Rm17 45 1-151

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.
MA English: Semester III
CODE: ENGL 4145
Session: 15-17

Area/s to be discussed.
• Action research.

Action Research
• Action research is a reflective process of
progressive problem solving led by individuals
working with others in teams or as part of a
"community”.

Contd…
• School and classroom-based studies initiated
and conducted by teachers and other school
staff.
• Action research involves teachers, aides,
principals, and other school staff as researchers
who systematically reflect on their teaching or
other work and collect data that will answer their
questions.

Contd…
• Research undertaken by teams that is flexible
and iterative; the aim is to problem-solve in
order to improve the way processes are
performed and services are delivered.

Contd…
• Research conducted by classroom teachers,
often concurrent with their teaching.
• Research, usually informal, designed for direct
application to behavior or to a situation, as
research by teachers in their classrooms.

Contd…
• Describes a method of learning by doing.
Community artists experiment with different
approaches to gathering relevant material for a
project.
• Action research is a particular approach to
research that aims to improve practice or have a
real world application.
• In other words, it is research that aims to make a
real change or impact in society, and is not
simply research in and of itself.

Contd…
• It aims to address both the practical concerns of
people (in a community, organisation etc) and
the goals of research through people working
together on projects.
• An informal, qualitative, interpretive, reflective
and experimental methodology that requires all
the participants to be collaborative researchers

Why should I Use Action Research?
• Because you want to change your practice. You
may be concerned that things might not be
going as you wish, or you may need to
implement a new initiative but are unsure how to
do it effectively.

Contd…
• What you want is a way of sorting out these
concerns that offers practical solutions, but that
derives from the specific circumstances of your
practice.
• You know that someone else’s solution may
have merit, but that it is never quite right for the
individual situation within which you work. You
know that practice is always influenced by
context

How does this qualify as research?
• Because the act of finding your solution makes
you understand your practice better – not only
what you are doing, but also the factors that
affect what you do. Action research therefore
has two aspects.

Contd…
• The starting point is to sort out a problem or
issue in practice; to this extent an action
researcher seeks a solution.
• But the process can also be used as a deliberate
attempt to understand practice better – a
traditional research attitude. What is most
important in both approaches is that you are
open, honest and rigorous.

What Do We Mean by Practice?
• From the perspective of action research, the
best way to think about practice is the way you
carry out your professional actions.
• This is, of course, what you do, but it is also why
you think you should be doing things the way
you do.
• You will hear of the ‘theory-practice divide’;
action research as an approach cuts across this
divide, encouraging a practitioner to consider
both aspects as part of a single whole.

What is action research about?
• Action research is a practical approach to
professional inquiry in any social situation.
• The examples in this component relate to
education and are therefore of particular
relevance to teachers or lecturers engaged in
their daily contact with children or students.

Contd…
• But professional practice need not be teaching: it
may be management or administration in a
school or college, or it may be in an unrelated
area, such as medicine or the social services.
• The context for professional inquiry might
change, but the principles and processes
involved in action research are the same,
regardless of the nature of the practice.

How does action research work?
• At its heart, action research involves the careful
monitoring of planned change in practice.
• A decision is taken that a particular action may
either yield improvements or provide information
as to the nature of the teaching situation.
• The action is thus used as a research tool. Both
elements of action and research are of equal
prominence in the approach.

Contd…
It can be thought of as: Research on action by
using Action as a tool for research with the
process being driven by a dialogue between the
elements of:
• action and the intentions behind action
or
• practice and the values behind practice.

Individual or Collaborative?
• So far, this account has focused on the
individual nature of action research, reflecting
Whitehead’s perspective on the process.

Contd…
• This is not to say that groups of people within a
school or college cannot undertake a
collaborative action research project, exploring
how best to change institutional practice, but it is
important to realise the individual nature of
practice itself.
• If reflection on practice involves engaging with
intentions, values and beliefs, then strong
elements of these will be intensely personal.

Methods
• The prime criterion for choosing a particular data
gathering method in action research is whether it
is anticipated that the method will give useful
information about the practice under study.
• It is sometimes thought that methods used in
action research are purely qualitative.

