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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 15-17
Area/s to be discussed. • Action research.
Action Research • Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community”.
Contd… • School and classroom-based studies initiated and conducted by teachers and other school staff. • Action research involves teachers, aides, principals, and other school staff as researchers who systematically reflect on their teaching or other work and collect data that will answer their questions.
Contd… • Research undertaken by teams that is flexible and iterative; the aim is to problem-solve in order to improve the way processes are performed and services are delivered.
Contd… • Research conducted by classroom teachers, often concurrent with their teaching. • Research, usually informal, designed for direct application to behavior or to a situation, as research by teachers in their classrooms.
Contd… • Describes a method of learning by doing. Community artists experiment with different approaches to gathering relevant material for a project. • Action research is a particular approach to research that aims to improve practice or have a real world application. • In other words, it is research that aims to make a real change or impact in society, and is not simply research in and of itself.
Contd… • It aims to address both the practical concerns of people (in a community, organisation etc) and the goals of research through people working together on projects. • An informal, qualitative, interpretive, reflective and experimental methodology that requires all the participants to be collaborative researchers
Why should I Use Action Research? • Because you want to change your practice. You may be concerned that things might not be going as you wish, or you may need to implement a new initiative but are unsure how to do it effectively.
Contd… • What you want is a way of sorting out these concerns that offers practical solutions, but that derives from the specific circumstances of your practice. • You know that someone else’s solution may have merit, but that it is never quite right for the individual situation within which you work. You know that practice is always influenced by context
How does this qualify as research? • Because the act of finding your solution makes you understand your practice better – not only what you are doing, but also the factors that affect what you do. Action research therefore has two aspects.
Contd… • The starting point is to sort out a problem or issue in practice; to this extent an action researcher seeks a solution. • But the process can also be used as a deliberate attempt to understand practice better – a traditional research attitude. What is most important in both approaches is that you are open, honest and rigorous.
What Do We Mean by Practice? • From the perspective of action research, the best way to think about practice is the way you carry out your professional actions. • This is, of course, what you do, but it is also why you think you should be doing things the way you do. • You will hear of the ‘theory-practice divide’; action research as an approach cuts across this divide, encouraging a practitioner to consider both aspects as part of a single whole.
What is action research about? • Action research is a practical approach to professional inquiry in any social situation. • The examples in this component relate to education and are therefore of particular relevance to teachers or lecturers engaged in their daily contact with children or students.
Contd… • But professional practice need not be teaching: it may be management or administration in a school or college, or it may be in an unrelated area, such as medicine or the social services. • The context for professional inquiry might change, but the principles and processes involved in action research are the same, regardless of the nature of the practice.
How does action research work? • At its heart, action research involves the careful monitoring of planned change in practice. • A decision is taken that a particular action may either yield improvements or provide information as to the nature of the teaching situation. • The action is thus used as a research tool. Both elements of action and research are of equal prominence in the approach.
Contd… It can be thought of as: Research on action by using Action as a tool for research with the process being driven by a dialogue between the elements of: • action and the intentions behind action or • practice and the values behind practice.
Individual or Collaborative? • So far, this account has focused on the individual nature of action research, reflecting Whitehead’s perspective on the process.
Contd… • This is not to say that groups of people within a school or college cannot undertake a collaborative action research project, exploring how best to change institutional practice, but it is important to realise the individual nature of practice itself. • If reflection on practice involves engaging with intentions, values and beliefs, then strong elements of these will be intensely personal.
Methods • The prime criterion for choosing a particular data gathering method in action research is whether it is anticipated that the method will give useful information about the practice under study. • It is sometimes thought that methods used in action research are purely qualitative.
Contd… • This does not have to be true. Although the overall analysis of the data generated by any methods used will be qualitative in nature, numerical or statistical information may be of great value to that analysis. • For example, a statistical breakdown of examination or SATs passes may be a useful piece of data when exploring the effect of aspects of practice.
Contd… • What is most important is that the researcher understands that different research methods illuminate only particular aspects of a situation. None give a whole picture.
Contd… • In seeking evidence of her practice, or the effectiveness of a change in practice, a teacher needs to look at it from different perspectives; she needs to employ a triangulation of methods. • This is a simple principle, involving the careful choice of a range of data gathering techniques, each of which might illuminate a different aspect of the same issue:
The Principle of Triangulation
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 18
Area/s to be discussed. • Objectives of research. • Qualitative and Quantitative
Objectives: (Descriptive, Co-relational, Exploratory and Explanatory) • Descriptive research is also called statistical research. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied.
Contd… • The idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation.
Contd… • Correlation research measures the relationship between two or more variables or gives an indication of how one variable may predict another.
Contd… • Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection methods, and selection of subjects. • Given that it is fundamental in nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.
Contd… • Explanatory research explores "why," and attempts to explain as the purposes of explanatory research. • It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and further identifies the reasons for something that occurs. It looks for causes and reasons.
Qualitative and Quantitative • The inquiry mode of research can be categorized as qualitative and quantitative:
Contd… • Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals, to explore a social or human problem.
Contd… • Qualitative research methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research, and case studies. • You can use qualitative research to study past events or current events. • When you use it for past events, it is specifically called historical research.
The Salient Features of Qualitative Research are: • Conducted to have an insight and better understanding of not only about the current situation is but also why it is so. • More open and responsive to the research participants. • Uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies, • Offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory studies.
Quantitative Research • Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions. • It includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept, and door-to-door interviews, as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys.
Quantitative Research • Means the data is analyzed in terms of numbers. • Involves the collection of numerical data. • Predicts and explains data in the form of statistical analysis. • Uses the numerical method to analysis and interpret the results. • Finds out the relationship among quantifiable variables and the results are inferred.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session 19-20
Area/s to be discussed. • Comparative analysis of research. • Qualitative research methods.
To understand characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis: Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research Research approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured Research conducted through Asking research questions Asking research questions By using research hypotheses. When is it conducted? Early stages of decision making Later stages of decision making Later stages of decision making
What is the purpose of Research? • Research method is defined as the tools or an instrument that is used to accomplish the goals and attributes of conducting a research process.
Contd… • Think of the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or instruments will be employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.
Contd… • To understand research methods we must first understand what research is. • Research is a careful study of a specific problem or concern using scientific methods, tools, and instruments.
Contd… • Remember as kids, we were given projects in elementary schools and we were asked to know about it in details. • Research is the adult form of that elementary project, only a more precise and thorough version!
Contd… • Research can be about anything, scientific research, basic research, applied research, market research- qualitative market research and quantitative market research, problem-oriented research, problem-solving research. • To begin researching something, you need to have a problem or a concern that needs a solution.
Contd… • Research really begins with asking the right research questions, what follows next is choosing appropriate research method to be able to investigate the problem or issue in the right direction and then finally analyze your findings or observations to draw appropriate conclusions.
Contd… • When it comes to customers and related research, there should be no stone unturned. • Specify and plan the customer’s research, help make smart decisions about how to market and position your business efficiently.
Contd… • Choosing the right research method will help you get important answers about your clients. • But before we go any further, first let us identify the research methods.
Types of Research Methods and Research Example • Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research. Both research methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.
Qualitative Research Methods • Qualitative research is a research method that collects data using conversational methods, where participants involved in the research are asked open-ended questions. • The responses collected are essentially non- numerical. • This method not only helps a researcher understand “what” participant think but also, “why” they think in a particular way.
Widely Used Qualitative Research Methods One-to-one Interview: • This interview technique is systematically planned and as the name suggests is conducted with one participant at a given point in time. • One-to-one interviews need a researcher to prepare questions in advance and to make sure the researcher asks only the most important questions to the participant.
Contd… • This type of interview lasts anywhere between 20 minutes to half an hour. • During this time the researcher collects as many meaningful data as possible from the participants to draw inferences.
Contd… Focus Groups: • Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants who are usually experts in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus group who facilitates the discussion amongst the group members
Contd… • A moderator’s experience in conducting focus group plays an important role. • An experienced moderator can probe the participants by asking the correct research questions that will help him/her collect a sizable amount of information related to the research.
Contd… Ethnographic Research: • Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where people are observed in their natural environment with any alterations.
Contd… • This method can prove to be a bit demanding in terms of a researcher getting adapted to the natural environment of the target audience which could even be the Amazon rainforest! Geographic locations can be a constraint in this type of research method. • Instead of conducting interviews a researcher needs to experience the settings in person to collect information.
Contd… Text Analysis: • Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative research methods as it used to analyze the social life by decoding words, texts etc. through any available form of documentation.
Contd… • The researcher studies and understands the context in which the documents are furnished with the information and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. • In modern times, researchers follow activities on a social media platform and try and understand the pattern of thoughts.
Contd… Case Study Research: • Case study research, as the name suggests is used to study an organization or an entity. This research method has evolved over the years and is one of the most valuable qualitative research methods known to researchers.
Contd… • This type of research is used in fields like education sector, philosophical and psychological studies. • This method involves a deep diving into the ongoing research and collects data.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 21-22
Area/s to be discussed. • Comparative analysis of research: Quantitative Research Methods
To understand characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis: Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research Research approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured Research conducted through Asking research questions Asking research questions By using research hypotheses. When is it conducted? Early stages of decision making Later stages of decision making Later stages of decision making
Quantitative Research Methods • Quantitative research methods are the methods that deal with numbers and anything that can be dealt with a measurable form, in a systematic way of investigating the phenomenon.
Contd… • It is used to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict or control a phenomenon.
There are three methods that are often used by researchers to conduct this type of research, they are: Survey Research- • The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large population by deploying the survey. Gone are the days where a survey was carried out using a pen and a paper. • Today, online surveys are a popular mode of research as they are convenient and can be sent in an email or made available on the internet.
Contd… • In this method, a researcher designs a survey with most relevant survey questions and deploys the survey. • Once the researcher receives the responses he/she summarizes them to tabulate meaningful findings and data.
Contd… • Descriptive Research- Descriptive research is a quantitative research method, which corresponds to identifying the characteristics of an observed phenomenon and collecting more information.
Contd… • This research method is designed to depict the participants in a very systematic and accurate manner. • In simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the phenomenon, observing and drawing conclusions from it.
Contd Correlational Research: • Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables. Let us take an example to understand correlational research. • Let us take an example to understand correlational research, Consider hypothetically, a researcher is studying a correlation between cancer and marries women. Let us say married women have a negative correlation with cancer.
Contd… • In the previous example, there are two variables: cancer, and married women. When we say negative correlation it means women who are married are less likely to develop cancer. However, it doesn’t mean that marriage directly avoids cancer.
Identifying Research Methodology • To choose the appropriate research methods, it is necessary to clearly identify the research objectives. Here is an example of some of the research objectives you can take into consideration for your business: • To start with, find out the needs of your clients.
Contd… • Know their preferences and understand what is important to them • Find an appropriate way to make your customers aware of your products and services. • Find ways to improve your products or services to suit the needs of your customers.
After identifying what you need to know, you should then ask what research methods will offer you that information. • Organize your questions within the framework of the 7 Ps that influences your organization – product, price (if applied), promotion, place, people, processes and physical tests.
Contd… • A well-organized customer research process produces valid, accurate, reliable, timely and complete results. • Research results that rigorously reflect the opinions and needs of your clients will help you grow your sales and improve your operations. • To obtain the results you need to establish and follow the processes that you have detailed out for your organization:
Set Your Goals • Consider the client’s research objectives and define those that identify with yours and plan a strategy once you obtain the information. • Make sure that your goals objectives smart do not presume their result, and define them intelligently and make sure you set achievable targets, smart goals, and objectives.
Plan Your Research : • Good planning allows the use of creative and logical approaches to select the research methods that gather the information. • Your plan will be influenced by the type and complexity of the information you need, the skills of your market research team, and how soon you need the information and your budget. • Make an adequate strategic planning for your market research.
Contd… • Identify your list of questions and decide on the research methods that will best achieve your goals. Detail your research approach and some initial idea of how you will classify and analyze the data.
Collect and collate your results • Make a list of how you are going to carry out the research process, the data you need to collect and collection methods. This will help you keep track of your research processes and make sense of your findings. It will also allow you to verify that your research accurately reflects the opinions of your clients.
Contd…. • Remember, research is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate and reliable. Relying on imperfect research is dangerous; incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.
Analyze and Understand Your Research • The analysis of the data can vary from simple and direct steps to technical and complex processes. • Adopt an approach, and choose the method of data analysis based on the research methods you have carried out.
Keep the Findings Ready • Choose a spreadsheet that allows you to easily enter your data. • If you do not have a large amount of data, you should be able to manage them with the use of basic tools available in the software. • If you have collected more complete and complex data, you may have to consider using specific programs or tools that will help you manage your data.
Review and Interpret the Information to Draw Conclusions • Once you have gathered all the data, you can scan your information and interpret it to draw conclusions and make informed decisions. You should review the data and then: • Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities and problems you observe, and write a sentence about each one • Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
Contd… • Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common • Evaluate and perform separately a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that have been identified in a SWOT analysis. • Preparation of conclusions and recommendations about your research.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 23-25
Area/s to be discussed. • Comparative analysis: Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research.
To understand characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis: Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research Research approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured Research conducted through Asking research questions Asking research questions By using research hypotheses. When is it conducted? Early stages of decision making Later stages of decision making Later stages of decision making
Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research • Research is the most widely used tool to increase and brush-up the stock of knowledge about something and someone. • In the field of marketing, business, sociology, psychology, science & technology, economics, etc. there are two standard ways of conducting research, i.e. qualitative research or quantitative research.
Contd… • While the qualitative research relies on verbal narrative like spoken or written data, the quantitative research uses logical or statistical observations to draw conclusions.
Comparison Chart BASIS FOR COMPARISON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Meaning Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. Quantitative research is a research method that is used to generate numerical data and hard facts, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique. Nature Holistic Particularistic Approach Subjective Objective Research type Exploratory Conclusive Reasoning Inductive Deductive Sampling Purposive Random Data Verbal Measurable Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented Hypothesis Generated Tested Elements of analysis Words, pictures and objects Numerical data Objective To explore and discover ideas used in the ongoing processes. To examine cause and effect relationship between variables. Methods Non-structured techniques like In-depth interviews, group discussions etc. Structured techniques such as surveys, questionnaires and observations. Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action
Key Differences between Qualitative And Quantitative Research • The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are provided can be drawn clearly on the next grounds:
Contd… • Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. • A scientific and empirical research method that is used to generate numerical data, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique is called quantitative research. • Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is particularistic.
