by small land holdings, small scale agriculture using family
labour, livelihood diversification frequently playing a significant role in flexibility and well-being to livelihoods
and its dual economic nature where agricultural household is simultaneously the producer and the consumer, with
poorer people spending a higher proportion of their income on food (Gautam & Andersen, 2016).
2. Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka…
|Volume 2| Issue 9 | www.ijrtem.com | 41 |
Achieving food security is still a challenge due to the global approach being employed in every situation instead
of formulating and applying solutions based on specific locations with an understanding of the social system and
livelihood activities (Amurtiya, 2015). Nepal’s agricultural production has hardly kept up with the demands of its
growing population over the past decade (WFP, 2009). Low productivity and lack of agricultural competitiveness
serve to magnify Nepal’s poverty and food insecurity. In rural areas, difficult terrains, low availability of
productive land and variability in climatic factors have added more hardship to people’s livelihood. Also,
migration from rural to the urban areas within Nepal and abroad has adversely affected agricultural productivity
and food security. Poverty and limited employment opportunities have become a push factor for out migration
while even menial employment in urban areas has pulled people in from the rural areas. Those who out-migrate
for the purpose work are usually the male members of farm families leaving the women to do all the farm labor
as well as the farm management. All these factors have resulted in a rise in real wages affecting overall
competitiveness of agriculture (GoN & FAO, 2013). As agriculture failed to grow, the major problem in rural
areas is lack of food. Here, local food production sometimes covers just few months of annual household needs.
This problem is further exacerbated by very low purchasing power and extremely high market prices. In some
cases, due to the rugged terrain and lack of roads, people cannot access food even when they can afford to buy it.
Also, the influence of dominant culture of eating rice and poor knowledge and utilization of high value local food
items have caused rural households more likely to be food insecure. However, the population of Nepal is known
for its resilience. They have learned to cope during this mess of distress with various coping strategies (WFP &
NDRI, 2010).
Coping strategies of households with food insecurity encompass loan to meet their food needs, consuming seeds
stock, relying on inexpensive foods, limiting meals size, selling livestock, selling other household assets, working
in short-term labor positions, migrating out in search of employment and so on (Khatiwada, 2010; NDHS, 2011).
The coping mechanism is unsustainable and yet has intensified during the past years forcing them into a vicious
circle of deepening poverty. Moreover, vulnerable caste groups are most likely to suffer food insecurity
consequences as the greatest disparity is found there among Dalits, Adivasi, Kamaiyas (WFP, 2009). Furthermore,
they have limited knowledge regarding nutrition, appropriate hygiene and caring practices, and they tend to place
women in disadvantaged positions within the household and communities (Shively, et al., 2011) which makes the
situation even worse. This study investigates the situation of food security and livelihood strategies of a rural
community of Srilanka Tapu in Eastern Nepal.
II. METHODS AND MATERIALS
The data on which this paper is based were produced from household surveys and key informants’ interviews in
the months of July 2017. Semi-structured interviews were conducted within 40 households (HHs) i.e. 20
households in each two wards. Both male respondents and female respondents from the HHs involving in any
livelihood activities were randomly selected. These respondents include all the caste groups in the village. They
were asked a total of 100 questions that were mostly objective. For subjective information, focus group discussion
(FGD) and key informant interview (KII) were conducted. Local teachers, local leaders, women and personnel
from ward administration offices were participated for this purpose. Since the study principally emphasizes on
primary data, was the crux of data collection. The field visit was conducted in a week with an enumerator. During
the field research, informal interview was carried out with villagers and their daily lives were observed. In addition
to the primary data from the field, statistical reports, government policy documents and other published and
unpublished materials of relevant organizations were consulted as the secondary sources of information.
III. THE STUDY AREA
This study was conducted in Srilanka Tapu of Sunsari district in order to assess food security with respect to
livelihood approach in rural communities of Nepal. Srilanka Tapu is a small village surrounded by Koshi River.
3. Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka…
|Volume 2| Issue 9 | www.ijrtem.com | 42 |
It is extended over 14 km north-west and 6 km east-west as its area coverage.
Agriculture and livestock are major occupations of people living in Tapu. Although, Srilanka Tapu is
geographically a Tarai land, it exemplifies that some parts of Tarai can also be largely rural and underdeveloped.