Contd…
• This does not have to be true. Although the
overall analysis of the data generated by any
methods used will be qualitative in nature,
numerical or statistical information may be of
great value to that analysis.
• For example, a statistical breakdown of
examination or SATs passes may be a useful
piece of data when exploring the effect of
aspects of practice.

Contd…
• What is most important is that the researcher
understands that different research methods
illuminate only particular aspects of a situation.
None give a whole picture.

Contd…
• In seeking evidence of her practice, or the
effectiveness of a change in practice, a teacher
needs to look at it from different perspectives;
she needs to employ a triangulation of methods.
• This is a simple principle, involving the careful
choice of a range of data gathering techniques,
each of which might illuminate a different aspect
of the same issue:

The Principle of Triangulation

CODE: ENGL 4145
Session: 18

• Objectives of research.
• Qualitative and Quantitative

Objectives: (Descriptive, Co-relational,
Exploratory and Explanatory)
• Descriptive research is also called statistical
research. The main goal of this type of research is
to describe the data and characteristics about what
is being studied.

Contd…
• The idea behind this type of research is to study
frequencies, averages, and other statistical
calculations. Although this research is highly
accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a
situation.

Contd…
• Correlation research measures the relationship
between two or more variables or gives an
indication of how one variable may predict
another.

Contd…
• Exploratory research is a type of research
conducted because a problem has not been
clearly defined. Exploratory research helps
determine the best research design, data
collection methods, and selection of subjects.
• Given that it is fundamental in nature,
exploratory research often concludes that a
perceived problem does not actually exist.

Contd…
• Explanatory research explores "why," and
attempts to explain as the purposes of
explanatory research.
• It builds on exploratory and descriptive research
and further identifies the reasons for something
that occurs. It looks for causes and reasons.

Qualitative and Quantitative
• The inquiry mode of research can be
categorized as qualitative and quantitative:

Contd…
• Qualitative research is research undertaken to
gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs,
motivations and behaviours of individuals, to
explore a social or human problem.

Contd…
• Qualitative research methods include focus
groups, in-depth interviews, observation
research, and case studies.
• You can use qualitative research to study past
events or current events.
• When you use it for past events, it is specifically
called historical research.

The Salient Features of Qualitative
Research are:
• Conducted to have an insight and better
understanding of not only about the current
situation is but also why it is so.
• More open and responsive to the research
participants.
• Uses a variety of methods and data collection
strategies,
• Offers opportunities for descriptive and
exploratory studies.

Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research is research concerned
with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours
and perceptions.
• It includes interviewing methods such as
telephone, intercept, and door-to-door
interviews, as well as self-completion methods
such as mail outs and online surveys.

• Means the data is analyzed in terms of numbers.
• Involves the collection of numerical data.
• Predicts and explains data in the form of
statistical analysis.
• Uses the numerical method to analysis and
interpret the results.
• Finds out the relationship among quantifiable
variables and the results are inferred.

CODE: ENGL 4145
Session 19-20

• Comparative analysis of research.
• Qualitative research methods.

To understand characteristic of research design using
research purpose here is a comparative analysis:
Exploratory
Research
Descriptive
Research
Explanatory
Research
Research
approach used
Unstructured Structured
Highly
structured
Research
conducted
through
Asking
research
questions
Asking
research
questions
By using
research
hypotheses.
When is it
conducted?
Early stages of
decision
making
Later stages of
decision
making
Later stages of
decision
making

What is the purpose of Research?
• Research method is defined as the tools or an
instrument that is used to accomplish the goals
and attributes of conducting a research process.

Contd…
• Think of the methodology as a systematic
process in which the tools or instruments will be
employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not
being used efficiently.

Contd…
• To understand research methods we must first
understand what research is.
• Research is a careful study of a specific problem
or concern using scientific methods, tools, and
instruments.

Contd…
• Remember as kids, we were given projects in
elementary schools and we were asked to know
about it in details.
• Research is the adult form of that elementary
project, only a more precise and thorough
version!

Contd…
• Research can be about anything, scientific
research, basic research, applied
research, market research- qualitative market
research and quantitative market research,
problem-oriented research, problem-solving
research.
• To begin researching something, you need to
have a problem or a concern that needs a
solution.