Contd • The qualitative research follows a subjective approach as the researcher is intimately involved, whereas the approach of quantitative research is objective, as the researcher is uninvolved and attempts to precise the observations and analysis on the topic to answer the inquiry. • Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative research which is conclusive.
Contd… • The reasoning used to synthesise data in qualitative research is inductive whereas in the case of quantitative research the reasoning is deductive.
Contd… • Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample size is selected with a view to get a thorough understanding of the target concept. • On the other hand, quantitative research relies on random sampling; wherein a large representative sample is chosen in order to extrapolate the results to the whole population.
Contd… • Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in quantitative research measurable data is gathered. • Inquiry in qualitative research is a process- oriented, which is not in the case of quantitative research.
Contd… • Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words, pictures, and objects while that of quantitative research is numerical data. • Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and discovering ideas used in the ongoing processes. • As opposed to quantitative research the purpose is to examine cause and effect relationship between variables.
Contd… • Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews, focus groups, etc. In contrast, the methods of conducting quantitative research are structured interviews and observations. • Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas quantitative research recommends a final course of action.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 26-28
Area/s to be discussed. • Identifying the Research Problem.
Identifying the Research Problem • The research problem is the heart of a study. • It is a clear, definite statement of the area of concern or investigation and is backed by evidence (Bryman, 2007).
Contd… • It drives the research questions and processes and provides the framework for understanding the research findings. • To begin, you will need to know where to look for your research problem and how to evaluate when a research problem for success.
Where to Find a Research Problem? • Ideas for research problems tend to come from two sources: real life and the scholarly arena. • First, identifying a research problem can be as simple as observing the complications and issues in your local workplace.
Contd… • You may encounter ongoing issues on a daily basis in your workplace or observe your colleagues struggle with major issues or questions in your field. • These ongoing obstacles and issues in the workplace can be the catalyst for developing a research problem.
Contd… • Alternatively, research problems can be identified by reviewing recent literature, reports, or databases in your field. • Often the section of “recommendations for the future studies” provided at the end of journal articles or doctoral dissertations suggest potential research problems.
Contd… • In addition, major reports and databases in the field may reveal findings or data-based facts that call for additional investigation or suggest potential issues to be addressed. • Looking at what theories need to be tested is another opportunity to develop a research problem.
How to Evaluate a Research Problem? • Once you find your potential research problem, you will need to evaluate the problem and ensure that it is appropriate for research. • A research problem is deemed appropriate when it is supported by the literature, and considered significant, timely, novel, specific, and researchable. • Stronger research problems are more likely to succeed in publication, presentation, and application.
Supported by the Literature • Your research problem should be relevant to the field and supported by a number of recent peer- reviewed studies in the field. • Even if you identify the problem based on the recommendation of one journal article or dissertation, you will still need to conduct a literature search and ensure that other researchers support the problem and need for conducting research to further address the problem.
Significant • Your research problem should have a positive impact on the field. • The impact can be practical, in the form of direct application of the results in the field, or conceptual, where the work advances the field by filling a knowledge gap.
Novel • Your research problem should be original and unique. • It should seek to address a gap in our knowledge or application. • An exhaustive review of literature can help you identify whether the problem has already been addressed with your particular sample and/or context.
Contd… • Talking to experts in the research area can illuminate a problem. • Replication of an existing study warrants discussion of value elsewhere, but novelty can be found in determining if an already-resolved problem holds in a new sample and/or context.
Specific and Clear • Your research problem should be specific enough to set the direction of the study, raise research question(s), and determine an appropriate research method and design. • Vague research problems may not be useful to specify the direction of the study or develop research questions.
Researchable • Research problems are solved through the scientific method. • This means research-ability, or feasibility of the problem, is more important than all of the above characteristics. • You as the researcher should be able to solve the problem with your abilities and available research methods, designs, research sites, resources, and timeframe.
Contd… • If a research problem retains all of aforementioned characteristics but it is not researchable, it may not be an appropriate research problem.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 29-31
Area/s to be discussed. • Literature Review.
Literature Review as Sources of Information and its Procedure • Any research, no matter at what scale, requires reading about what other people have done in the area of your interest, how they have done it, and what are the gaps in the research in that area. • Any new production of knowledge is necessarily based on previous and existing knowledge.
Contd… • You need information to support or refute your arguments and write about your findings. • You need to provide evidence that you are aware of the current trends and issues in your area of interest and are cognizant of the current state of knowledge on the subject. • Ideally this reading should form the basis for choosing your research methodology.
Contd… • Moreover, every new article/book you read will have a cumulative effect on the existing body of knowledge in your mind, pushing you to reinterpret or rethink some of your previous assumptions or ideas. • But there is a limit to the changes you can make in your literature review.
Contd… • The best way is to prepare a first draft and then polish it at the stage of data interpretation when you will be reading your literature review again to present your analysis in a coherent manner with cross-references related to your literature review.
Contd… • Alternatively, research problems can be identified by reviewing recent literature, reports, or databases in your field. • Often the section of “recommendations for the future studies” provided at the end of journal articles or doctoral dissertations suggest potential research problems.
Contd… • In addition, major reports and databases in the field may reveal findings or data-based facts that call for additional investigation or suggest potential issues to be addressed. • Looking at what theories need to be tested is another opportunity to develop a research problem.
Why Review Literature? • Some reasons for including a literature review in your research paper/thesis are: 1. The basic reason for literature review is to contextualize your research. Every academic research project is related to a particular area and is a link in a chain of similar research taking place in the area. This contextualization shows your awareness of the work going on in your field and also identifies the niche you wish to occupy.
Contd… 2. It gives you ideas about how to classify and present your data. When you read critically, you can sees how writers explore the relationships between facts and how facts and relationships are explained. Methods used by other writers may not be suitable for your purposes, but they may give you ideas about how you might categorize your data.
Contd… 3. Literature review helps you to distinguish what has been done from what needs to be done and how it should be done. Readings in an area reveal gaps in the literature and this fine tunes your research question and subsequent research methods.
Contd… 4. Literature review assists you to synthesize your ideas and gain perspectives to look at your research problem with different lens. Other researchers may have looked at a similar issue but from different angles. This knowledge can fortify you to find your own angle.
Sources of Literature Review • One important question that new researchers always ask is “Where do we find the material for doing a literature review?” • The next are the primary and secondary sources for finding the material that you need to read:
Contd… • Articles in Journals • Books • Internet • Research Reports • Government Documents • Abstracts • Reviews • Unpublished Theses • Electronic Research Information Center/Social Sciences Citation • Index/Dissertation Abstracts Index
Managing the Literature • The bibliography at the end of a recent article or book can provide you with an adequate reading list of most of the relevant material related to that topic. • Once the relevant literature has been located and found through the sources suggested, the next step is to manage it.
Contd… • This requires efficient and selective reading. Once you try locating the relevant literature, you will discover that it is available in vast quantities. • Now the primary task is to pick out the material that is actually related and relevant to your research area.
Contd… • This requires you to be a proficient reader who can get the gist of things quickly as you will have to go through a lot of reading. • In an article published in a journal, the first thing to do is look at the abstract or summary of the article.
Contd… • This will give you an idea whether it is relevant for you. In the case of a book you should look at the list of contents, the blurb, the summaries usually given at the end of the chapters and the introduction. • This will tell you quickly if any part is pertinent for you.
Contd… • The next step is to follow a clear system of keeping track of your reading references. • You need to create a management system that will incorporate your sources with all relevant details including a note about where you found that article or book.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session 32-33
Area/s to be discussed. • The Role of Theory.
Theory • Theory is a model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes both what we see and how we see it. • Theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete; the theoretical and the empirical; thought statements and observational statements etc.
Contd… • Theory is a generalised statement that asserts a connection between two or more types of phenomena – any generalised explanatory principle. • Theory is a system of interconnected abstractions or ideas that condenses and organises knowledge about the world. • Theory explains and predicts the relationship between variables.
Contd… • Theory guides research and organises its ideas. The analogy of bricks lying around haphazardly in the brickyard: ‘facts’ of different shapes and sizes have no meaning unless they are drawn together in a theoretical or conceptual framework. • Theory becomes stronger as more supporting evidence is gathered; and it provides a context for predictions. • Theory has the capacity to generate new research. • Theory is empirically relevant and always tentative
Theories vs. hypotheses • Hypotheses usually predicts the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses are more specific than theories. Multiple hypotheses may relate to one theory. The theories that you use in your research operates at different levels: • Micro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at the level of the individual or family environment (e.g. psychology, frustration, aggression hypothesis etc).
Contd… • Meso-level theory seeks to explain the interactions of micro-level organisations (e.g. social institutions, communities etc). • Macro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at the level of large groups of people (e.g. ethnicity, class, gender etc).
How to evaluate the quality of a theory or explanation • Is the theory logical and coherent? • Does it fit the available data? • Does it provide testable claims? • Have the theory-based predictions been tested? • Does the theory work better than rival theories or explanations? • Is it general enough to apply to more than one place, situation, or person?
Contd… • Can practitioners use it to control or influence things in the world e.g: • a good theory of teaching helps teachers to positively influence students learning. • a good theory of counselling helps counselors to positively influence their clients’ mental health
Theory and research are interrelated in the following ways: • Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it. • It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions. • It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data. • Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. • It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. • Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data.
Contd… • Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the many-sided concrete social world. • Theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements etc.
Contd… • There is a two-way relationship between theory and research. Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. • Theory is not fixed; it is provisional, open to revision and grows into more accurate and comprehensive explanations about the make-up and operation of the social world.
Deductive theory • In a deductive approach, researchers use theory to guide the design of a study and the interpretation of results. • As researchers continue to conduct empirical research in testing a theory, they develop confidence that some parts of it are true.
Contd… • Researchers may modify some propositions of a theory or reject them if several well-conducted studies have negative findings. • A theory’s core propositions and central tenets are more difficult to test and are refuted less often. • In a slow process, researchers may decide to abandon or change a theory as the evidence against it mounts over time and cannot be logically reconciled.
Inductive theory • Inductive theorising begins with a few assumptions and broad orienting concepts. Theory develops from the ground up as the researchers gather and analyse the data.
Contd… • Theory emerges slowly, concept by concept, and proposition by proposition, in a specific area. • Over time, the concepts and empirical generalisations emerge and mature. Soon, relationships become visible and researchers weave knowledge from different studies into more abstract theory. • Empirical generalizations posit the most basic relationship between concepts: e.g. ‘most people I know who drive small Japanese cars are under 30 years of age’.
The Role of Theory • 6 Main Roles of Theory for Research: 1. Theory provides significant guidelines and trails for the conduct of research by pointing to areas that are most likely to be fruitful, that is, areas in which meaningful relationships among variables are likely to be found. If the variables come to be selected such that no relationships between them obtain, the research will be sterile no matter how meticulous the subsequent observations and inferences.
Contd… • A theoretic system narrows down the range of facts to be studied. • Theory provides the researcher with a definite view point a direction which goes a long way toward helping him enquire into relationships between certain variables selected from among an almost infinite array of variables.
Contd… • As Oppenheimer puts it, “in order for us to understand anything we have to fail to perceive a great deal that is there. • Knowledge is purchased at the expense of what might have been seen and learned and was not…it is a condition of knowledge that somehow or the other we pick the clues which give us insight into what we have to find out about the world.”
Contd… • As a storehouse of meaningful hypotheses a fruitful theory suggests potential problems for study and thus ignites new investigative studies.
Contd… • In fact, a theory can be judged productive (to the extent it can spark off a number of questions. A productive theory suggests potential problems, fruitful hypotheses and provides new perspectives. • Einstein and Infield observe, “It is never possible to introduce only observable quantities in a theory. It is the theory which decides what can be observed.” Only thus can the task of science be reduced to manageability.
Contd… • Besides suggesting fruitful approaches to phenomena in the general area with which it is concerned, theory also provides leads for research in a different way, viz., by suggesting other kinds of phenomena that may perhaps be understood or explained in the same general terms.
Contd.. • Take the example of Cohen’s theory of ‘delinquent sub­culture’ (Sub- cultural theory emerged from the work of the Chicago School and investigations of social strain theory into urban gangs, and developed into a series of theories proposing that small cultural groups fragment away from mainstream values and have attitudes conducive to violence and criminal behaviour).
Contd… • The Central idea of Cohen’s theory is that the delinquent sub-culture evolved by the working class juveniles is a response of these juveniles to deal with the problem of individual adjustment attendant upon the difficulty in meeting the criteria of status as prescribed by the middle- class standards which have to be reckoned with.
Contd… • The delinquent sub-culture provides alternative criteria of status which these children can meet and thus, helps them deal with the problem of individual adjustment. • Cohen’s theoretical formulation constitutes a generic approach to the understanding of how and why any sub-culture arises. • Thus, such different sub-cultures as those emerging among different professional groups or social classes or small communities may be understood in the same terms.
Contd… • Research on such groups would concentrate on discovering the common problems of adjustment faced by the members and the ways in which the particular patterns of these sub-cultures help members to deal with them. • In as much as a theory summarizes known facts and predicts facts which have not yet been observed, it also points to areas which have not yet been explored, in other words, what gaps typically obtain in our knowledge.
Contd… • Needless to say, such gaps would not be visible if our facts were not systematized and organized. It is thus that theory suggests where our knowledge is deficient. • A researcher’s acquaintance with the existing theories helps him to select research problems that are likely to prove productive and worthwhile and to avoid enquiries into problems that may prove sterile, yielding no insights.
Contd… • Formulation of worthwhile questions is an important step and a precondition to the extension of knowledge. • Alerting oneself to the gaps in theory and fact increases the likelihood of formulating significant questions for research.
2 • Another contribution of theory for research is in terms of increasing the meaningfulness of the findings of a particular study by helping us to perceive them as special cases of the operation of a set of more general or abstract statements of relationships rather than as isolated bits of empirical information.
Contd… • A theory typically enhances the meaningfulness of research, since seemingly unrelated findings of isolated studies assume new meaning and significance when they are put into proper theoretical perspective. • Let us take the example of observation by Durkheim that Catholics have a lower suicide rate as compared to the Protestants.
Contd… • As an isolated empirical uniformity, the finding would not add greatly to our understanding of suicidal behaviour unless it conceptualized, that is, conceived of as an illustration of a linkage amongst abstractions of a higher order (e.g., Catholicism-Social Cohesion unrelieved anxieties-suicide rate).
Contd… • This done, we are easily able to understand that what was initially taken as an isolated empirical finding of a relationship between religious affiliation and suicidal behaviour is in fact a reflection of a much more general relationship between groups with certain conceptualized attributes (social cohesion) and behaviour of their members.