It is such remote island where extremely marginalized group i.e. Madhesi ethnic minorities reside. Poverty,
illiteracy, poor nutritional status and unemployment including political and economic discrimination are their
major problems which exacerbate their vulnerable to food insecurity. Such island communities also deserve
special attention in terms of assessing and monitoring hazard risk and understanding hazard impacts and longer-
term effect. For this a long term dialogue between island communities, local level bodies and also the private
sector is vital to take on the responsibility. According to new local level structure, the Tapu encompasses ward 6
(former ward 5 of Mahendranagar VDC and part of ward 9 as well as former ward 4 and 5 of Prakaspur VDC) of
Baraha Municipality of Sunsari district. The Tapu was previously known as Garaiya Tapu, at present is famous
as Srilanka Tapu.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Demographic Characteristics : Demographic characteristics are an important component for the analysis of
socio-economic condition of the community. As per table 1, most of the respondents are males aged between 15
to 60 years old. Madhesi and Janajati are two predominant ethnic groups in Srilanka Tapu. Madhesi ethnicity
includes sub-castes such as Chandrabansi, Chaudhari, Urau, Kabirath, Mandal, Gudi which are the most
underprivileged groups being at the bottom of their own caste hierarchy. Pahadi communities such as Rai, Shrestha
and Magar are immigrants from different parts of hill districts. Janajatis include Rai, Shrestha and Majhi as major
sub-castes where Majhi comprises the largest percent of the population.
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics in Srilanka Tapu
Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Gender
1. Females
2. Males
5
35
12.5%
87.5%
Age
1. 15 to 60
2. >60
35
5
87.5%
12.5%
4. Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka…
|Volume 2| Issue 9 | www.ijrtem.com | 43 |
Marital status
1. Single
2. Married
3. Widowed
4
34
2
10%
85%
5%
Ethnicity
1. Madhesis
2. Janajatis
34
6
85%
15%
Educational status
1. No schooling
2. Primary
3. Secondary
4. Intermediate
22
6
9
3
55%
15%
22.5%
7.5%
Years of Residency
1. >10 years (permanent)
2. <10 years (migrants)
35
5
87.5%
12.5%
Households Head
1. Female (mean age=49)
2. Male (mean age=45)
4
36
10%
90%
Family Type
1. Nuclear (4 or less)
2. Joint (5 to 20)
17
23
42.5%
57.5%
Source: Field Visit, 2017
Thirteen percent (13%) migrants as reported were from neighboring districts in particular Udyapur, Dhanusha,
Saptari, Ramechhap and Bhojpur after purchasing land in the Tapu. Nepalese society is a patriarchal society;
thereby male members of the family are often the household’s head who are the ultimate decision makers of their
livelihood aspects. The study shows that females get to be household head only when their husbands are engaged
in foreign labor (for married women) or at old age mostly after the death of their husband. Most of the households
have joint family ranging from 5 to 20 members living together and mean size of household is 10 persons. Poor
educational status is prevalent in the study area which underscores the seriousness of the food security situation.
For attaining food security, education attainment is considered as its essential component. Studies have shown
households whose members are educated are more likely to be economically mobile, have better health and
nutritional status, and are better able to meet their food and non-food needs (WFP, 2005).
Community Infrastructure and Services: In the Tapu, most of the houses are very small in size made of clay,
bamboo and thatch roofs. Use of cement and metal roofing is minimal. As most of the households reported living
jointly, with average 10 persons in a house, overcrowding of room is common. There is no electricity in the Tapu.
Solar panel is therefore the main source of lighting. Battery flashlight is used only for emergency purposes by few
households. Firewood is major energy source for cooking. Only 3 to 4% of households use cylinder gas, dry cow
dung and corn cob as cooking fuel. The source of firewood is Koshi River where sufficient wood, timber and logs
used as firewood during the summer are drifted freely along the river and people have open access to collect it.
Hand pump is the main source of drinking water which is usually installed within the house compound. The water
from the pump is used directly for drinking and cooking purposes. Poor transportation network is one of the major
problems in the study area. This village and market centers & district headquarter are connected by poor village
road. In between, the locals have to cross a section of Koshi via boats often risking their lives especially during
monsoon. Facility for life jackets and keeping proper record of passengers when they are on board are
underestimated by both boat operators and passengers despite of yearly boat capsizing incidents. Due to poor road
and transport linkage, locals have no choice of easy transportation modes. They are compelled to use exhausting
and time-consuming modes of transport as shown in the table 2.