Contd…
• Research really begins with asking the right
research questions, what follows next is
choosing appropriate research method to be
able to investigate the problem or issue in the
right direction and then finally analyze your
findings or observations to draw appropriate
conclusions.

Contd…
• When it comes to customers and related
research, there should be no stone unturned.
• Specify and plan the customer’s research, help
make smart decisions about how to market and
position your business efficiently.

Contd…
• Choosing the right research method will help
you get important answers about your clients.
• But before we go any further, first let us identify
the research methods.

Types of Research Methods and
Research Example
• Research methods are broadly classified
as Qualitative Research and Quantitative
Research. Both research methods have
distinctive properties and data collection
methods.

Qualitative Research Methods
• Qualitative research is a research method that
collects data using conversational methods,
where participants involved in the research are
asked open-ended questions.
• The responses collected are essentially non-
numerical.
• This method not only helps a researcher
understand “what” participant think but also,
“why” they think in a particular way.

Widely Used Qualitative Research
Methods
One-to-one Interview:
• This interview technique is systematically
planned and as the name suggests is conducted
with one participant at a given point in time.
• One-to-one interviews need a researcher to
prepare questions in advance and to make sure
the researcher asks only the most important
questions to the participant.

Contd…
• This type of interview lasts anywhere between
20 minutes to half an hour.
• During this time the researcher collects as many
meaningful data as possible from the
participants to draw inferences.

Contd…
Focus Groups:
• Focus groups are small groups comprising of
around 6-10 participants who are usually experts
in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned to
a focus group who facilitates the discussion
amongst the group members

Contd…
• A moderator’s experience in conducting focus
group plays an important role.
• An experienced moderator can probe the
participants by asking the correct research
questions that will help him/her collect a sizable
amount of information related to the research.

Contd…
Ethnographic Research:
• Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of
research where people are observed in their
natural environment with any alterations.

Contd…
• This method can prove to be a bit demanding in
terms of a researcher getting adapted to the
natural environment of the target audience
which could even be the Amazon rainforest!
Geographic locations can be a constraint in this
type of research method.
• Instead of conducting interviews a researcher
needs to experience the settings in person to
collect information.

Contd…
Text Analysis:
• Text analysis is a little different from other
qualitative research methods as it used to
analyze the social life by decoding words, texts
etc. through any available form of
documentation.

Contd…
• The researcher studies and understands the
context in which the documents are furnished
with the information and then tries to draw
meaningful inferences from it.
• In modern times, researchers follow activities on
a social media platform and try and understand
the pattern of thoughts.

Contd…
Case Study Research:
• Case study research, as the name suggests is
used to study an organization or an entity. This
research method has evolved over the years
and is one of the most valuable qualitative
research methods known to researchers.

Contd…
• This type of research is used in fields like
education sector, philosophical and
psychological studies.
• This method involves a deep diving into the
ongoing research and collects data.

CODE: ENGL 4145
Session: 21-22

• Comparative analysis of research:
Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative Research Methods
• Quantitative research methods are the
methods that deal with numbers and anything
that can be dealt with a measurable form, in a
systematic way of investigating the
phenomenon.

Contd…
• It is used to answer questions in terms of
justifying relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict or control a
phenomenon.

There are three methods that are often used by
researchers to conduct this type of research,
they are:
Survey Research-
• The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn
about a large population by deploying
the survey. Gone are the days where a survey
was carried out using a pen and a paper.
• Today, online surveys are a popular mode of
research as they are convenient and can be
sent in an email or made available on the
internet.

Contd…
• In this method, a researcher designs a survey
with most relevant survey questions and
deploys the survey.
• Once the researcher receives the responses
he/she summarizes them to tabulate meaningful
findings and data.

Contd…
• Descriptive Research- Descriptive research is a
quantitative research method, which
corresponds to identifying the characteristics of
an observed phenomenon and collecting more
information.

Contd…
• This research method is designed to depict the
participants in a very systematic and accurate
manner.
• In simple words, descriptive research is all about
describing the phenomenon, observing and
drawing conclusions from it.

Contd
Correlational Research:
• Correlational research examines the
relationship between two or more variables. Let
us take an example to understand correlational
research.
• Let us take an example to understand
correlational research, Consider hypothetically,
a researcher is studying a correlation between
cancer and marries women. Let us say married
women have a negative correlation with cancer.