Contd… • This way, the scope of the original empirical finding gets considerably extended and several seemingly disparate findings can be seen to be the contextual manifestations of the general principle.
Contd… • Similarly, to take another example, the seemingly isolated finding that wives complain of heavy expenditure when the husband’s relatives are in the house-guests may be understood on a higher plane of abstraction, to be an instance of the factor of emotional proximity or distance influencing perception.
Contd… • The scope of the findings thus enlarged, other apparently disparate findings may be seen to be interrelated by means of a theoretic thread (e.g., the distorting effect of lack of confidence or morale on perception may be derived from the same theoretical orientation). • As a mental shorthand, theory summarizes relationships amongst variables in a conceptual framework.
Contd… • It is through establishing the theoretical pertinence of an empirical finding or uniformity, that we can provide for the cummulation both of theory and research findings. • To illustrate, the empirical uniformities about differentials in the suicide rate lend added confirmation to the set of propositions (theory) from which they and other uniformities have been derived. This may be underlined as a major function of theory.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 34-35
Area/s to be discussed. • The Role of Theory: continues
The Role of Theory 6 Main Roles of Theory for Research: No. 3. The linkage of the specific empirical findings to a more general concept has another major advantage. It affords a more secure ground for prediction than do these empirical findings by themselves. The theory by providing a rationale behind the empirical findings introduces a ground for prediction which is more secure” than mere extrapolation from previously observed trends.
Contd… • Thus, if studies indicated a decrease in social cohesion among a community of tribals, the theory-oriented researcher would feel secure to predict increased rates of suicide in this group. • On the contrary, the a theoretic empiricist would have no alternative but to predict on the basis of extrapolation.
Contd… • The prediction may be concerned with estimating whether a relationship between two variables, X and Y, which has been observed in the past, will continue in future, or it may be concerned with estimating whether changes in certain conditions will lead to changes in observed relationship (among the variables).
Contd… • To revert to our earlier illustration of delinquency, while Cohen points out that there need not be a direct link between understanding the ’cause’ of a phenomenon and finding a ‘cure,’ his theory nevertheless seems to suggest that a measure intended to reduce gang delinquency is likely to be successful to the extent that it either changes the standards by which working class students are judged in school and (in the community, generally) or helps them to meet and prove equal to those standards.
No. 4 • Whereas an empirical finding as a proposition referring to certain concrete contextual manifestation of a phenomenon does not afford a basis for drawing diverse inferences about what will follow, its reformulation or revamping in theoretic terms affords a secure basis for arriving at the inferences about the varied positive consequences in areas quite remote from the central area to which the given finding relates.
Contd… • For example, the empirical uniformity that Catholics have a lower suicide rate relative to Protestants does not by itself suggest diverse consequences in fields of conduct apparently far removed from that of suicidal behaviour. But once this uniformity is theoretically reformulated, obsessive behaviour and other maladaptive actions may be seen to be related to inadequacies of group-cohesion.
Contd… • Thus, the lower the degree of social cohesion, higher the rate of mental illness). The imaginative conversion of empirical uniformities into theoretic statements thus increases the fruitfulness of research through successive exploration of its implications (or any empirical uniformity). • Theory thus mediates between specific empirical generalization or uniformities and broad theoretical orientations anchored in the intellectual tradition.
No. 5 • In affording broader meanings to empirical findings the theory also attests to their truth. • A hypothesis is as much confirmed by fitting it into a theory as by fitting it into facts, because it then enjoys the support provided by evidence for all the other hypotheses of the given theory.
No. 6 • Theory helps us to identify gaps in our knowledge and seek to bridge them up with intuitive, impressionistic or extensional generalizations. • As Karl Jaspers said, “It is only when using methodologically classified sciences that we know what we know and what we do not know.” This way, theory constitutes a crucially important guide to designing of fruitful research.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 36-37
Area/s to be discussed. • Sampling Techniques.
Sampling Techniques What is 'Sampling'? • Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population. • The methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed but may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
Contd… • We can also say that sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population.
What is Survey Sampling? • Surveys would be meaningless and incomplete without accounting for the respondents that they’re aimed at. • The best survey design practices keep the target population at the core of their thought process.
Contd… • ‘All the residents of the slums in Karachi’, ‘every NGO in Lahore’ and ‘all students below the age of 16 in Multan’ are examples of a population; they are countable, finite and well-defined.
Contd… • When the population is small enough, researchers have the resources to reach out to all of them. This would be the best case scenario, making sure that everybody who matters to the survey is represented accurately. • A survey that covers the entire target population is called a census.
Contd… • However, most surveys cannot survey the entire population. • This is when sampling techniques become crucial to your survey.
Why is it Important? Resource Constraints: • If the target population is not small enough, or if the resources at your disposal don’t give you the bandwidth to cover the entire population, it is important to identify a subset of the population to work with – a carefully identified group that is representative of the population. • This process is called survey sampling, and it is one of the most important aspects of survey design.
Contd… • Whatever the sample size, there are fixed costs associated with any survey. • Once the survey has begun, the marginal costs associated with gathering more information, from more people, are proportional to the size of the sample.
Drawing Inferences About the Population • Researchers are not interested in the sample itself, but in the understanding that they can potentially infer from the sample and then apply across the entire population.
Contd… • A sample survey usually offers greater scope than a census. Working within a given resource constraint, sampling may make it possible to study the population of a larger geographical area or to find out more about the same population by examining an area in greater depth through a smaller sample.
Contd… • Before we dive into the survey sampling methods at our disposal it is imperative that we develop a perspective on what an effective sample should look like.
Features to Keep in Mind While Constructing a Sample Consistency • It is important that researchers understand the population on a case-by-case basis and test the sample for consistency before going ahead with the survey.
Contd… • This is especially critical for surveys that track changes across time and space where we need to be confident that any change we see in our data reflects real change – across consistent and comparable samples.
Diversity • Ensuring diversity of the sample is a tall order, as reaching some portions of the population and convincing them to participate in the survey could be difficult. • But to be truly representative of the population, a sample must be as diverse as the population itself and sensitive to the local differences that are unavoidable as we move across the population.
Transparency • There are several constraints that dictate the size and structure of the population. • It is imperative that researchers discuss these limitations and maintain transparency about the procedures followed while selecting the sample so that the results of the survey are seen with the right perspective.
Contd… • Now that we understand the necessity of choosing the right sample and have a vision of what an effective sample for your survey should be like, let’s explore the various methods of constructing a sample and understand the relative pros and cons of each of these approaches.
Contd… • Sampling methods can broadly be classified as probability and non- probability.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 38-39
Area/s to be discussed. • Sampling Techniques: continues
Sampling Techniques Random Sampling • When: There is a very large population and it is difficult to identify every member of the population. • How: The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected independently of the other members of the population. The term random has a very precise meaning and you can’t just collect responses on the street and have a random sample.
Contd… • Pros: In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as subject.
Contd… • Cons: When there are very large populations, it is often difficult to identify every member of the population and the pool of subjects becomes biased. • Dialing numbers from a phone book for instance, may not be entirely random as the numbers, though random, would correspond to a localized region. A sample created by doing so might leave out many sections of the population that are significant to the study.
Contd… • Use case: Want to study and understand the rice consumption pattern across rural India? • While it might not be possible to cover every household, you could draw meaningful insights by building your sample from different districts or villages (depending on the scope).
Systematic Sampling • When: Your given population is logically homogenous. • How: In a systematic sample, after you decide the sample size, arrange the elements of the population in some order and select terms at regular intervals from the list.
Contd… • Pros: The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is its simplicity. • Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance in simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. • This can be avoided through systematic sampling.
Contd… • Cons: The possible weakness of the method that may compromise the randomness of the sample is an inherent periodicity of the list. • This can be avoided by randomizing the list of your population entities, as you would randomize a deck of cards for instance, before you proceed with systematic sampling.
Contd… • Use Case: Suppose a supermarket wants to study buying habits of their customers. • Using systematic sampling, they can choose every 10th or 15th customer entering the supermarket and conduct the study on this sample.
Stratified Sampling • When: You can divide your population into characteristics of importance for the research. • How: A stratified sample, in essence, tries to recreate the statistical features of the population on a smaller scale. Before sampling, the population is divided into characteristics of importance for the research — for example, by gender, social class, education level, religion, etc.
Contd… • Then the population is randomly sampled within each category or stratum. If 38% of the population is college-educated, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college- educated subset of the population.
Contd… • Pros: This method attempts to overcome the shortcomings of random sampling by splitting the population into various distinct segments and selecting entities from each of them. • This ensures that every category of the population is represented in the sample. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the sections in the population have a low incidence relative to the other sections.
Contd… • Cons: Stratified sampling is the most complex method of sampling. It lays down criteria that may be difficult to fulfill and place a heavy strain on your available resources.
Contd… • Use Case: If 38% of the population is college- educated and 62% of the population have not been to college, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college-educated subset of the population and 62% of the sample is randomly selected from the non-college-going population. Maintaining the ratios while selecting a randomized sample is key to stratified sampling.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 40-41
Area/s to be discussed. • Sampling Techniques: furthered
Non-Probability Sampling Techniques • Non-probability sampling techniques include convenience sampling, snowball sampling and quota sampling.
Contd… • In these techniques, the units that make up the sample are collected with no specific probability structure in mind. The selection is not completely randomized, and hence the resultant sample isn’t truly representative of the population.
Convenience Sampling • When: During preliminary research efforts. • How: As the name suggests, the elements of such a sample are picked only on the basis of convenience in terms of availability, reach and accessibility.
Contd… • Pros: The sample is created quickly without adding any additional burden on the available resources. • Cons: The likelihood of this approach leading to a sample that is truly representative of the population is very poor.
Transparency • Use Case: This method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.
Snowball Sampling • When: When you can rely on your initial respondents to refer you to the next respondents. • How: Just as the snowball rolls and gathers mass, the sample constructed in this way will grow in size as you move through the process of conducting a survey. In this technique, you rely on your initial respondents to refer you to the next respondents whom you may connect with for the purpose of your survey.
Contd… • Pros: The costs associated with this method are significantly lower, and you will end up with a sample that is very relevant to your study. • Cons: The clear downside of this approach is that you may restrict yourself to only a small, largely homogenous section of the population.
Contd… • Use Case: Snowball sampling can be useful when you need the sample to reflect certain features that are difficult to find. • To conduct a survey of people who go jogging in a certain park every morning, for example, snowball sampling would be a quick, accurate way to create the sample.
Quota Sampling • When: When you can characterize the population based on certain desired features. • How: Quota sampling is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling that we discussed earlier. It starts with characterizing the population based on certain desired features and assigns a quota to each subset of the population.
Contd… • Pros: This process can be extended to cover several characteristics and varying degrees of complexity. • Cons: Though the method is superior to convenience and snowball sampling, it does not offer the statistical insights of any of the probability methods.
Contd… • Use Case: If a survey requires a sample of fifty men and fifty women, a quota sample will survey respondents until the right number of each type has been surveyed. • Unlike stratified sampling, the sample isn’t necessarily randomized.
Contd… • Probability sampling techniques are clearly superior, but the costs can be prohibitive. For the initial stages of a study, non-probability sampling techniques might be sufficient to give you a sense of what you’re dealing with. • For detailed insights and results that you can bank upon, move on to the more sophisticated techniques as the study gathers pace and takes a more concrete structure.
References & Bibliography • Baker, T. L. (1994). Doing Social Research (2nd Ed.). Singapore: McGraw Hill. • Babbie, E., & Rubin, A. (2001). Research Methods for Social Work (4th Ed.). USA: Wadsworth Thomas Learning • Barzun, J. and Graff, H. E. (1977) The Modern Researcher, 3rd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. • Bell, J. (1999). Doing Your Research Project. Buckingham, UK: Multilingual Matters. • Best, J. W. & Khan, J. V. (2006). Research in Education (9th Ed.). Lahore: Mayo Art Press • Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1985). Research Methods in Education. Bedeenham: Croom Helm • Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2003) Research Methods in Education (5th Edition). Hampshire: Routledge • Connolly, P. (2007). Quantitative Data Analysis in Education: A Critical Introduction Using SPSS. New York: Routledge Publishers. • Creswell, John (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed • Methods Approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE • Denscombe, Martin. (1998). The Good Research Guide: For Small Scale Social Research • Projects. Buckingham: Open University Press • Dey, Ian. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane • Finnan, C. 1992 Becoming an Accelerated Middle School: Initiating School Culture Change.
Contd… • Firestone, W. and Pennell, J. 1993 Teacher Commitment, Working Conditions, and Differential Incentive Policies. Review of Educational Research, 63, 489-525. • Gay, L.R. 2000 Educational Research (5th Edition) Islamabad: National Book Foundation. • Goddard, Wayne and Melville, Stuart (2001) 2nd ed. Research Methodology: An • Introduction. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Limited • Henson, K.T. 1996 Teachers as researchers. In J. Sikula, (ed.) Handbook of research on • teacher education. (2nd edition.) New York, NY: Macmillan. • Johnson, A. P. 2005 A Short Guide to Action Research. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. • Johnston, M. 1990 Experience and Reflection on Collaborative Research. International • Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp 172-183 • Kumar, Ranjit. (2005). Research Methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. 2nd ed., London: SAGE • Leary, Z. O. (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. New Delhi: Vistar Publications • Leonard, D. (2001) A Woman’s Guide to Doctoral Studies. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. • Lieberman, A. (1986). Collaborative research: Working with, not Working on – Educational Leadership, 43 (5), 28-32. • Linn, R. L. & Gronlund, N. E. (1999). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers
Contd… • Lodico, M. G., Spaulding, D. T. & Voegtle, K. H. (2006). Methods in Educational Research: From Theory to Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers • McCarthy, J. and Riner, P. 1996 The Accelerated Schools Inquiry Process: Teacher • Empowerment through Action Research. Education v 117, n2, 223-230. • McMillan, J. H. and Schumacher, S (1989) Research education- a conceptual introduction (2nd Ed) UK: Harper Collins • Mertler, C.. A. (2006). Action Research: Teachers as Researchers in the Classroom. USA: Sage Publications • Moses, I. 1995 Supervising Postgraduates, HERDSA Green Guide No. 3. • Moses, I. 1992 Research Training and Supervision, AVCC and NBEET: Canberra • Nunan, D. (1992) Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge • University Press • Oja, S. and Pine, G. 1989 Action Research on Change in Schools (ARCS) Project. In Webb, R. (ed.) 1990 Practitioner Research in the Primary School. London: The Falmer Press • Palo Alto, CA: The Accelerated Schools Project, Stanford University.