Table 2: Modes of Transport in Srilanka Tapu
Types Total HHs In percent Remarks
Motorbike 4 10% Villagers have to use boat to cross a
section of the river to come out of
the place for several purposes.
Bicycle 19 48%
Foot 40 100%
Boat 40 100%
Source: Field Visit, 2017
5. Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka…
|Volume 2| Issue 9 | www.ijrtem.com | 44 |
Access to education and health services are another major problem in the sampled communities. There are only
three schools in the Tapu (two government schools; primary and lower secondary and a boarding school). The
boarding school is also a primary school. More than ninety percent (90%) students aged between 5 to <15 years
were reported to enroll in community schools. Out of enrolled students, only twenty percent (20%) students were
reported attending boarding schools and also found male students being comprised its significant percent. To
achieve further education, the nearest school is around one to two hours away on average from the community.
Also, they have to face security issues to reach to school as they have to cross a section of Koshi on the way.
Especially during monsoon, it becomes impossible for those students to pursue their classes because of widened
and fast water current. Therefore, they fail to continue their further studies.
Table 3: Percentage of HHs Difficulty in Accessing Health Services
Source: Field Visit, 2017
Similarly, eighty percent (80%) households have been experiencing hardship in accessing health services for a
long time period due to several constraints as shown (Table 3).
Livelihood Strategies in Srilanka Tapu: Rural households in Nepal often engage in diverse livelihood activities
to meet household priorities like food, income, access to services, etc. (Koirala, 2010; Rai, 2011). Similarly, most
of the households in the study area were found to employing a combination of livelihood activities.
Table 4: Livelihood Activities and Its Contribution to Annual Income
SN Livelihood class % HH Primary share Secondary & tertiary share
1 Agriculture 55% Sales of crops (83%) Livestock, remittance (17%)
2 Livestock 10% Sales of livestock (84%) Farming, fishery (16%)
3 Remittance 10% Remittances (89%) Farming, livestock (11%)
4 Government services
(teacher) 7% Salary (76%) Farming, livestock (24%)
5 Wage labor 5% Wage labor (89%) Farming, livestock (11%)
6 Fishery 3% Sales of fish (100%)
7
Others (small shop &
commerce, mason,
plumber)
10%
Small shop, commerce,
skilled work (71%)
Farming, livestock (29%)
Source: Field Survey, 2017
As can be seen, there are seven reported livelihood classes. Agriculture-based households are most prevalent in
the area and more importantly all livelihood classes recorded rely on one activity for over 70% of their total annual
income. Such heavy dependency on single activity can be threatening to households in particular farmers when
subject to crop failure due to natural causes such as heavy rainfall/no rainfall, infertility, pests, etc. or
physical/financial reasons such as lack of access to agricultural inputs in required time. The average landholding
size for sampled households is 1.35 hectares with a wide variation in size from 0.23 hectares to a maximum of
6.77 hectares. Findings indicate that households used a combination of one or more of the main mediums of land
acquisition as shown in figure below.
HHs Sample (40) In % Reasons
Health services
inside Tapu
32 HHs
have no health access
80% 1. Only one health post in the wards
2. Health staffs not available
3. Deliver of basic health services only
4. Medicines provided not effective
Health services
from outside Tapu
almost households 1. Long distance
2. Cost of treatment
(expensive, unaffordable)
6. Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from Srilanka…
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Figure 2: Medium of Land Acquisition
Nature of soil in the Tapu is sandy which is suitable for cultivation of maize, wheat, pulses and vegetables farming.
Commercial vegetable farming is therefore practiced by forty-eight percent (48%) of households reporting access
to land. Potato is cultivated in large scale which approximately covers 0.152 hectares mean land size. Other major
vegetables cultivated in large quantity are meter bodi, tomato, cucumber, chilly, cabbage, okra, bitter gourd, etc.