Contd…
• In the previous example, there are two variables:
cancer, and married women. When we say
negative correlation it means women who are
married are less likely to develop cancer.
However, it doesn’t mean that marriage directly
avoids cancer.

Identifying Research Methodology
• To choose the appropriate research methods, it
is necessary to clearly identify the research
objectives. Here is an example of some of the
research objectives you can take into
consideration for your business:
• To start with, find out the needs of your clients.

Contd…
• Know their preferences and understand what is
important to them
• Find an appropriate way to make your
customers aware of your products and services.
• Find ways to improve your products or services
to suit the needs of your customers.

After identifying what you need to know, you
should then ask what research methods will offer
you that information.
• Organize your questions within the framework of
the 7 Ps that influences your organization –
product, price (if applied), promotion, place,
people, processes and physical tests.

Contd…
• A well-organized customer research process
produces valid, accurate, reliable, timely and
complete results.
• Research results that rigorously reflect the
opinions and needs of your clients will help you
grow your sales and improve your operations.
• To obtain the results you need to establish and
follow the processes that you have detailed out
for your organization:

Set Your Goals
• Consider the client’s research objectives and
define those that identify with yours and plan a
strategy once you obtain the information.
• Make sure that your goals objectives smart do
not presume their result, and define them
intelligently and make sure you set achievable
targets, smart goals, and objectives.

Plan Your Research
:
• Good planning allows the use of creative and
logical approaches to select the research
methods that gather the information.
• Your plan will be influenced by the type and
complexity of the information you need, the skills
of your market research team, and how soon
you need the information and your budget.
• Make an adequate strategic planning for
your market research.

Contd…
• Identify your list of questions and decide on the
research methods that will best achieve your
goals. Detail your research approach and some
initial idea of how you will classify and analyze
the data.

Collect and collate your
results
• Make a list of how you are going to carry out the
research process, the data you need to collect
and collection methods. This will help you keep
track of your research processes and make
sense of your findings. It will also allow you to
verify that your research accurately reflects the
opinions of your clients.

Contd….
• Remember, research is only valuable and useful
when it is valid, accurate and reliable. Relying
on imperfect research is dangerous; incorrect
results can lead to customer churn and a
decrease in sales.

Analyze and Understand Your
Research
• The analysis of the data can vary from simple
and direct steps to technical and complex
processes.
• Adopt an approach, and choose the method
of data analysis based on the research
methods you have carried out.

Keep the Findings Ready
• Choose a spreadsheet that allows you to easily
enter your data.
• If you do not have a large amount of data, you
should be able to manage them with the use of
basic tools available in the software.
• If you have collected more complete and
complex data, you may have to consider using
specific programs or tools that will help you
manage your data.

Review and Interpret the Information
to Draw Conclusions
• Once you have gathered all the data, you can
scan your information and interpret it to draw
conclusions and make informed decisions. You
should review the data and then:
• Identify the main trends and issues,
opportunities and problems you observe, and
write a sentence about each one
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of
the main findings appears.

Contd…
• Make a list of your findings from the most
common to the least common
• Evaluate and perform separately a list of the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats that have been identified in a SWOT
analysis.
• Preparation of conclusions and
recommendations about your research.

CODE: ENGL 4145
Session: 23-25

• Comparative analysis: Difference between
Qualitative and Quantitative Research.

Difference between Qualitative and
• Research is the most widely used tool to
increase and brush-up the stock of knowledge
about something and someone.
• In the field of marketing, business, sociology,
psychology, science & technology, economics,
etc. there are two standard ways of conducting
research, i.e. qualitative research or quantitative
research.

Contd…
• While the qualitative research relies on verbal
narrative like spoken or written data,
the quantitative research uses logical or
statistical observations to draw conclusions.

Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR COMPARISON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Meaning Qualitative research is a method of inquiry
that develops understanding on human
and social sciences, to find the way people
think and feel.
Quantitative research is a research method
that is used to generate numerical data
and hard facts, by employing statistical,
logical and mathematical technique.
Nature Holistic Particularistic
Approach Subjective Objective
Research type Exploratory Conclusive
Reasoning Inductive Deductive
Sampling Purposive Random
Data Verbal Measurable
Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented
Hypothesis Generated Tested
Elements of analysis Words, pictures and objects Numerical data
Objective To explore and discover ideas used in the
ongoing processes.
To examine cause and effect relationship
between variables.
Methods Non-structured techniques like In-depth
interviews, group discussions etc.
Structured techniques such as surveys,
questionnaires and observations.
Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action

Key Differences between Qualitative And
• The differences between qualitative and
quantitative research are provided can be drawn
clearly on the next grounds:

Contd…
• Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that
develops understanding on human and social
sciences, to find the way people think and feel.
• A scientific and empirical research method that
is used to generate numerical data, by
employing statistical, logical and mathematical
technique is called quantitative research.
• Qualitative research is holistic in nature while
quantitative research is particularistic.

Contd
• The qualitative research follows a subjective
approach as the researcher is intimately
involved, whereas the approach of quantitative
research is objective, as the researcher is
uninvolved and attempts to precise the
observations and analysis on the topic to answer
the inquiry.
• Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed
to quantitative research which is conclusive.

Contd…
• The reasoning used to synthesise data in
qualitative research is inductive whereas in the
case of quantitative research the reasoning is
deductive.

Contd…
• Qualitative research is based on purposive
sampling, where a small sample size is selected
with a view to get a thorough understanding of
the target concept.
• On the other hand, quantitative research relies
on random sampling; wherein a large
representative sample is chosen in order to
extrapolate the results to the whole population.

Contd…
• Verbal data are collected in qualitative research.
Conversely, in quantitative research measurable
data is gathered.
• Inquiry in qualitative research is a process-
oriented, which is not in the case of quantitative
research.

Contd…
• Elements used in the analysis of qualitative
research are words, pictures, and objects while
that of quantitative research is numerical data.
• Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim
of exploring and discovering ideas used in the
ongoing processes.
• As opposed to quantitative research the purpose
is to examine cause and effect relationship
between variables.

Contd…
• Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research
are in-depth interviews, focus groups, etc. In
contrast, the methods of conducting quantitative
research are structured interviews and
observations.
• Qualitative Research develops the initial
understanding whereas quantitative research
recommends a final course of action.

CODE: ENGL 4145
Session: 26-28

• Identifying the Research Problem.

Identifying the Research Problem
• The research problem is the heart of a study.
• It is a clear, definite statement of the area of
concern or investigation and is backed by
evidence (Bryman, 2007).

Contd…
• It drives the research questions and processes
and provides the framework for understanding
the research findings.
• To begin, you will need to know where to look for
your research problem and how to evaluate
when a research problem for success.

Where to Find a Research Problem?
• Ideas for research problems tend to come from
two sources: real life and the scholarly arena.
• First, identifying a research problem can be as
simple as observing the complications and
issues in your local workplace.

Contd…
• You may encounter ongoing issues on a daily
basis in your workplace or observe your
colleagues struggle with major issues or
questions in your field.
• These ongoing obstacles and issues in the
workplace can be the catalyst for developing a
research problem.

Contd…
• Alternatively, research problems can be
identified by reviewing recent literature, reports,
or databases in your field.
• Often the section of “recommendations for the
future studies” provided at the end of journal
articles or doctoral dissertations suggest
potential research problems.

Contd…
• In addition, major reports and databases in the
field may reveal findings or data-based facts that
call for additional investigation or suggest
potential issues to be addressed.
• Looking at what theories need to be tested is
another opportunity to develop a research
problem.

How to Evaluate a Research Problem?
• Once you find your potential research problem,
you will need to evaluate the problem and
ensure that it is appropriate for research.
• A research problem is deemed appropriate
when it is supported by the literature, and
considered significant, timely, novel, specific,
and researchable.
• Stronger research problems are more likely to
succeed in publication, presentation, and
application.

Supported by the Literature
• Your research problem should be relevant to the
field and supported by a number of recent peer-
reviewed studies in the field.
• Even if you identify the problem based on the
recommendation of one journal article or
dissertation, you will still need to conduct a
literature search and ensure that other
researchers support the problem and need for
conducting research to further address the
problem.

Significant
• Your research problem should have a positive
impact on the field.
• The impact can be practical, in the form of direct
application of the results in the field, or
conceptual, where the work advances the field
by filling a knowledge gap.