Contd… • O’Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. New Delhi: Vistaar Publications • Qadir, S. A 1995 ‘Implementation of a reading Innovation in the classrooms of Multan’. • Journal of Research (Humanities). Vol.XXIX No. 1-2. Universirty of the Punjab, Lahore. • Salkind, N. J. (1997). Exploring Research, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. • Serlin, R. C., & Conrad, C. F. (2006). The Sage Handbook for Research in Education: Engaging Ideas and Enriching Inquiry. Thousand Oaks: The Sage Publications • Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base. Last Revised: 01/20/2006. Retrieved January 05, 2009 from • http://www.socialreserach.methods.net/kb/order.php • Tuckman, B. W. (1994). Conducting Educational Research (4th Ed). USA: The Ohio State University • Wiersma, William. (2000). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction. USA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company • Wolcott, F. H. (2001). Writing Up Qualitative Research 2nd Edition. California: Sage Publications
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 42
Area/s to be discussed. Ethical considerations in research.
The Ethics of Research • In planning the actual procedures of study, there are a number of factors that should be considered. Two of these factors, the ethics of conducting research and legal restrictions are relevant to all research studies.
Contd… • There are ethical considerations involved in all research studies. • Ethical concerns are, of course, more acute in experimental studies, which by definition, “manipulate” and “control” subjects. • The ends do not justify the means and perhaps the foremost rule of ethics is that subjects should not be harmed in any way (physically or mentally) in the name of science.
Contd… • The subject’s right to privacy is also an important consideration. • Collecting information on subjects or observing them without their knowledge or without appropriate permission is not ethical. • Furthermore, any information or data, which are collected, either form or about a subject, should be strictly confidential, especially if it is at all personal.
Contd… • Probably the most definitive source of ethical guidelines for researchers is Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research with Human Participants, which was prepared for, and published by, the American Psychological Association (APA).
Contd… • In the APA these principles are preceded by a statement to the effect that research should be conducted”… with respect and concern for the dignity and welfare of the people who participate and with cognizance of federal and state regulations and professional standards governing the conduct of research with human participants”.
Contd… • Above all, the researcher must have personal integrity. • The reader of a research report must be able to believe that what the researcher says happened, really happened: otherwise it is all for nothing. • Falsifying data in order to make findings agree with a hypothesis is unprofessional, unethical, and unforgivable.
Why does Research with Human and Animal Participants Require Ethical Approval? • To protect the rights and welfare of participants and minimise the risk of physical and mental discomfort, harm and/or danger from research procedures • To protect the rights of the researcher to carry out any legitimate investigation as well as the reputation of the University for research conducted and/or sponsored by it.
Contd… • To minimise the likelihood of claims of negligence against individual researchers, the University and any collaborating persons or organisations. • Because Research Funding bodies and refereed journals increasingly require a statement of ethical practices in applications for research funds and/or as a condition for publication.
Participant-Centred Perspective • To ensure that these principles are adhered to it is essential that a participant-centred approach is adopted. It must not be forgotten that research participants make a significant contribution to the progress and promise of research in advancing knowledge.
Contd… • Collaboration between participants and researchers is important and helps to ensure that the interests of the participants are central to the work, that they will not be treated simply as objects and that their concerns will be listened to.
Contd… • However, a participant-centred approach must also acknowledge that researchers and research participants may not always see the harms and benefits of a research project in the same way. • Indeed, individual participants within the same study may respond very differently to the information provided in the free and informed consent process; this can be important and these individual perspectives must be considered.
Ethical Issues Within the Research Process itself • When considering research involving human participants issues to be taken into account will include consideration of whether the research has been done before and whether there are consistent results in this area. • This will be based on examination of the literature review and the justification of the need for the study.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 43-45
Area/s to be discussed. • (Parts of Report, Review & Referencing).
Research Process • Formulating the research problem • Extensive literature survey • Development of working hypotheses How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following approach: a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution; b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
Contd… a)Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and b)Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
• Preparing the research design The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following: 1. the means of obtaining the information; 2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any); 3. .
Contd… 1.explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection; 2.the time available for research; and 3.the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose
• Collecting the data • By observation • Through personal interview • Through telephone interviews • By mailing of questionnaires • Through schedules • The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanicial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
Contd… • Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.
Execution of the project Analysis of data Hypothesis-testing Generalisations and interpretation Preparation of the report or the thesis Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
Contd… • The main text of the report should have the following parts: (a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
Contd… (b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised. (c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
Contd… • (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. • In fact, it is the final summing up.
Criteria of Good Research Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria: 1.The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
Contd… 1.The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. 2.The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
1. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. 2. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
Contd… 1. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. 2. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under: • Good research is systematic: • It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. • Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
Contd… • Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. • Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
Contd… • Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. • Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
The purpose of research is to… • Review or synthesize existing knowledge • Investigate existing situations or problems • Provide solutions to problems • Explore and analyse more general issues • Construct or create new procedures or systems • Explain new phenomenon • Generate new knowledge • …or a combination of any of the above! (Collis & Hussey, 2003)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous studies exist. The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for further research. Typical research techniques would include case studies, observation and reviews of previous related studies and data. Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the elements or characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost because of industrial action. Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect, analyse and summarise data. Analytical research often extends the Descriptive approach to suggest or explain why or how something is happening, e.g. underlying causes of industrial action. An important feature of this type of research is in locating and identifying the different factors (or variable The aim of Predictive research is to speculate intelligently on future possibilities, based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and effect, e.g. predicting when and where future industrial action might take place
Research Approaches Research can be approached in the following ways: • Quantitative/Qualitative • Applied/Basic • Deductive/Inductive
QUANTITATIVE/QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative Qualitative The emphasis of Quantitative research is on collecting and analysing numerical data; it concentrates on measuring the scale, range, frequency etc. of phenomena. This type of research, although harder to design initially, is usually highly detailed and structured and results can be easily collated and presented statistically. Qualitative research is more subjective in nature than Quantitative research and involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a research subject, e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions. Although this type of research can be easier to start, it can be often difficult to interpret and present the findings; the findings can also be challenged more easily.
BASIC/APPLIED RESEARCH Deductive Inductive General ideas Particular Situation Deductive research moves from general ideas/theories to specific particular & situations: the particular is deduced from the general, e.g. broad theories. Particular Situation General ideas Inductive research moves from particular situations to make or infer broad general ideas/theories.
Examples of Deductive/Inductive Research in Action • Imagine you wanted to learn what the word ‘professional’ meant to a range of people. • Deductive Approach: It is clear that you would want to have a clear theoretical position prior to collection of data. You might therefore research the subject and discover a number of definitions of ‘professional’ from, for example, a number of professional associations.
Contd… • You could then test this definition on a range of people, using a questionnaire, structured interviews or group discussion. You could carefully select a sample of people on the basis of age, gender, occupation etc. The data gathered could then be collated and the results analysed and presented. This approach offers researchers a relatively easy and systematic way of testing established ideas on a range of people.
Inductive Approach If you adopted this approach you might start by talking to a range of people asking for their ideas and definitions of ‘professional’. From these discussions you could start to assemble the common elements and then start to compare these with definitions gained from professional associations.
Contd… • The data gathered could then be collated and the results analysed and presented. This approach might lead you to arrive at a new definition of the word – or it might not! This approach can be very time-consuming, but the reward might be in terms of arriving at a fresh way of looking at the subject.
RESEARCH PHILIOSOPHIES Research is not ‘neutral’, but reflects a range of the researcher’s personal interests, values, abilities, assumptions, aims and ambitions. In the case of your own proposed research, your own mixtures of these elements will not only determine the subject of the research, but will influence your approach to it. It is important to consider in advance what approach you to take with your research – and why.
Contd… There are essential two main research philosophies (or positions) although there can be overlap between the two – and both positions may be identifiable in any research project. POSITIVISTIC PHENOMENOLOGICAL (can also be referred to (can also be referred to as ‘Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’, Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’, ‘Scientific’, ‘Experimentalist’ or ‘Humanistic’ or ‘Traditionalist’) ‘Interpretative’ The research philosophy can impact on the methodology adopted for the research project.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES Positivistic Inductive • Surveys • Experimental Studies • Longitudinal Studies • Cross-sectional Studies • Case Studies • Action Research • Ethnography (participant • observation) • Participative Enquiry • Feminist Perspectives • Grounded Theory
How to give references? Audio-Visual Media References to audio-visual media must include the following elements: name and function of the primary contributors (e.g., producer, director), date, title, the medium in brackets, location or place of production, and name of the distributor. If the medium in indicated as part of the retrieval ID, brackets are not needed.
Contd… • Videocassette Garmon, L. (Producer and Director), & Apsell, P. (Executive Producer). (1994). Secret of the wild child [Videocassette]. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational Foundation. • Audio Recording Costa, P. T., Jr. (Speaker). (1988). Personality, continuity, and changes of adult life (Cassette Recording No. 207-433-88A-B). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. • Motion Picture Scorsese, M. (Producer), & Lonergan, K. (Writer/Director). (2000). You can count on me [Motion Picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
Examples • Television Broadcast Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour [Television broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service. • Television Series Miller, R. (Producer). (1989). The mind [Television series]. New York: WNET. • Music Recording Shocked, M. (1992). Over the waterfall. On Arkansas traveler [CD]. New York: PolyGram Music.
Examples Electronic Media and Online Sources APA's recommendations for citing electronic media call for consistent observation of at least two important guidelines: 1) Direct readers as closely as possible to the information being cited -- whenever possible, reference specific documents rather than home or menu pages; 2) 2) Provide addresses that work. At a minimum, a reference of an Internet source should provide a document or title description, a "date" (either the date of publication, update, or date of retrieval), and an address (in Internet terms, a URL). Whenever possible, identify the authors of the document as well.
Contd… • Listed below are examples of citation styles for several types of electronic sources. • Internet articles based on a print source (exists in print and online) VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources by psychology undergraduates [Electronic version]. Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5, 117- 123.
Examples • Article in an Internet-only journal Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre00300 01a.html • Article from an online encyclopedia Bergman, P. G. & Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica Online. (1994-1999). Relativity. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 4, 1999, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online on the World Wide Web: http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=117376&sctn=1
Examples • Professional web site American Psychological Association. (1999, June 1). Electronic preference formats recommended by the American Psychological Association. Retrieved July 18, 1999, from the World Wide Web: http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html • Document available on university program or department site Chou, L., McClintock, R., Moretti, F., & Nix, D. H. (1993). Technology and education: New wine in new bottles: Choosing pasts and imagining educational futures. Retrieved August 24, 2000, from Columbia University, Institute for Learning Technologies Web site: http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/papers/newwine 1.html
Contd… • When citing an entire web site (and not a specific document on that site), no Reference List entry is required if the address for the site is cited in the text of your paper. Witchcraft In Europe and America is a site that presents the full text of many essential works in the literature of witchcraft and demonology (http://www.witchcraft.psmedia.com/).
Ethical Use of Web-Based Materials • It is a common mistake to believe that if something is on the Web and there is no notice of copyright, it is acceptable to use the information you may find without acknowledging your source. This is definitely not the case. All materials you find on the Web are copyrighted, regardless of whether or not the individual document indicates it is copyrighted. As with materials in print, it is also dishonest and unethical to use Web-based materials created by someone else and not give appropriate credit for the work.
Contd… • When you include information from Web-based materials in a paper or report, be sure to provide a complete citation for the site and give the person credit for his or her work in your paper or project. Giving people credit for their work is the right thing to do, and it is also the law. If you do not cite resources used in a paper, you can be sued by the author, fail your course, and even be expelled or suspended from the university.
General Guidelines Journal or magazine articles from Proprietary/Subscription Web Databases • If the resource you are citing is from one of UMUC's Web databases, follow the format below. If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.
Contd… • Citation Model: Author's last name, First initial. (date). Article title. Journal Title, volume(issue), pages. Retrieved month day, year, from Database Name database. • Example: Deans, G.K., Kroeger, F., & Zeisel, S. (2002). The consolidation curve. Harvard Business Review, 80(12), 20-21. Retrieved April 19, 2004, from Business Source Premier database
General Guidelines • Author—The author(s) of the article. APA style only requires the first initial of author names (for example, Smith, J. instead of Smith, John). If no author is given, then the article title should be listed first, followed by the date. • Date—Provide in parentheses the year the work was published. For monthly magazines, use (year, month); for weekly magazines use (year, month day). • Article title—The title of the article. Only capitalize the initial letter of the article title and subtitle (for example: Sound bite news: Television coverage of elections).
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Rm17 45

  • 1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 15-17
  • 2. Area/s to be discussed. • Action research.
  • 3. Action Research • Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community”.
  • 4. Contd… • School and classroom-based studies initiated and conducted by teachers and other school staff. • Action research involves teachers, aides, principals, and other school staff as researchers who systematically reflect on their teaching or other work and collect data that will answer their questions.
  • 5. Contd… • Research undertaken by teams that is flexible and iterative; the aim is to problem-solve in order to improve the way processes are performed and services are delivered.
  • 6. Contd… • Research conducted by classroom teachers, often concurrent with their teaching. • Research, usually informal, designed for direct application to behavior or to a situation, as research by teachers in their classrooms.
  • 7. Contd… • Describes a method of learning by doing. Community artists experiment with different approaches to gathering relevant material for a project. • Action research is a particular approach to research that aims to improve practice or have a real world application. • In other words, it is research that aims to make a real change or impact in society, and is not simply research in and of itself.
  • 8. Contd… • It aims to address both the practical concerns of people (in a community, organisation etc) and the goals of research through people working together on projects. • An informal, qualitative, interpretive, reflective and experimental methodology that requires all the participants to be collaborative researchers
  • 9. Why should I Use Action Research? • Because you want to change your practice. You may be concerned that things might not be going as you wish, or you may need to implement a new initiative but are unsure how to do it effectively.
  • 10. Contd… • What you want is a way of sorting out these concerns that offers practical solutions, but that derives from the specific circumstances of your practice. • You know that someone else’s solution may have merit, but that it is never quite right for the individual situation within which you work. You know that practice is always influenced by context
  • 11. How does this qualify as research? • Because the act of finding your solution makes you understand your practice better – not only what you are doing, but also the factors that affect what you do. Action research therefore has two aspects.