In the Tapu, the land is least fit for rice. Seventy-eight percent (78%) households’ plant both monsoon and summer
crops while remaining twenty-two percent (22%) reported to grow only single crop i.e. either monsoon or summer
crop in a year in this village. Small landholding size, sandy (balaute) land and lack of irrigation facility are some
of the major causes for households to plant only a single crop in a year. Commercial vegetables farming and maize
cultivation are found to be the only two major crops contributing significantly to income source of the households
having access to any land. Other crops cultivations are only subsistence in nature. Although maize production is
the highest among all crops production, it is reported to be sold. And with that income, households in the Tapu
tend to fulfill their rice sufficiency level. All three mediums of basic food sources; own production, purchase and
both are used by households to fulfill their food needs as shown in the figure below. The figure also represents
the poor situation of households’ level of food sufficiency from their own production.
Figure 3: Sources of Food
It is evident that the study site is rice deficit as rice is cultivated only by 43% of households. Rice is the major
food in Nepalese food culture. In food security, it therefore becomes important to assess households’ rice
sufficiency level. Only twenty- five percent (25%) of households reported to have rice sufficiency level from their
own production. Remaining eighteen percent (18%) are insufficient rice cultivators and fifty-seven (57%) with no
rice cultivation.
65%
15%
8%
12%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Inheritance Purchase Renting from
landlord
Sharecropping
Percentofhouseholds
27.5%
45%
27.5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
Own production at
large
Own production &
purchase
Purchase at large
Percentofhouseholds
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Households with such rice insufficiency solely depend on purchase/markets to fulfill their basic food need.
Undoubtedly, Nepalese food habit therefore can be marked as rice culture. There are also households reported
with small or no agricultural land ownership commonly known as landless groups. They are mostly agricultural
laborers, wage laborers, and fishery dependent households. These households are most vulnerable to food
insecurity and poverty because their livelihood activities are often seasonal and low- paying. Households with
small landholding sizes have insufficient food production; thereby they are largely dependent on purchase for
their food sources (Figure, 3). For agriculture-based households, their source of food is direct consumption from
their own production. Hence, they have to diversify their livelihood in non-farm activities to fill in their income
gaps (Rajbansi, 2010; Rai, 2017). The table 5 describes some of the major problems limiting/constraining the
agricultural production and growth in the study area.
Table 5: Major Agricultural Problems Faced by HHs
SN Major agricultural problems Remarks
1 Crop raiding by wildlife from nearby Koshi Tapu Regular problem faced by people
2 Gradual loss of land due to river erosion Becoming small land holding size and
landlessness
3 Inundation of low lying farm land Especially during monsoon
4 Lack of irrigation facility Crops damaged by draughts
5 Agricultural land susceptible to weed invasion Invasive nature of weeds
6 Problem of transportation Poor linkages between market and Tapu
7 Lack of storage facilities for vegetables Agricultural products damaging
8 Expensive agricultural inputs Improved seeds, fertilizers
9 Sandy (balaute) land Susceptible to dryness
Source: Field Visit, 2017.
Livestock is the second most common activity practiced by ten percent (10%) of households as primary source of
income. Besides this, there are nearly ninety-seven percent (97%) of households owning one or more type of
livestock which explains livestock is indeed an integral part of Nepalese agricultural system (Khatiwada, 2010;
Rai, 2018). Goat is the largest households holding of livestock type followed by cow/ox and buffalo/he-buffalo.
Both livestock types are owned mainly for agricultural purposes and for self-consumption of dairy products and
meat. Goat and poultry ownership was the most varied in terms of absolute holdings with ten and fifteen
respectively. There are also various livestock problems faced by people in the area as shown in figure 5.The Tapu
has big grassland used as grazing land by every livestock owning households, but it is sufficient only for monsoon
season. During dry season especially for 3 months; Falgun, Chaitra, Baisakh, there is no sufficient feed for
animals. To feed livestock many households required to buy fodder outside the Tapu. Access to veterinary services
is another challenge for the households as the place has no such service providing center. Therefore, they had to
call specialist from another place outside of the Tapu, thereby there is transportation, time and expensive service
issue. During monsoon, veterinary service is inaccessible because of swelled Koshi River. Foreign migration is
another economic fact in the lives of households in Srilanka Tapu. Households with migrants rely heavily on
remittances to meet daily consumption needs, including food, school fees, clothing, and paying back loans.