Novel
• Your research problem should be original and
unique.
• It should seek to address a gap in our
knowledge or application.
• An exhaustive review of literature can help you
identify whether the problem has already been
addressed with your particular sample and/or
context.

Contd…
• Talking to experts in the research area can
illuminate a problem.
• Replication of an existing study warrants
discussion of value elsewhere, but novelty can
be found in determining if an already-resolved
problem holds in a new sample and/or context.

Specific and Clear
• Your research problem should be specific
enough to set the direction of the study, raise
research question(s), and determine an
appropriate research method and design.
• Vague research problems may not be useful to
specify the direction of the study or develop
research questions.

Researchable
• Research problems are solved through the
scientific method.
• This means research-ability, or feasibility of the
problem, is more important than all of the above
characteristics.
• You as the researcher should be able to solve
the problem with your abilities and available
research methods, designs, research sites,
resources, and timeframe.

Contd…
• If a research problem retains all of
aforementioned characteristics but it is not
researchable, it may not be an appropriate
research problem.

CODE: ENGL 4145
Session: 29-31

• Literature Review.

Literature Review as Sources of
Information and its Procedure
• Any research, no matter at what scale, requires
reading about what other people have done in
the area of your interest, how they have done it,
and what are the gaps in the research in that
area.
• Any new production of knowledge is necessarily
based on previous and existing knowledge.

Contd…
• You need information to support or refute your
arguments and write about your findings.
• You need to provide evidence that you are
aware of the current trends and issues in your
area of interest and are cognizant of the current
state of knowledge on the subject.
• Ideally this reading should form the basis for
choosing your research methodology.

Contd…
• Moreover, every new article/book you read will
have a cumulative effect on the existing body of
knowledge in your mind, pushing you to
reinterpret or rethink some of your previous
assumptions or ideas.
• But there is a limit to the changes you can make
in your literature review.

Contd…
• The best way is to prepare a first draft and then
polish it at the stage of data interpretation when
you will be reading your literature review again
to present your analysis in a coherent manner
with cross-references related to your literature
review.

Why Review Literature?
• Some reasons for including a literature review in
your research paper/thesis are:
1.
The basic reason for literature review is to
contextualize your research. Every academic
research project is related to a particular area
and is a link in a chain of similar research
taking place in the area.
This contextualization shows your awareness
of the work going on in your field and also
identifies the niche you wish to occupy.

Contd…
2.
It gives you ideas about how to classify and
present your data. When you read critically, you
can sees how writers explore the relationships
between facts and how facts and relationships
are explained.
Methods used by other writers may not be
suitable for your purposes, but they may give
you ideas about how you might categorize your
data.

Contd…
3.
Literature review helps you to distinguish what
has been done from what needs to be done and
how it should be done.
Readings in an area reveal gaps in the literature
and this fine tunes your research question and
subsequent research methods.

Contd…
4.
Literature review assists you to synthesize your
ideas and gain perspectives to look at your
research problem with different lens. Other
researchers may have looked at a similar issue
but from different angles.
This knowledge can fortify you to find your own
angle.

Sources of Literature Review
• One important question that new researchers
always ask is “Where do we find the material for
doing a literature review?”
• The next are the primary and secondary
sources for finding the material that you need to
read:

Contd…
• Articles in Journals
• Books
• Internet
• Research Reports
• Government Documents
• Abstracts
• Reviews
• Unpublished Theses
• Electronic Research Information Center/Social
Sciences Citation
• Index/Dissertation Abstracts Index

Managing the Literature
• The bibliography at the end of a recent article or
book can provide you with an adequate reading
list of most of the relevant material related to that
topic.
• Once the relevant literature has been located
and found through the sources suggested, the
next step is to manage it.

Contd…
• This requires efficient and selective reading.
Once you try locating the relevant literature, you
will discover that it is available in vast quantities.
• Now the primary task is to pick out the material
that is actually related and relevant to your
research area.

Contd…
• This requires you to be a proficient reader who
can get the gist of things quickly as you will have
to go through a lot of reading.
• In an article published in a journal, the first thing
to do is look at the abstract or summary of the
article.