  • 12. Contd… • The starting point is to sort out a problem or issue in practice; to this extent an action researcher seeks a solution. • But the process can also be used as a deliberate attempt to understand practice better – a traditional research attitude. What is most important in both approaches is that you are open, honest and rigorous.
  • 13. What Do We Mean by Practice? • From the perspective of action research, the best way to think about practice is the way you carry out your professional actions. • This is, of course, what you do, but it is also why you think you should be doing things the way you do. • You will hear of the ‘theory-practice divide’; action research as an approach cuts across this divide, encouraging a practitioner to consider both aspects as part of a single whole.
  • 14. What is action research about? • Action research is a practical approach to professional inquiry in any social situation. • The examples in this component relate to education and are therefore of particular relevance to teachers or lecturers engaged in their daily contact with children or students.
  • 15. Contd… • But professional practice need not be teaching: it may be management or administration in a school or college, or it may be in an unrelated area, such as medicine or the social services. • The context for professional inquiry might change, but the principles and processes involved in action research are the same, regardless of the nature of the practice.
  • 16. How does action research work? • At its heart, action research involves the careful monitoring of planned change in practice. • A decision is taken that a particular action may either yield improvements or provide information as to the nature of the teaching situation. • The action is thus used as a research tool. Both elements of action and research are of equal prominence in the approach.
  • 17. Contd… It can be thought of as: Research on action by using Action as a tool for research with the process being driven by a dialogue between the elements of: • action and the intentions behind action or • practice and the values behind practice.
  • 18.
  • 19. Individual or Collaborative? • So far, this account has focused on the individual nature of action research, reflecting Whitehead’s perspective on the process.
  • 20. Contd… • This is not to say that groups of people within a school or college cannot undertake a collaborative action research project, exploring how best to change institutional practice, but it is important to realise the individual nature of practice itself. • If reflection on practice involves engaging with intentions, values and beliefs, then strong elements of these will be intensely personal.
  • 21. Methods • The prime criterion for choosing a particular data gathering method in action research is whether it is anticipated that the method will give useful information about the practice under study. • It is sometimes thought that methods used in action research are purely qualitative.
  • 22. Contd… • This does not have to be true. Although the overall analysis of the data generated by any methods used will be qualitative in nature, numerical or statistical information may be of great value to that analysis. • For example, a statistical breakdown of examination or SATs passes may be a useful piece of data when exploring the effect of aspects of practice.
  • 23. Contd… • What is most important is that the researcher understands that different research methods illuminate only particular aspects of a situation. None give a whole picture.
  • 24. Contd… • In seeking evidence of her practice, or the effectiveness of a change in practice, a teacher needs to look at it from different perspectives; she needs to employ a triangulation of methods. • This is a simple principle, involving the careful choice of a range of data gathering techniques, each of which might illuminate a different aspect of the same issue:
  • 25. The Principle of Triangulation
  • 26. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 18
  • 27. Area/s to be discussed. • Objectives of research. • Qualitative and Quantitative
  • 28. Objectives: (Descriptive, Co-relational, Exploratory and Explanatory) • Descriptive research is also called statistical research. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied.
  • 29. Contd… • The idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation.
  • 30. Contd… • Correlation research measures the relationship between two or more variables or gives an indication of how one variable may predict another.
  • 31. Contd… • Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection methods, and selection of subjects. • Given that it is fundamental in nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.
  • 32. Contd… • Explanatory research explores "why," and attempts to explain as the purposes of explanatory research. • It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and further identifies the reasons for something that occurs. It looks for causes and reasons.
  • 33. Qualitative and Quantitative • The inquiry mode of research can be categorized as qualitative and quantitative:
  • 34. Contd… • Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals, to explore a social or human problem.
  • 35. Contd… • Qualitative research methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research, and case studies. • You can use qualitative research to study past events or current events. • When you use it for past events, it is specifically called historical research.
  • 36. The Salient Features of Qualitative Research are: • Conducted to have an insight and better understanding of not only about the current situation is but also why it is so. • More open and responsive to the research participants. • Uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies, • Offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory studies.
  • 37. Quantitative Research • Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions. • It includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept, and door-to-door interviews, as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys.
  • 38. Quantitative Research • Means the data is analyzed in terms of numbers. • Involves the collection of numerical data. • Predicts and explains data in the form of statistical analysis. • Uses the numerical method to analysis and interpret the results. • Finds out the relationship among quantifiable variables and the results are inferred.
  • 39. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session 19-20
  • 40. Area/s to be discussed. • Comparative analysis of research. • Qualitative research methods.
  • 41. To understand characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis: Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research Research approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured Research conducted through Asking research questions Asking research questions By using research hypotheses. When is it conducted? Early stages of decision making Later stages of decision making Later stages of decision making
  • 42. What is the purpose of Research? • Research method is defined as the tools or an instrument that is used to accomplish the goals and attributes of conducting a research process.
  • 43. Contd… • Think of the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or instruments will be employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.
  • 44. Contd… • To understand research methods we must first understand what research is. • Research is a careful study of a specific problem or concern using scientific methods, tools, and instruments.
  • 45. Contd… • Remember as kids, we were given projects in elementary schools and we were asked to know about it in details. • Research is the adult form of that elementary project, only a more precise and thorough version!
  • 46. Contd… • Research can be about anything, scientific research, basic research, applied research, market research- qualitative market research and quantitative market research, problem-oriented research, problem-solving research. • To begin researching something, you need to have a problem or a concern that needs a solution.
  • 47. Contd… • Research really begins with asking the right research questions, what follows next is choosing appropriate research method to be able to investigate the problem or issue in the right direction and then finally analyze your findings or observations to draw appropriate conclusions.
  • 48. Contd… • When it comes to customers and related research, there should be no stone unturned. • Specify and plan the customer’s research, help make smart decisions about how to market and position your business efficiently.
  • 49. Contd… • Choosing the right research method will help you get important answers about your clients. • But before we go any further, first let us identify the research methods.
  • 50. Types of Research Methods and Research Example • Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research. Both research methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.
  • 51. Qualitative Research Methods • Qualitative research is a research method that collects data using conversational methods, where participants involved in the research are asked open-ended questions. • The responses collected are essentially non- numerical. • This method not only helps a researcher understand “what” participant think but also, “why” they think in a particular way.
  • 52. Widely Used Qualitative Research Methods One-to-one Interview: • This interview technique is systematically planned and as the name suggests is conducted with one participant at a given point in time. • One-to-one interviews need a researcher to prepare questions in advance and to make sure the researcher asks only the most important questions to the participant.
  • 53. Contd… • This type of interview lasts anywhere between 20 minutes to half an hour. • During this time the researcher collects as many meaningful data as possible from the participants to draw inferences.
  • 54. Contd… Focus Groups: • Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants who are usually experts in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus group who facilitates the discussion amongst the group members
  • 55. Contd… • A moderator’s experience in conducting focus group plays an important role. • An experienced moderator can probe the participants by asking the correct research questions that will help him/her collect a sizable amount of information related to the research.
  • 56. Contd… Ethnographic Research: • Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where people are observed in their natural environment with any alterations.
  • 57. Contd… • This method can prove to be a bit demanding in terms of a researcher getting adapted to the natural environment of the target audience which could even be the Amazon rainforest! Geographic locations can be a constraint in this type of research method. • Instead of conducting interviews a researcher needs to experience the settings in person to collect information.
  • 58. Contd… Text Analysis: • Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative research methods as it used to analyze the social life by decoding words, texts etc. through any available form of documentation.
  • 59. Contd… • The researcher studies and understands the context in which the documents are furnished with the information and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. • In modern times, researchers follow activities on a social media platform and try and understand the pattern of thoughts.
  • 60. Contd… Case Study Research: • Case study research, as the name suggests is used to study an organization or an entity. This research method has evolved over the years and is one of the most valuable qualitative research methods known to researchers.
  • 61. Contd… • This type of research is used in fields like education sector, philosophical and psychological studies. • This method involves a deep diving into the ongoing research and collects data.
  • 62. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 21-22
  • 63. Area/s to be discussed. • Comparative analysis of research: Quantitative Research Methods
  • 64. To understand characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis: Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research Research approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured Research conducted through Asking research questions Asking research questions By using research hypotheses. When is it conducted? Early stages of decision making Later stages of decision making Later stages of decision making
  • 65. Quantitative Research Methods • Quantitative research methods are the methods that deal with numbers and anything that can be dealt with a measurable form, in a systematic way of investigating the phenomenon.
  • 66. Contd… • It is used to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict or control a phenomenon.
  • 67. There are three methods that are often used by researchers to conduct this type of research, they are: Survey Research- • The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large population by deploying the survey. Gone are the days where a survey was carried out using a pen and a paper. • Today, online surveys are a popular mode of research as they are convenient and can be sent in an email or made available on the internet.
  • 68. Contd… • In this method, a researcher designs a survey with most relevant survey questions and deploys the survey. • Once the researcher receives the responses he/she summarizes them to tabulate meaningful findings and data.
  • 69. Contd… • Descriptive Research- Descriptive research is a quantitative research method, which corresponds to identifying the characteristics of an observed phenomenon and collecting more information.
  • 70. Contd… • This research method is designed to depict the participants in a very systematic and accurate manner. • In simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the phenomenon, observing and drawing conclusions from it.
  • 71. Contd Correlational Research: • Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables. Let us take an example to understand correlational research. • Let us take an example to understand correlational research, Consider hypothetically, a researcher is studying a correlation between cancer and marries women. Let us say married women have a negative correlation with cancer.
  • 72. Contd… • In the previous example, there are two variables: cancer, and married women. When we say negative correlation it means women who are married are less likely to develop cancer. However, it doesn’t mean that marriage directly avoids cancer.
  • 73. Identifying Research Methodology • To choose the appropriate research methods, it is necessary to clearly identify the research objectives. Here is an example of some of the research objectives you can take into consideration for your business: • To start with, find out the needs of your clients.
  • 74. Contd… • Know their preferences and understand what is important to them • Find an appropriate way to make your customers aware of your products and services. • Find ways to improve your products or services to suit the needs of your customers.
  • 75. After identifying what you need to know, you should then ask what research methods will offer you that information. • Organize your questions within the framework of the 7 Ps that influences your organization – product, price (if applied), promotion, place, people, processes and physical tests.
  • 76. Contd… • A well-organized customer research process produces valid, accurate, reliable, timely and complete results. • Research results that rigorously reflect the opinions and needs of your clients will help you grow your sales and improve your operations. • To obtain the results you need to establish and follow the processes that you have detailed out for your organization:
  • 77. Set Your Goals • Consider the client’s research objectives and define those that identify with yours and plan a strategy once you obtain the information. • Make sure that your goals objectives smart do not presume their result, and define them intelligently and make sure you set achievable targets, smart goals, and objectives.
  • 78. Plan Your Research : • Good planning allows the use of creative and logical approaches to select the research methods that gather the information. • Your plan will be influenced by the type and complexity of the information you need, the skills of your market research team, and how soon you need the information and your budget. • Make an adequate strategic planning for your market research.
  • 79. Contd… • Identify your list of questions and decide on the research methods that will best achieve your goals. Detail your research approach and some initial idea of how you will classify and analyze the data.
  • 80. Collect and collate your results • Make a list of how you are going to carry out the research process, the data you need to collect and collection methods. This will help you keep track of your research processes and make sense of your findings. It will also allow you to verify that your research accurately reflects the opinions of your clients.
  • 81. Contd…. • Remember, research is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate and reliable. Relying on imperfect research is dangerous; incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.
  • 82. Analyze and Understand Your Research • The analysis of the data can vary from simple and direct steps to technical and complex processes. • Adopt an approach, and choose the method of data analysis based on the research methods you have carried out.
  • 83. Keep the Findings Ready • Choose a spreadsheet that allows you to easily enter your data. • If you do not have a large amount of data, you should be able to manage them with the use of basic tools available in the software. • If you have collected more complete and complex data, you may have to consider using specific programs or tools that will help you manage your data.
  • 84. Review and Interpret the Information to Draw Conclusions • Once you have gathered all the data, you can scan your information and interpret it to draw conclusions and make informed decisions. You should review the data and then: • Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities and problems you observe, and write a sentence about each one • Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
  • 85. Contd… • Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common • Evaluate and perform separately a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that have been identified in a SWOT analysis. • Preparation of conclusions and recommendations about your research.
  • 86. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 23-25
  • 87. Area/s to be discussed. • Comparative analysis: Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research.
  • 88. To understand characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis: Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research Research approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured Research conducted through Asking research questions Asking research questions By using research hypotheses. When is it conducted? Early stages of decision making Later stages of decision making Later stages of decision making
  • 89. Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research • Research is the most widely used tool to increase and brush-up the stock of knowledge about something and someone. • In the field of marketing, business, sociology, psychology, science & technology, economics, etc. there are two standard ways of conducting research, i.e. qualitative research or quantitative research.
  • 90. Contd… • While the qualitative research relies on verbal narrative like spoken or written data, the quantitative research uses logical or statistical observations to draw conclusions.
  • 91. Comparison Chart BASIS FOR COMPARISON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Meaning Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. Quantitative research is a research method that is used to generate numerical data and hard facts, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique. Nature Holistic Particularistic Approach Subjective Objective Research type Exploratory Conclusive Reasoning Inductive Deductive Sampling Purposive Random Data Verbal Measurable Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented Hypothesis Generated Tested Elements of analysis Words, pictures and objects Numerical data Objective To explore and discover ideas used in the ongoing processes. To examine cause and effect relationship between variables. Methods Non-structured techniques like In-depth interviews, group discussions etc. Structured techniques such as surveys, questionnaires and observations. Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action
  • 92. Key Differences between Qualitative And Quantitative Research • The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are provided can be drawn clearly on the next grounds:
  • 93. Contd… • Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. • A scientific and empirical research method that is used to generate numerical data, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique is called quantitative research. • Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is particularistic.
  • 94. Contd • The qualitative research follows a subjective approach as the researcher is intimately involved, whereas the approach of quantitative research is objective, as the researcher is uninvolved and attempts to precise the observations and analysis on the topic to answer the inquiry. • Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative research which is conclusive.
  • 95. Contd… • The reasoning used to synthesise data in qualitative research is inductive whereas in the case of quantitative research the reasoning is deductive.
  • 96. Contd… • Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample size is selected with a view to get a thorough understanding of the target concept. • On the other hand, quantitative research relies on random sampling; wherein a large representative sample is chosen in order to extrapolate the results to the whole population.
  • 97. Contd… • Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in quantitative research measurable data is gathered. • Inquiry in qualitative research is a process- oriented, which is not in the case of quantitative research.