The favored destination of migrants is Gulf countries like Saudi, Qatar which combined consists of seventy-one
percent (71%) followed by Malaysia (10%), India (14%) and Korea (5%). Often such countries are basically the
first choices of unskilled labor force and the job is tough and risky. Such migrants are all reported to be male aged
between 30-40 years comprising forty-seven percent (47%), thirty-seven percent (37%) migrants are aged between
20-30 years and only sixteen percent (16%) are between 40-60 years of age. People with such age groups are the
most economically productive segment of population and the most capable of physical labor. Migration of such
labor force is unfortunate for the development process of any developing countries.
Access to Market: For people in Tapu, market is their prime necessity to fulfill basic food needs as they are
heavily dependent on purchase as their food sources (particularly rice). Unfortunately, market accessibility is one
of their major problems. They do have access to community based haat bazar which operates in weekly basis as
other parts of Tarai region of Nepal (Mandal, 2008) but it is reported to cater only vegetables items, meat and
locally available goods.
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Similarly, there are only 5 shops i.e. three small and two medium sized in the Tapu. Small shops sell readymade
food items especially for children. Medium sized shop includes rice bags, spices, stationery, few seeds variety,
etc. The presences of medium sized shops in a way have facilitated the locals despite the high cost relative to
market price. For fulfilling other major needs such as clothes, rice, agricultural inputs, kitchen tools, sanitary
items, they required going to market centers which are outside of the Tapu and there is no easy transportation
facility, people are compelled to walk long distances for an hour to three depending on market centers. Only few
households have bicycles and motorbikes mainly used for commercial purposes. Physical remoteness therefore is
great constraint for their mobility and moreover their access to social services and facilities. Also, most of them
being low-income households, market price for even basic needs is expensive and at times unaffordable.
Annual Expenditure : There is greater likelihood that a household has poor food access when a higher share of
total expenditures spends for food. It would not necessarily be a problem if a greater variety and diversity of foods
were purchased. However, studies indicate that food insecure households will purchase cereals over other food
items because they are cheaper and more filling (WFP, 2005). Similarly, in the study area, bulk of the food
expenditures goes towards cereals in particular rice. High value food accounts for small share of expenditure
whereas significant share accounts to tobacco and alcohol indicating drinking habits which is very common in
Nepalese society. With respect to non-food expenditure, the bulk of the outlays go towards agricultural outputs;
agriculture being the major occupation and land nature being sandy. Health and education account for minimal
share which indicate households inability to meet key non-food priorities that are conducive to improve food
security. On the other hand, debt repayments share significant percent of all non-food expenses which indicates
heavy indebtedness often leads to household income going to repayments. Prominent expenditure to celebrations/
festivals can be again linked to Nepalese culture where usually Madheshi ethnicity tends to spend huge money in
wedding which is also a fact in the sampled households. Expenditures on transport, veterinary are very low which
can be best described by poor road infrastructure of the study area as shown in the figure.
Figure 4: Annual Food Expenditure Figure 5: Annual Non-Food Expenditure
Source: Field Visit, 2017
The study also shows eighty-five percent (85%) of households reported having access to one or more types of
credit. The most common types of credit are reliance on friends and relatives and local lenders. It is evident that
households rely more on informal sources than formal ones. It is also found that households’ dependency is very
high on debt which accounts for seventy-five percent (75%) of households. Most of the people living in this area
take loan for the purpose of fulfilling daily consumption goods i.e. food and non-food items in difficult situation
followed by education and medical expenses/health care and for performing social events.
rice/paddy
39%
wheat
1%
pulses
4%
sugar/salt
6%
veggies
7%
meat/fish
23%
oils/spices
11%
alcohol
9%
clothing
16%
education
8%
transport
4%
veterinary
4%
mobile
recharge
4%
health
4%
celebration/fes
tivals
13%
debt
17%
agricultural
inputs
30%
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Table 6: Causes of Debt in the Household
SN Causes of debt Household in percentage
1 To fulfill food and non-food needs in difficulty 25
2 To pay for education and medical expenses/health care 18
3 To perform social events (celebrations/ festivals) 14
4 To purchase agricultural inputs (seeds/fertilizers) 13
5 To proceed for foreign labor 12
6 To rent agricultural land 8
7 Others 10
Source: Field Visit, 2017
Due to remoteness and low income population in the Tapu, there are only two cooperative recently established
for facilitating saving habits. There is presence of forest committee which has benefitted only few user-groups as
it lacks inclusive participation. The studies also show presence of few prominent organizations like Social
Empowerment and Building Accessibility Centre (SEBAC) Nepal and Plan International, Nepal have worked in
providing boring machines, gobar gas plant (almost non-functional at present), solar panels at low cost in the
Tapu. But these organizations have failed to sustain such assistances because of several reasons like most of the
household are illiterate and financially unstable, only small percent of households are aware of those programs
and organizations, most times elite group get chance to engage/involve. As a result, desired changes do not occur.