Contd…
• This will give you an idea whether it is relevant
for you. In the case of a book you should look at
the list of contents, the blurb, the summaries
usually given at the end of the chapters and the
introduction.
• This will tell you quickly if any part is pertinent for
you.

Contd…
• The next step is to follow a clear system of
keeping track of your reading references.
• You need to create a management system that
will incorporate your sources with all relevant
details including a note about where you found
that article or book.

CODE: ENGL 4145
Session 32-33

• The Role of Theory.

Theory
• Theory is a model or framework for observation
and understanding, which shapes both what we
see and how we see it.
• Theory allows the researcher to make links
between the abstract and the concrete; the
theoretical and the empirical; thought statements
and observational statements etc.

Contd…
• Theory is a generalised statement that asserts a
connection between two or more types of
phenomena – any generalised explanatory
principle.
• Theory is a system of interconnected
abstractions or ideas that condenses and
organises knowledge about the world.
• Theory explains and predicts the relationship
between variables.

Contd…
• Theory guides research and organises its ideas. The
analogy of bricks lying around haphazardly in the
brickyard: ‘facts’ of different shapes and sizes have
no meaning unless they are drawn together in a
theoretical or conceptual framework.
• Theory becomes stronger as more supporting
evidence is gathered; and it provides a context for
predictions.
• Theory has the capacity to generate new research.
• Theory is empirically relevant and always tentative

Theories vs. hypotheses
• Hypotheses usually predicts the relationship
between two or more variables. Hypotheses are
more specific than theories. Multiple hypotheses
may relate to one theory. The theories that you
use in your research operates at different levels:
• Micro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at
the level of the individual or family environment
(e.g. psychology, frustration, aggression
hypothesis etc).

Contd…
• Meso-level theory seeks to explain the
interactions of micro-level organisations (e.g.
social institutions, communities etc).
• Macro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at
the level of large groups of people (e.g. ethnicity,
class, gender etc).

How to evaluate the quality of a
theory or explanation
• Is the theory logical and coherent?
• Does it fit the available data?
• Does it provide testable claims?
• Have the theory-based predictions been tested?
• Does the theory work better than rival theories or
explanations?
• Is it general enough to apply to more than one
place, situation, or person?

Contd…
• Can practitioners use it to control or influence
things in the world e.g:
• a good theory of teaching helps teachers to
positively influence students learning.
• a good theory of counselling helps counselors to
positively influence their clients’ mental health

Theory and research are interrelated
in the following ways:
• Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at
it.
• It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important
questions.
• It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data.
• Theory enables us to connect a single study to the
immense base of knowledge to which other researchers
contribute.
• It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a
single tree.
• Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of
interconnections and of the broader significance of data.

Contd…
• Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a
selective and one-sided account of the many-sided
concrete social world.
• Theory allows the researcher to make links between the
abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the
empirical, thought statements and observational
statements etc.

Contd…
• There is a two-way relationship between theory and
research. Social theory informs our understanding of
issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research
decisions and making sense of the world.
• Theory is not fixed; it is provisional, open to revision and
grows into more accurate and comprehensive
explanations about the make-up and operation of the
social world.

Deductive theory
• In a deductive approach, researchers use theory
to guide the design of a study and the
interpretation of results.
• As researchers continue to conduct empirical
research in testing a theory, they develop
confidence that some parts of it are true.

Contd…
• Researchers may modify some propositions of a
theory or reject them if several well-conducted
studies have negative findings.
• A theory’s core propositions and central tenets
are more difficult to test and are refuted less
often.
• In a slow process, researchers may decide to
abandon or change a theory as the evidence
against it mounts over time and cannot be
logically reconciled.

Inductive theory
• Inductive theorising begins with a few
assumptions and broad orienting concepts.
Theory develops from the ground up as the
researchers gather and analyse the data.

Contd…
• Theory emerges slowly, concept by concept, and
proposition by proposition, in a specific area.
• Over time, the concepts and empirical
generalisations emerge and mature. Soon,
relationships become visible and researchers weave
knowledge from different studies into more abstract
theory.
• Empirical generalizations posit the most basic
relationship between concepts: e.g. ‘most people I
know who drive small Japanese cars are under 30
years of age’.

Rm17 45 1-151

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