  • 98. Contd… • Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words, pictures, and objects while that of quantitative research is numerical data. • Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and discovering ideas used in the ongoing processes. • As opposed to quantitative research the purpose is to examine cause and effect relationship between variables.
  • 99. Contd… • Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews, focus groups, etc. In contrast, the methods of conducting quantitative research are structured interviews and observations. • Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas quantitative research recommends a final course of action.
  • 100. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 26-28
  • 101. Area/s to be discussed. • Identifying the Research Problem.
  • 102. Identifying the Research Problem • The research problem is the heart of a study. • It is a clear, definite statement of the area of concern or investigation and is backed by evidence (Bryman, 2007).
  • 103. Contd… • It drives the research questions and processes and provides the framework for understanding the research findings. • To begin, you will need to know where to look for your research problem and how to evaluate when a research problem for success.
  • 104. Where to Find a Research Problem? • Ideas for research problems tend to come from two sources: real life and the scholarly arena. • First, identifying a research problem can be as simple as observing the complications and issues in your local workplace.
  • 105. Contd… • You may encounter ongoing issues on a daily basis in your workplace or observe your colleagues struggle with major issues or questions in your field. • These ongoing obstacles and issues in the workplace can be the catalyst for developing a research problem.
  • 106. Contd… • Alternatively, research problems can be identified by reviewing recent literature, reports, or databases in your field. • Often the section of “recommendations for the future studies” provided at the end of journal articles or doctoral dissertations suggest potential research problems.
  • 107. Contd… • In addition, major reports and databases in the field may reveal findings or data-based facts that call for additional investigation or suggest potential issues to be addressed. • Looking at what theories need to be tested is another opportunity to develop a research problem.
  • 108. How to Evaluate a Research Problem? • Once you find your potential research problem, you will need to evaluate the problem and ensure that it is appropriate for research. • A research problem is deemed appropriate when it is supported by the literature, and considered significant, timely, novel, specific, and researchable. • Stronger research problems are more likely to succeed in publication, presentation, and application.
  • 109. Supported by the Literature • Your research problem should be relevant to the field and supported by a number of recent peer- reviewed studies in the field. • Even if you identify the problem based on the recommendation of one journal article or dissertation, you will still need to conduct a literature search and ensure that other researchers support the problem and need for conducting research to further address the problem.
  • 110. Significant • Your research problem should have a positive impact on the field. • The impact can be practical, in the form of direct application of the results in the field, or conceptual, where the work advances the field by filling a knowledge gap.
  • 111. Novel • Your research problem should be original and unique. • It should seek to address a gap in our knowledge or application. • An exhaustive review of literature can help you identify whether the problem has already been addressed with your particular sample and/or context.
  • 112. Contd… • Talking to experts in the research area can illuminate a problem. • Replication of an existing study warrants discussion of value elsewhere, but novelty can be found in determining if an already-resolved problem holds in a new sample and/or context.
  • 113. Specific and Clear • Your research problem should be specific enough to set the direction of the study, raise research question(s), and determine an appropriate research method and design. • Vague research problems may not be useful to specify the direction of the study or develop research questions.
  • 114. Researchable • Research problems are solved through the scientific method. • This means research-ability, or feasibility of the problem, is more important than all of the above characteristics. • You as the researcher should be able to solve the problem with your abilities and available research methods, designs, research sites, resources, and timeframe.
  • 115. Contd… • If a research problem retains all of aforementioned characteristics but it is not researchable, it may not be an appropriate research problem.
  • 116. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 29-31
  • 117. Area/s to be discussed. • Literature Review.
  • 118. Literature Review as Sources of Information and its Procedure • Any research, no matter at what scale, requires reading about what other people have done in the area of your interest, how they have done it, and what are the gaps in the research in that area. • Any new production of knowledge is necessarily based on previous and existing knowledge.
  • 119. Contd… • You need information to support or refute your arguments and write about your findings. • You need to provide evidence that you are aware of the current trends and issues in your area of interest and are cognizant of the current state of knowledge on the subject. • Ideally this reading should form the basis for choosing your research methodology.
  • 120. Contd… • Moreover, every new article/book you read will have a cumulative effect on the existing body of knowledge in your mind, pushing you to reinterpret or rethink some of your previous assumptions or ideas. • But there is a limit to the changes you can make in your literature review.
  • 121. Contd… • The best way is to prepare a first draft and then polish it at the stage of data interpretation when you will be reading your literature review again to present your analysis in a coherent manner with cross-references related to your literature review.
  • 122. Contd… • Alternatively, research problems can be identified by reviewing recent literature, reports, or databases in your field. • Often the section of “recommendations for the future studies” provided at the end of journal articles or doctoral dissertations suggest potential research problems.
  • 123. Contd… • In addition, major reports and databases in the field may reveal findings or data-based facts that call for additional investigation or suggest potential issues to be addressed. • Looking at what theories need to be tested is another opportunity to develop a research problem.
  • 124. Why Review Literature? • Some reasons for including a literature review in your research paper/thesis are: 1. The basic reason for literature review is to contextualize your research. Every academic research project is related to a particular area and is a link in a chain of similar research taking place in the area. This contextualization shows your awareness of the work going on in your field and also identifies the niche you wish to occupy.
  • 125. Contd… 2. It gives you ideas about how to classify and present your data. When you read critically, you can sees how writers explore the relationships between facts and how facts and relationships are explained. Methods used by other writers may not be suitable for your purposes, but they may give you ideas about how you might categorize your data.
  • 126. Contd… 3. Literature review helps you to distinguish what has been done from what needs to be done and how it should be done. Readings in an area reveal gaps in the literature and this fine tunes your research question and subsequent research methods.
  • 127. Contd… 4. Literature review assists you to synthesize your ideas and gain perspectives to look at your research problem with different lens. Other researchers may have looked at a similar issue but from different angles. This knowledge can fortify you to find your own angle.
  • 128. Sources of Literature Review • One important question that new researchers always ask is “Where do we find the material for doing a literature review?” • The next are the primary and secondary sources for finding the material that you need to read:
  • 129. Contd… • Articles in Journals • Books • Internet • Research Reports • Government Documents • Abstracts • Reviews • Unpublished Theses • Electronic Research Information Center/Social Sciences Citation • Index/Dissertation Abstracts Index
  • 130. Managing the Literature • The bibliography at the end of a recent article or book can provide you with an adequate reading list of most of the relevant material related to that topic. • Once the relevant literature has been located and found through the sources suggested, the next step is to manage it.
  • 131. Contd… • This requires efficient and selective reading. Once you try locating the relevant literature, you will discover that it is available in vast quantities. • Now the primary task is to pick out the material that is actually related and relevant to your research area.
  • 132. Contd… • This requires you to be a proficient reader who can get the gist of things quickly as you will have to go through a lot of reading. • In an article published in a journal, the first thing to do is look at the abstract or summary of the article.
  • 133. Contd… • This will give you an idea whether it is relevant for you. In the case of a book you should look at the list of contents, the blurb, the summaries usually given at the end of the chapters and the introduction. • This will tell you quickly if any part is pertinent for you.
  • 134. Contd… • The next step is to follow a clear system of keeping track of your reading references. • You need to create a management system that will incorporate your sources with all relevant details including a note about where you found that article or book.
  • 135. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session 32-33
  • 136. Area/s to be discussed. • The Role of Theory.
  • 137.
  • 138. Theory • Theory is a model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes both what we see and how we see it. • Theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete; the theoretical and the empirical; thought statements and observational statements etc.
  • 139. Contd… • Theory is a generalised statement that asserts a connection between two or more types of phenomena – any generalised explanatory principle. • Theory is a system of interconnected abstractions or ideas that condenses and organises knowledge about the world. • Theory explains and predicts the relationship between variables.
  • 140. Contd… • Theory guides research and organises its ideas. The analogy of bricks lying around haphazardly in the brickyard: ‘facts’ of different shapes and sizes have no meaning unless they are drawn together in a theoretical or conceptual framework. • Theory becomes stronger as more supporting evidence is gathered; and it provides a context for predictions. • Theory has the capacity to generate new research. • Theory is empirically relevant and always tentative
  • 141. Theories vs. hypotheses • Hypotheses usually predicts the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses are more specific than theories. Multiple hypotheses may relate to one theory. The theories that you use in your research operates at different levels: • Micro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at the level of the individual or family environment (e.g. psychology, frustration, aggression hypothesis etc).
  • 142. Contd… • Meso-level theory seeks to explain the interactions of micro-level organisations (e.g. social institutions, communities etc). • Macro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at the level of large groups of people (e.g. ethnicity, class, gender etc).
  • 143. How to evaluate the quality of a theory or explanation • Is the theory logical and coherent? • Does it fit the available data? • Does it provide testable claims? • Have the theory-based predictions been tested? • Does the theory work better than rival theories or explanations? • Is it general enough to apply to more than one place, situation, or person?
  • 144. Contd… • Can practitioners use it to control or influence things in the world e.g: • a good theory of teaching helps teachers to positively influence students learning. • a good theory of counselling helps counselors to positively influence their clients’ mental health
  • 145. Theory and research are interrelated in the following ways: • Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it. • It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions. • It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data. • Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. • It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. • Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data.
  • 146. Contd… • Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the many-sided concrete social world. • Theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements etc.
  • 147. Contd… • There is a two-way relationship between theory and research. Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. • Theory is not fixed; it is provisional, open to revision and grows into more accurate and comprehensive explanations about the make-up and operation of the social world.
  • 148. Deductive theory • In a deductive approach, researchers use theory to guide the design of a study and the interpretation of results. • As researchers continue to conduct empirical research in testing a theory, they develop confidence that some parts of it are true.
  • 149. Contd… • Researchers may modify some propositions of a theory or reject them if several well-conducted studies have negative findings. • A theory’s core propositions and central tenets are more difficult to test and are refuted less often. • In a slow process, researchers may decide to abandon or change a theory as the evidence against it mounts over time and cannot be logically reconciled.
  • 150. Inductive theory • Inductive theorising begins with a few assumptions and broad orienting concepts. Theory develops from the ground up as the researchers gather and analyse the data.
  • 151. Contd… • Theory emerges slowly, concept by concept, and proposition by proposition, in a specific area. • Over time, the concepts and empirical generalisations emerge and mature. Soon, relationships become visible and researchers weave knowledge from different studies into more abstract theory. • Empirical generalizations posit the most basic relationship between concepts: e.g. ‘most people I know who drive small Japanese cars are under 30 years of age’.
  • 152. The Role of Theory • 6 Main Roles of Theory for Research: 1. Theory provides significant guidelines and trails for the conduct of research by pointing to areas that are most likely to be fruitful, that is, areas in which meaningful relationships among variables are likely to be found. If the variables come to be selected such that no relationships between them obtain, the research will be sterile no matter how meticulous the subsequent observations and inferences.
  • 153. Contd… • A theoretic system narrows down the range of facts to be studied. • Theory provides the researcher with a definite view point a direction which goes a long way toward helping him enquire into relationships between certain variables selected from among an almost infinite array of variables.
  • 154. Contd… • As Oppenheimer puts it, “in order for us to understand anything we have to fail to perceive a great deal that is there. • Knowledge is purchased at the expense of what might have been seen and learned and was not…it is a condition of knowledge that somehow or the other we pick the clues which give us insight into what we have to find out about the world.”
  • 155. Contd… • As a storehouse of meaningful hypotheses a fruitful theory suggests potential problems for study and thus ignites new investigative studies.
  • 156. Contd… • In fact, a theory can be judged productive (to the extent it can spark off a number of questions. A productive theory suggests potential problems, fruitful hypotheses and provides new perspectives. • Einstein and Infield observe, “It is never possible to introduce only observable quantities in a theory. It is the theory which decides what can be observed.” Only thus can the task of science be reduced to manageability.
  • 157. Contd… • Besides suggesting fruitful approaches to phenomena in the general area with which it is concerned, theory also provides leads for research in a different way, viz., by suggesting other kinds of phenomena that may perhaps be understood or explained in the same general terms.
  • 158. Contd.. • Take the example of Cohen’s theory of ‘delinquent sub­culture’ (Sub- cultural theory emerged from the work of the Chicago School and investigations of social strain theory into urban gangs, and developed into a series of theories proposing that small cultural groups fragment away from mainstream values and have attitudes conducive to violence and criminal behaviour).
  • 159. Contd… • The Central idea of Cohen’s theory is that the delinquent sub-culture evolved by the working class juveniles is a response of these juveniles to deal with the problem of individual adjustment attendant upon the difficulty in meeting the criteria of status as prescribed by the middle- class standards which have to be reckoned with.
  • 160. Contd… • The delinquent sub-culture provides alternative criteria of status which these children can meet and thus, helps them deal with the problem of individual adjustment. • Cohen’s theoretical formulation constitutes a generic approach to the understanding of how and why any sub-culture arises. • Thus, such different sub-cultures as those emerging among different professional groups or social classes or small communities may be understood in the same terms.
  • 161. Contd… • Research on such groups would concentrate on discovering the common problems of adjustment faced by the members and the ways in which the particular patterns of these sub-cultures help members to deal with them. • In as much as a theory summarizes known facts and predicts facts which have not yet been observed, it also points to areas which have not yet been explored, in other words, what gaps typically obtain in our knowledge.
  • 162. Contd… • Needless to say, such gaps would not be visible if our facts were not systematized and organized. It is thus that theory suggests where our knowledge is deficient. • A researcher’s acquaintance with the existing theories helps him to select research problems that are likely to prove productive and worthwhile and to avoid enquiries into problems that may prove sterile, yielding no insights.
  • 163. Contd… • Formulation of worthwhile questions is an important step and a precondition to the extension of knowledge. • Alerting oneself to the gaps in theory and fact increases the likelihood of formulating significant questions for research.
  • 164. 2 • Another contribution of theory for research is in terms of increasing the meaningfulness of the findings of a particular study by helping us to perceive them as special cases of the operation of a set of more general or abstract statements of relationships rather than as isolated bits of empirical information.
  • 165. Contd… • A theory typically enhances the meaningfulness of research, since seemingly unrelated findings of isolated studies assume new meaning and significance when they are put into proper theoretical perspective. • Let us take the example of observation by Durkheim that Catholics have a lower suicide rate as compared to the Protestants.
  • 166. Contd… • As an isolated empirical uniformity, the finding would not add greatly to our understanding of suicidal behaviour unless it conceptualized, that is, conceived of as an illustration of a linkage amongst abstractions of a higher order (e.g., Catholicism-Social Cohesion unrelieved anxieties-suicide rate).