Land entitlement is also one of the land issues faced by the people in the Tapu. People of Tapu are residing in
non-registered land (ailani jagga) as it is reported they have lost land to Koshi River as it changed its course
unexpectedly during 2045 B.S earthquake. They have no legal land entitlements; thereby they cannot buy or sell
land legally. It is usually done in mutual consensus between two parties. No attempts from the government are
made to verify whether people in the Tapu have land or not. The question of land ownership has been faced by
the people. Also, more than 90% of reported households do not have any land other than in the Tapu and in case
of emergency (in specific flooding), they have no secure place to go for.
Health and Diseases : Access to toilets is one of the major issues in the Tapu. Out of the total, 47% households
reported that they do not have any toilet facility and use the open land for defecation. The present scenario
demonstrates the fact of households in the Tarai being reported as the highest incidence of no toilet facilities.
Diarrhea is very common disease along with typhoid fever, intestinal worms, headaches and viral fever. Most of
the diseases reported are water borne diseases which demonstrate inadequate sanitation facilities practiced by the
households in this area. As the area is surrounded by Koshi River, flooding events are considered as natural
phenomena. But fortunately the communities have not exposed to major flooding disaster like inundation of whole
village, loss of human life, desertification etc. River erosions though have caused gradual loss of some agricultural
lands lying near by the river bank. Human casualties due to boat capsizing are the major issue reported to occur
every year in the Tapu. It is also evident that the whole area is always at some risk of flooding sooner or later but
the government machinery is almost non-existent there. Hence, there is an urgent need to address the vulnerability
of Tapu.
V. CONCLUSIONS
It is concluded that Srilanka Tapu as its subsistence agrarian economy is mainly based on households selling
maize and purchasing rice with that income. For fulfilling remaining other food and non-food needs, livelihood
pursuits outside of agriculture are widely prevalent among households as a response to unsustainable agriculture.
Such livelihood diversification is responsible for enhancing rural household economy and food security by giving
additional income. However, rural people are unable to depend on such activities as secure high return
diversification as they are illiterate, low-skilled and low access to prerequisite resources and capital. Here,
potential agricultural productivity is limited by poor access to modern farm equipment, low irrigation facility,
expensive seeds, and fertilizers. Food constitutes large part of income expenditure for such low-income
households; hence remaining basic needs are unattainable. Therefore, for small and medium farm households
(almost 70%), borrowing money is common mechanism. The majority of loans taken are spent in unproductive
purposes. For such households, indebtedness is heavy and persistence for long time period.
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Also for more than 90% of households’ access to credit is informal source (friends/relatives, local money lender),
which indicates poor economic condition of people where indebtedness drain their savings ability. Similarly, the
Tapu lacks access to proper sanitation, health services, safe water along with adequate education on hygiene and
sanitation, health and nutrition and in food handling. Because of such underlying situation, people’s poor health
status contributing to poor biological utilization of consumed food has further exacerbated potential food
insecurity among households. All these prevailing conditions indicate that the study area is potentially food
insecure area. In any shocks and circumstances such as disastrous flooding, Tarai strikes, high inflation, adversely
low agricultural productivity; area’s vulnerability to food insecurity is very high. Immediate intervention therefore
is required for addressing above poor figures in related to all elements of livelihood and food security. These
include improving infrastructures, improving rural household incomes, providing targeted social assistance and
welfare programs, supporting diversification of livelihoods and promoting dietary education. Special attention has
to be paid to the marginal and vulnerable groups to improve food and nutrition security.
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Pratima Rai, Dhyanendra Bahadur Rai , Rural Livelihood and Food Security: Insights from
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