  • 167. Contd… • This done, we are easily able to understand that what was initially taken as an isolated empirical finding of a relationship between religious affiliation and suicidal behaviour is in fact a reflection of a much more general relationship between groups with certain conceptualized attributes (social cohesion) and behaviour of their members.
  • 168. Contd… • This way, the scope of the original empirical finding gets considerably extended and several seemingly disparate findings can be seen to be the contextual manifestations of the general principle.
  • 169. Contd… • Similarly, to take another example, the seemingly isolated finding that wives complain of heavy expenditure when the husband’s relatives are in the house-guests may be understood on a higher plane of abstraction, to be an instance of the factor of emotional proximity or distance influencing perception.
  • 170. Contd… • The scope of the findings thus enlarged, other apparently disparate findings may be seen to be interrelated by means of a theoretic thread (e.g., the distorting effect of lack of confidence or morale on perception may be derived from the same theoretical orientation). • As a mental shorthand, theory summarizes relationships amongst variables in a conceptual framework.
  • 171. Contd… • It is through establishing the theoretical pertinence of an empirical finding or uniformity, that we can provide for the cummulation both of theory and research findings. • To illustrate, the empirical uniformities about differentials in the suicide rate lend added confirmation to the set of propositions (theory) from which they and other uniformities have been derived. This may be underlined as a major function of theory.
  • 172. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 34-35
  • 173. Area/s to be discussed. • The Role of Theory: continues
  • 174. The Role of Theory 6 Main Roles of Theory for Research: No. 3. The linkage of the specific empirical findings to a more general concept has another major advantage. It affords a more secure ground for prediction than do these empirical findings by themselves. The theory by providing a rationale behind the empirical findings introduces a ground for prediction which is more secure” than mere extrapolation from previously observed trends.
  • 175. Contd… • Thus, if studies indicated a decrease in social cohesion among a community of tribals, the theory-oriented researcher would feel secure to predict increased rates of suicide in this group. • On the contrary, the a theoretic empiricist would have no alternative but to predict on the basis of extrapolation.
  • 176. Contd… • The prediction may be concerned with estimating whether a relationship between two variables, X and Y, which has been observed in the past, will continue in future, or it may be concerned with estimating whether changes in certain conditions will lead to changes in observed relationship (among the variables).
  • 177. Contd… • To revert to our earlier illustration of delinquency, while Cohen points out that there need not be a direct link between understanding the ’cause’ of a phenomenon and finding a ‘cure,’ his theory nevertheless seems to suggest that a measure intended to reduce gang delinquency is likely to be successful to the extent that it either changes the standards by which working class students are judged in school and (in the community, generally) or helps them to meet and prove equal to those standards.
  • 178. No. 4 • Whereas an empirical finding as a proposition referring to certain concrete contextual manifestation of a phenomenon does not afford a basis for drawing diverse inferences about what will follow, its reformulation or revamping in theoretic terms affords a secure basis for arriving at the inferences about the varied positive consequences in areas quite remote from the central area to which the given finding relates.
  • 179. Contd… • For example, the empirical uniformity that Catholics have a lower suicide rate relative to Protestants does not by itself suggest diverse consequences in fields of conduct apparently far removed from that of suicidal behaviour. But once this uniformity is theoretically reformulated, obsessive behaviour and other maladaptive actions may be seen to be related to inadequacies of group-cohesion.
  • 180. Contd… • Thus, the lower the degree of social cohesion, higher the rate of mental illness). The imaginative conversion of empirical uniformities into theoretic statements thus increases the fruitfulness of research through successive exploration of its implications (or any empirical uniformity). • Theory thus mediates between specific empirical generalization or uniformities and broad theoretical orientations anchored in the intellectual tradition.
  • 181. No. 5 • In affording broader meanings to empirical findings the theory also attests to their truth. • A hypothesis is as much confirmed by fitting it into a theory as by fitting it into facts, because it then enjoys the support provided by evidence for all the other hypotheses of the given theory.
  • 182. No. 6 • Theory helps us to identify gaps in our knowledge and seek to bridge them up with intuitive, impressionistic or extensional generalizations. • As Karl Jaspers said, “It is only when using methodologically classified sciences that we know what we know and what we do not know.” This way, theory constitutes a crucially important guide to designing of fruitful research.
  • 183. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 36-37
  • 184. Area/s to be discussed. • Sampling Techniques.
  • 185. Sampling Techniques What is 'Sampling'? • Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population. • The methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed but may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
  • 186. Contd… • We can also say that sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population.
  • 187. What is Survey Sampling? • Surveys would be meaningless and incomplete without accounting for the respondents that they’re aimed at. • The best survey design practices keep the target population at the core of their thought process.
  • 188. Contd… • ‘All the residents of the slums in Karachi’, ‘every NGO in Lahore’ and ‘all students below the age of 16 in Multan’ are examples of a population; they are countable, finite and well-defined.
  • 189. Contd… • When the population is small enough, researchers have the resources to reach out to all of them. This would be the best case scenario, making sure that everybody who matters to the survey is represented accurately. • A survey that covers the entire target population is called a census.
  • 190. Contd… • However, most surveys cannot survey the entire population. • This is when sampling techniques become crucial to your survey.
  • 191. Why is it Important? Resource Constraints: • If the target population is not small enough, or if the resources at your disposal don’t give you the bandwidth to cover the entire population, it is important to identify a subset of the population to work with – a carefully identified group that is representative of the population. • This process is called survey sampling, and it is one of the most important aspects of survey design.
  • 192. Contd… • Whatever the sample size, there are fixed costs associated with any survey. • Once the survey has begun, the marginal costs associated with gathering more information, from more people, are proportional to the size of the sample.
  • 193. Drawing Inferences About the Population • Researchers are not interested in the sample itself, but in the understanding that they can potentially infer from the sample and then apply across the entire population.
  • 194. Contd… • A sample survey usually offers greater scope than a census. Working within a given resource constraint, sampling may make it possible to study the population of a larger geographical area or to find out more about the same population by examining an area in greater depth through a smaller sample.
  • 195. Contd… • Before we dive into the survey sampling methods at our disposal it is imperative that we develop a perspective on what an effective sample should look like.
  • 196. Features to Keep in Mind While Constructing a Sample Consistency • It is important that researchers understand the population on a case-by-case basis and test the sample for consistency before going ahead with the survey.
  • 197. Contd… • This is especially critical for surveys that track changes across time and space where we need to be confident that any change we see in our data reflects real change – across consistent and comparable samples.
  • 198. Diversity • Ensuring diversity of the sample is a tall order, as reaching some portions of the population and convincing them to participate in the survey could be difficult. • But to be truly representative of the population, a sample must be as diverse as the population itself and sensitive to the local differences that are unavoidable as we move across the population.
  • 199. Transparency • There are several constraints that dictate the size and structure of the population. • It is imperative that researchers discuss these limitations and maintain transparency about the procedures followed while selecting the sample so that the results of the survey are seen with the right perspective.
  • 200. Contd… • Now that we understand the necessity of choosing the right sample and have a vision of what an effective sample for your survey should be like, let’s explore the various methods of constructing a sample and understand the relative pros and cons of each of these approaches.
  • 201. Contd… • Sampling methods can broadly be classified as probability and non- probability.
  • 202. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 38-39
  • 203. Area/s to be discussed. • Sampling Techniques: continues
  • 204. Sampling Techniques Random Sampling • When: There is a very large population and it is difficult to identify every member of the population. • How: The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected independently of the other members of the population. The term random has a very precise meaning and you can’t just collect responses on the street and have a random sample.
  • 205. Contd… • Pros: In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as subject.
  • 206. Contd… • Cons: When there are very large populations, it is often difficult to identify every member of the population and the pool of subjects becomes biased. • Dialing numbers from a phone book for instance, may not be entirely random as the numbers, though random, would correspond to a localized region. A sample created by doing so might leave out many sections of the population that are significant to the study.
  • 207. Contd… • Use case: Want to study and understand the rice consumption pattern across rural India? • While it might not be possible to cover every household, you could draw meaningful insights by building your sample from different districts or villages (depending on the scope).
  • 208. Systematic Sampling • When: Your given population is logically homogenous. • How: In a systematic sample, after you decide the sample size, arrange the elements of the population in some order and select terms at regular intervals from the list.
  • 209. Contd… • Pros: The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is its simplicity. • Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance in simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. • This can be avoided through systematic sampling.
  • 210. Contd… • Cons: The possible weakness of the method that may compromise the randomness of the sample is an inherent periodicity of the list. • This can be avoided by randomizing the list of your population entities, as you would randomize a deck of cards for instance, before you proceed with systematic sampling.
  • 211. Contd… • Use Case: Suppose a supermarket wants to study buying habits of their customers. • Using systematic sampling, they can choose every 10th or 15th customer entering the supermarket and conduct the study on this sample.
  • 212. Stratified Sampling • When: You can divide your population into characteristics of importance for the research. • How: A stratified sample, in essence, tries to recreate the statistical features of the population on a smaller scale. Before sampling, the population is divided into characteristics of importance for the research — for example, by gender, social class, education level, religion, etc.
  • 213. Contd… • Then the population is randomly sampled within each category or stratum. If 38% of the population is college-educated, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college- educated subset of the population.
  • 214. Contd… • Pros: This method attempts to overcome the shortcomings of random sampling by splitting the population into various distinct segments and selecting entities from each of them. • This ensures that every category of the population is represented in the sample. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the sections in the population have a low incidence relative to the other sections.
  • 215. Contd… • Cons: Stratified sampling is the most complex method of sampling. It lays down criteria that may be difficult to fulfill and place a heavy strain on your available resources.
  • 216. Contd… • Use Case: If 38% of the population is college- educated and 62% of the population have not been to college, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college-educated subset of the population and 62% of the sample is randomly selected from the non-college-going population. Maintaining the ratios while selecting a randomized sample is key to stratified sampling.
  • 217. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 40-41
  • 218. Area/s to be discussed. • Sampling Techniques: furthered
  • 219. Non-Probability Sampling Techniques • Non-probability sampling techniques include convenience sampling, snowball sampling and quota sampling.
  • 220. Contd… • In these techniques, the units that make up the sample are collected with no specific probability structure in mind. The selection is not completely randomized, and hence the resultant sample isn’t truly representative of the population.
  • 221. Convenience Sampling • When: During preliminary research efforts. • How: As the name suggests, the elements of such a sample are picked only on the basis of convenience in terms of availability, reach and accessibility.
  • 222. Contd… • Pros: The sample is created quickly without adding any additional burden on the available resources. • Cons: The likelihood of this approach leading to a sample that is truly representative of the population is very poor.
  • 223. Transparency • Use Case: This method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.
  • 224. Snowball Sampling • When: When you can rely on your initial respondents to refer you to the next respondents. • How: Just as the snowball rolls and gathers mass, the sample constructed in this way will grow in size as you move through the process of conducting a survey. In this technique, you rely on your initial respondents to refer you to the next respondents whom you may connect with for the purpose of your survey.
  • 225. Contd… • Pros: The costs associated with this method are significantly lower, and you will end up with a sample that is very relevant to your study. • Cons: The clear downside of this approach is that you may restrict yourself to only a small, largely homogenous section of the population.
  • 226. Contd… • Use Case: Snowball sampling can be useful when you need the sample to reflect certain features that are difficult to find. • To conduct a survey of people who go jogging in a certain park every morning, for example, snowball sampling would be a quick, accurate way to create the sample.
  • 227. Quota Sampling • When: When you can characterize the population based on certain desired features. • How: Quota sampling is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling that we discussed earlier. It starts with characterizing the population based on certain desired features and assigns a quota to each subset of the population.
  • 228. Contd… • Pros: This process can be extended to cover several characteristics and varying degrees of complexity. • Cons: Though the method is superior to convenience and snowball sampling, it does not offer the statistical insights of any of the probability methods.
  • 229. Contd… • Use Case: If a survey requires a sample of fifty men and fifty women, a quota sample will survey respondents until the right number of each type has been surveyed. • Unlike stratified sampling, the sample isn’t necessarily randomized.
  • 230. Contd… • Probability sampling techniques are clearly superior, but the costs can be prohibitive. For the initial stages of a study, non-probability sampling techniques might be sufficient to give you a sense of what you’re dealing with. • For detailed insights and results that you can bank upon, move on to the more sophisticated techniques as the study gathers pace and takes a more concrete structure.
  • 231. References & Bibliography • Baker, T. L. (1994). Doing Social Research (2nd Ed.). Singapore: McGraw Hill. • Babbie, E., & Rubin, A. (2001). Research Methods for Social Work (4th Ed.). USA: Wadsworth Thomas Learning • Barzun, J. and Graff, H. E. (1977) The Modern Researcher, 3rd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. • Bell, J. (1999). Doing Your Research Project. Buckingham, UK: Multilingual Matters. • Best, J. W. & Khan, J. V. (2006). Research in Education (9th Ed.). Lahore: Mayo Art Press • Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1985). Research Methods in Education. Bedeenham: Croom Helm • Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2003) Research Methods in Education (5th Edition). Hampshire: Routledge • Connolly, P. (2007). Quantitative Data Analysis in Education: A Critical Introduction Using SPSS. New York: Routledge Publishers. • Creswell, John (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed • Methods Approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE • Denscombe, Martin. (1998). The Good Research Guide: For Small Scale Social Research • Projects. Buckingham: Open University Press • Dey, Ian. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane • Finnan, C. 1992 Becoming an Accelerated Middle School: Initiating School Culture Change.
  • 232. Contd… • Firestone, W. and Pennell, J. 1993 Teacher Commitment, Working Conditions, and Differential Incentive Policies. Review of Educational Research, 63, 489-525. • Gay, L.R. 2000 Educational Research (5th Edition) Islamabad: National Book Foundation. • Goddard, Wayne and Melville, Stuart (2001) 2nd ed. Research Methodology: An • Introduction. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Limited • Henson, K.T. 1996 Teachers as researchers. In J. Sikula, (ed.) Handbook of research on • teacher education. (2nd edition.) New York, NY: Macmillan. • Johnson, A. P. 2005 A Short Guide to Action Research. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. • Johnston, M. 1990 Experience and Reflection on Collaborative Research. International • Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp 172-183 • Kumar, Ranjit. (2005). Research Methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. 2nd ed., London: SAGE • Leary, Z. O. (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. New Delhi: Vistar Publications • Leonard, D. (2001) A Woman’s Guide to Doctoral Studies. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. • Lieberman, A. (1986). Collaborative research: Working with, not Working on – Educational Leadership, 43 (5), 28-32. • Linn, R. L. & Gronlund, N. E. (1999). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers
  • 233. Contd… • Lodico, M. G., Spaulding, D. T. & Voegtle, K. H. (2006). Methods in Educational Research: From Theory to Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers • McCarthy, J. and Riner, P. 1996 The Accelerated Schools Inquiry Process: Teacher • Empowerment through Action Research. Education v 117, n2, 223-230. • McMillan, J. H. and Schumacher, S (1989) Research education- a conceptual introduction (2nd Ed) UK: Harper Collins • Mertler, C.. A. (2006). Action Research: Teachers as Researchers in the Classroom. USA: Sage Publications • Moses, I. 1995 Supervising Postgraduates, HERDSA Green Guide No. 3. • Moses, I. 1992 Research Training and Supervision, AVCC and NBEET: Canberra • Nunan, D. (1992) Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge • University Press • Oja, S. and Pine, G. 1989 Action Research on Change in Schools (ARCS) Project. In Webb, R. (ed.) 1990 Practitioner Research in the Primary School. London: The Falmer Press • Palo Alto, CA: The Accelerated Schools Project, Stanford University.
  • 234. Contd… • O’Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. New Delhi: Vistaar Publications • Qadir, S. A 1995 ‘Implementation of a reading Innovation in the classrooms of Multan’. • Journal of Research (Humanities). Vol.XXIX No. 1-2. Universirty of the Punjab, Lahore. • Salkind, N. J. (1997). Exploring Research, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. • Serlin, R. C., & Conrad, C. F. (2006). The Sage Handbook for Research in Education: Engaging Ideas and Enriching Inquiry. Thousand Oaks: The Sage Publications • Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base. Last Revised: 01/20/2006. Retrieved January 05, 2009 from • http://www.socialreserach.methods.net/kb/order.php • Tuckman, B. W. (1994). Conducting Educational Research (4th Ed). USA: The Ohio State University • Wiersma, William. (2000). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction. USA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company • Wolcott, F. H. (2001). Writing Up Qualitative Research 2nd Edition. California: Sage Publications
  • 235. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 42
  • 236. Area/s to be discussed. Ethical considerations in research.
  • 237. The Ethics of Research • In planning the actual procedures of study, there are a number of factors that should be considered. Two of these factors, the ethics of conducting research and legal restrictions are relevant to all research studies.
  • 238. Contd… • There are ethical considerations involved in all research studies. • Ethical concerns are, of course, more acute in experimental studies, which by definition, “manipulate” and “control” subjects. • The ends do not justify the means and perhaps the foremost rule of ethics is that subjects should not be harmed in any way (physically or mentally) in the name of science.
  • 239. Contd… • The subject’s right to privacy is also an important consideration. • Collecting information on subjects or observing them without their knowledge or without appropriate permission is not ethical. • Furthermore, any information or data, which are collected, either form or about a subject, should be strictly confidential, especially if it is at all personal.
  • 240. Contd… • Probably the most definitive source of ethical guidelines for researchers is Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research with Human Participants, which was prepared for, and published by, the American Psychological Association (APA).
  • 241. Contd… • In the APA these principles are preceded by a statement to the effect that research should be conducted”… with respect and concern for the dignity and welfare of the people who participate and with cognizance of federal and state regulations and professional standards governing the conduct of research with human participants”.
  • 242. Contd… • Above all, the researcher must have personal integrity. • The reader of a research report must be able to believe that what the researcher says happened, really happened: otherwise it is all for nothing. • Falsifying data in order to make findings agree with a hypothesis is unprofessional, unethical, and unforgivable.
  • 243. Why does Research with Human and Animal Participants Require Ethical Approval? • To protect the rights and welfare of participants and minimise the risk of physical and mental discomfort, harm and/or danger from research procedures • To protect the rights of the researcher to carry out any legitimate investigation as well as the reputation of the University for research conducted and/or sponsored by it.
  • 244. Contd… • To minimise the likelihood of claims of negligence against individual researchers, the University and any collaborating persons or organisations. • Because Research Funding bodies and refereed journals increasingly require a statement of ethical practices in applications for research funds and/or as a condition for publication.
  • 245. Participant-Centred Perspective • To ensure that these principles are adhered to it is essential that a participant-centred approach is adopted. It must not be forgotten that research participants make a significant contribution to the progress and promise of research in advancing knowledge.
  • 246. Contd… • Collaboration between participants and researchers is important and helps to ensure that the interests of the participants are central to the work, that they will not be treated simply as objects and that their concerns will be listened to.
  • 247. Contd… • However, a participant-centred approach must also acknowledge that researchers and research participants may not always see the harms and benefits of a research project in the same way. • Indeed, individual participants within the same study may respond very differently to the information provided in the free and informed consent process; this can be important and these individual perspectives must be considered.
  • 248. Ethical Issues Within the Research Process itself • When considering research involving human participants issues to be taken into account will include consideration of whether the research has been done before and whether there are consistent results in this area. • This will be based on examination of the literature review and the justification of the need for the study.
  • 249. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. MA English: Semester III CODE: ENGL 4145 Session: 43-45
  • 250. Area/s to be discussed. • (Parts of Report, Review & Referencing).
  • 251. Research Process • Formulating the research problem • Extensive literature survey • Development of working hypotheses How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following approach: a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution; b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
  • 252. Contd… a)Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and b)Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
  • 253. • Preparing the research design The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following: 1. the means of obtaining the information; 2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any); 3. .
  • 254. Contd… 1.explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection; 2.the time available for research; and 3.the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose
  • 255. • Collecting the data • By observation • Through personal interview • Through telephone interviews • By mailing of questionnaires • Through schedules • The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanicial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
  • 256. Contd… • Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.
  • 257. Execution of the project Analysis of data Hypothesis-testing Generalisations and interpretation Preparation of the report or the thesis Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
  • 258. Contd… • The main text of the report should have the following parts: (a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
  • 259. Contd… (b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised. (c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
  • 260. Contd… • (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. • In fact, it is the final summing up.
  • 261. Criteria of Good Research Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria: 1.The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
  • 262. Contd… 1.The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. 2.The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
  • 263. 1. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. 2. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
  • 264. Contd… 1. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. 2. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
  • 265. In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under: • Good research is systematic: • It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. • Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
  • 266. Contd… • Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. • Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
  • 267. Contd… • Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. • Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
  • 268. The purpose of research is to… • Review or synthesize existing knowledge • Investigate existing situations or problems • Provide solutions to problems • Explore and analyse more general issues • Construct or create new procedures or systems • Explain new phenomenon • Generate new knowledge • …or a combination of any of the above! (Collis & Hussey, 2003)
  • 269. DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous studies exist. The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for further research. Typical research techniques would include case studies, observation and reviews of previous related studies and data. Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the elements or characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost because of industrial action. Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect, analyse and summarise data. Analytical research often extends the Descriptive approach to suggest or explain why or how something is happening, e.g. underlying causes of industrial action. An important feature of this type of research is in locating and identifying the different factors (or variable The aim of Predictive research is to speculate intelligently on future possibilities, based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and effect, e.g. predicting when and where future industrial action might take place
  • 270. Research Approaches Research can be approached in the following ways: • Quantitative/Qualitative • Applied/Basic • Deductive/Inductive
  • 271. QUANTITATIVE/QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative Qualitative The emphasis of Quantitative research is on collecting and analysing numerical data; it concentrates on measuring the scale, range, frequency etc. of phenomena. This type of research, although harder to design initially, is usually highly detailed and structured and results can be easily collated and presented statistically. Qualitative research is more subjective in nature than Quantitative research and involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a research subject, e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions. Although this type of research can be easier to start, it can be often difficult to interpret and present the findings; the findings can also be challenged more easily.
  • 272. BASIC/APPLIED RESEARCH Deductive Inductive General ideas Particular Situation Deductive research moves from general ideas/theories to specific particular & situations: the particular is deduced from the general, e.g. broad theories. Particular Situation General ideas Inductive research moves from particular situations to make or infer broad general ideas/theories.
  • 273. Examples of Deductive/Inductive Research in Action • Imagine you wanted to learn what the word ‘professional’ meant to a range of people. • Deductive Approach: It is clear that you would want to have a clear theoretical position prior to collection of data. You might therefore research the subject and discover a number of definitions of ‘professional’ from, for example, a number of professional associations.
  • 274. Contd… • You could then test this definition on a range of people, using a questionnaire, structured interviews or group discussion. You could carefully select a sample of people on the basis of age, gender, occupation etc. The data gathered could then be collated and the results analysed and presented. This approach offers researchers a relatively easy and systematic way of testing established ideas on a range of people.
  • 275. Inductive Approach If you adopted this approach you might start by talking to a range of people asking for their ideas and definitions of ‘professional’. From these discussions you could start to assemble the common elements and then start to compare these with definitions gained from professional associations.
  • 276. Contd… • The data gathered could then be collated and the results analysed and presented. This approach might lead you to arrive at a new definition of the word – or it might not! This approach can be very time-consuming, but the reward might be in terms of arriving at a fresh way of looking at the subject.
  • 277. RESEARCH PHILIOSOPHIES Research is not ‘neutral’, but reflects a range of the researcher’s personal interests, values, abilities, assumptions, aims and ambitions. In the case of your own proposed research, your own mixtures of these elements will not only determine the subject of the research, but will influence your approach to it. It is important to consider in advance what approach you to take with your research – and why.
  • 278. Contd… There are essential two main research philosophies (or positions) although there can be overlap between the two – and both positions may be identifiable in any research project. POSITIVISTIC PHENOMENOLOGICAL (can also be referred to (can also be referred to as ‘Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’, Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’, ‘Scientific’, ‘Experimentalist’ or ‘Humanistic’ or ‘Traditionalist’) ‘Interpretative’ The research philosophy can impact on the methodology adopted for the research project.
  • 279. RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES Positivistic Inductive • Surveys • Experimental Studies • Longitudinal Studies • Cross-sectional Studies • Case Studies • Action Research • Ethnography (participant • observation) • Participative Enquiry • Feminist Perspectives • Grounded Theory
  • 280. How to give references? Audio-Visual Media References to audio-visual media must include the following elements: name and function of the primary contributors (e.g., producer, director), date, title, the medium in brackets, location or place of production, and name of the distributor. If the medium in indicated as part of the retrieval ID, brackets are not needed.
  • 281. Contd… • Videocassette Garmon, L. (Producer and Director), & Apsell, P. (Executive Producer). (1994). Secret of the wild child [Videocassette]. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational Foundation. • Audio Recording Costa, P. T., Jr. (Speaker). (1988). Personality, continuity, and changes of adult life (Cassette Recording No. 207-433-88A-B). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. • Motion Picture Scorsese, M. (Producer), & Lonergan, K. (Writer/Director). (2000). You can count on me [Motion Picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
  • 282. Examples • Television Broadcast Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour [Television broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service. • Television Series Miller, R. (Producer). (1989). The mind [Television series]. New York: WNET. • Music Recording Shocked, M. (1992). Over the waterfall. On Arkansas traveler [CD]. New York: PolyGram Music.
  • 283. Examples Electronic Media and Online Sources APA's recommendations for citing electronic media call for consistent observation of at least two important guidelines: 1) Direct readers as closely as possible to the information being cited -- whenever possible, reference specific documents rather than home or menu pages; 2) 2) Provide addresses that work. At a minimum, a reference of an Internet source should provide a document or title description, a "date" (either the date of publication, update, or date of retrieval), and an address (in Internet terms, a URL). Whenever possible, identify the authors of the document as well.
  • 284. Contd… • Listed below are examples of citation styles for several types of electronic sources. • Internet articles based on a print source (exists in print and online) VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources by psychology undergraduates [Electronic version]. Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5, 117- 123.
  • 285. Examples • Article in an Internet-only journal Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre00300 01a.html • Article from an online encyclopedia Bergman, P. G. & Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica Online. (1994-1999). Relativity. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 4, 1999, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online on the World Wide Web: http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=117376&sctn=1
  • 286. Examples • Professional web site American Psychological Association. (1999, June 1). Electronic preference formats recommended by the American Psychological Association. Retrieved July 18, 1999, from the World Wide Web: http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html • Document available on university program or department site Chou, L., McClintock, R., Moretti, F., & Nix, D. H. (1993). Technology and education: New wine in new bottles: Choosing pasts and imagining educational futures. Retrieved August 24, 2000, from Columbia University, Institute for Learning Technologies Web site: http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/papers/newwine 1.html
  • 287. Contd… • When citing an entire web site (and not a specific document on that site), no Reference List entry is required if the address for the site is cited in the text of your paper. Witchcraft In Europe and America is a site that presents the full text of many essential works in the literature of witchcraft and demonology (http://www.witchcraft.psmedia.com/).
  • 288. Ethical Use of Web-Based Materials • It is a common mistake to believe that if something is on the Web and there is no notice of copyright, it is acceptable to use the information you may find without acknowledging your source. This is definitely not the case. All materials you find on the Web are copyrighted, regardless of whether or not the individual document indicates it is copyrighted. As with materials in print, it is also dishonest and unethical to use Web-based materials created by someone else and not give appropriate credit for the work.
  • 289. Contd… • When you include information from Web-based materials in a paper or report, be sure to provide a complete citation for the site and give the person credit for his or her work in your paper or project. Giving people credit for their work is the right thing to do, and it is also the law. If you do not cite resources used in a paper, you can be sued by the author, fail your course, and even be expelled or suspended from the university.
  • 290. General Guidelines Journal or magazine articles from Proprietary/Subscription Web Databases • If the resource you are citing is from one of UMUC's Web databases, follow the format below. If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.
  • 291. Contd… • Citation Model: Author's last name, First initial. (date). Article title. Journal Title, volume(issue), pages. Retrieved month day, year, from Database Name database. • Example: Deans, G.K., Kroeger, F., & Zeisel, S. (2002). The consolidation curve. Harvard Business Review, 80(12), 20-21. Retrieved April 19, 2004, from Business Source Premier database
  • 292. General Guidelines • Author—The author(s) of the article. APA style only requires the first initial of author names (for example, Smith, J. instead of Smith, John). If no author is given, then the article title should be listed first, followed by the date. • Date—Provide in parentheses the year the work was published. For monthly magazines, use (year, month); for weekly magazines use (year, month day). • Article title—The title of the article. Only capitalize the initial letter of the article title and subtitle (for example: Sound bite news: Television coverage of elections).