Research Methodology

The Research Methodology
© 2023 Sasidharan Murugan IND, Inc. All rights reserved.

Purposes of Research
 Exploration
 Gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some of its
main dimensions, and possibly planning more structured
research
 Description
 Census Bureau’s report on number of pupils
 Political poll predicting who will win an election
 Anthropologist’s ethnographic account of a preliterate tribe
 Explanation
 Take it one step further

Research ‘Musts’
 Problem must be clearly recognized
 Determine information already available and what
further information is required, as well as the best
approach for obtaining it
 Obtain and assess information objectively to help
inform the decision

‘Six’ Phases of Research
1. Problem definition
2. Literature review
3. Selection of research design, subjects, and data
collection techniques
4. Data gathering
5. Data processing and analysis
6. Implications, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Problem Definition
 Describe broader context (background)
 State the objectives or purposes
 Inform reader about the scope of the study,
including defining any terms, limitations, or
restrictions
 Reduces potential criticisms
 State the hypothesis (es)

Literature Review
 Gives theoretical rationale of problem being studied, what
research has been done and how it relates to the problem
 Helpful to divide the literature into sub-topics for ease of
reading
 Quality of literature should be assessed
 Be sure to include well respected ‘individuals’ in the
research area (if they exist)

Selection of Research Design
 The research design indicates the steps that will
need to be take and the sequence they will occur
 Each design can rely on one ore more data
collection technique
 Assess reliability and validity
 Critical consideration in determining methodology
is the selection of subjects

Data Gathering
 Must pretest
 Design the sampling scheme
 Questionnaires must be coded

Data processing and analysis
 Describe demographics of the data
 Compare behavior (if applicable)
 Choose appropriate statistical technique (if applicable)
 Look for patterns in data (if applicable)

Interpreting the Results
 Make sure to consider the audience
 Discuss implications for the population of
interest and future research

Operational Definitions
 Variables first defined by conceptual definitions
that explain the concept the variable is trying to
capture
 Variables then defined by operational definitions
which are definitions for how variable will be
measured

Language of Sampling
 Population: entire collection of people/things
 Parameter: # that results from measuring all units in
population
 Sampling frame: specific data from which sample is drawn
 Unit of analysis: type of object of interest
 Sample: a subset of some of the units in the population
 Statistic: # that results from measuring all units in the sample

Unit of Analysis
 Major entity you are analyzing in your study
 It is the type of object that makes up each data point
 Individuals
 Artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)
 Geographical units
 Social interactions

Unit of Analysis Error
 In some studies people are allocated in groups, rather
than individually. When this is done, the unit of
allocation is different from the unit of analysis
(usually).
 This is sometimes called a unit of analysis error.
 It can result in studies having narrower confidence
intervals and receiving more weight than is appropriate.

Independent and Dependent Variables
 independent variable is what
is manipulated
 a treatment or program or
cause
 ‘Factor’
 dependent variable is what is
affected by the independent
variable
 effects or outcomes
 ‘Measure’

Research Design and Methodology
 In general, a research design is like a blueprint for
the research.
 Research Methodology concerns how the design is
implemented, how the research is carried out.

A few designs
 Cross-Sectional Design
 Longitudinal Design
 Time Series Design
 Panel Design

Cross-Sectional Design
 A cross-sectional design is used for research that collects
data on relevant variables one time only from a variety of
people, subjects, or phenomena.
 A cross-sectional designs provides a snapshot of the
variables included in the study, at one particular point in
time.
 Cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques
to gather data, for example, the Indian Census.

 Advantages: data on many variables, data from a large
number of subjects, data from dispersed subjects, data on
attitudes and behaviors, good for exploratory research,
generates hypotheses for future research, data useful to
many different researchers
 Disadvantages: increased chances of error, increased cost
with more subjects and each location, cannot measure
change, cannot establish cause and effect, no control of
independent variable, difficult to rule out rival hypotheses,
static

Longitudinal Designs
 A longitudinal design collects data over long periods of
time.
 Measurements are taken on each variable over two or
more distinct time periods.
 This allows the researcher to measure change in variables
over time.

Time Series Design
 A Time Series Design collects data on the same
variable at regular intervals in the form of aggregate
measures of a population.
 Time series designs are useful for:
 establishing a baseline measure
 describing changes over time
 keeping track of trends
 forecasting future (short term) trends

 Advantages: data easy to collect, easy to present in graphs,
easy to interpret, can forecast short term trends
 Disadvantages: data collection method may change over
time, difficult to show more than one variable at a
time, needs qualitative research to explain fluctuations,
assumes present trends will continue unchanged

Data Collection Methods

What is DATA?????
 Data are simply units of information.
 Data are measured, collected, reported, analyzed, and used to create
data visualizations such as graphs, tables or Images.
Data are the set of values of qualitative or
quantitative variables about one or more persons
or objects.

Quantitative Data (Numerical)
 Data refers to measurable observations.
 Examples-

Qualitative Data (categorial)
 Qualitative data is the data that can be arranged into categories
based on physical traits, gender, colors or anything that does not have
a number associated with it.
 Qualitative-involves more details tells you why, when and how!
 Examples-

What is Data Collection?
It is the process by which the
researcher collects the information
needed to answer the research
problem.
The task of data collection begins
after a research problem has been
defined.

In collecting the data,the researcher must decide:
Which data is to collect?
How to collect the Data?
Who will collect the Data?
When to collect the Data?

The Purpose of Data Collection

Methods of Data Collection
Essentialy Two Types:
PRIMARY DATA
Primary data are those which are collected for
the first time and are original in character.
SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data are those which have already
been collected-by someone else.

Primary Data v/s Secondary Data

Methods of Collecting Primary Data
• Observation
• Surveys
• Interviews
• Questionnaires
• Schedules
Primary
Data may
be
collected
through:

1. Observation Method
Observation method is a method under which data
from the field is collected with the help of
observation by the observer or by personally going to
the field.

Steps ForAn Effective Observation
Determine what needs to be observed
Select participants
Random/Selected
Conduct the observation
(venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs )
Compile data collected Analyze and
interpret data collected

Types of OBSERVATION Methods
1- Structured Observation
When the observation is characterized by a careful definition
of the units to be observed (predefined), the style of recording the
observed information, standardized conditions of observation and
the selection of related data of observation.
2- Unstructured Observation
When it takes place without the above characteristics.
(Not predefined)

3- Participant Observation
When the observer is member of the group which he is observing
then it is Participant Observation.
4- Non-Participant Observation
When the observer is not the member of the group which he is
observing then it is Non-Participant Observation.
observer is observing people without giving any information to
them then it is Non-Paricipant Observation.

5- Uncontrolled Observation
When the observation takes place in natural contition i.e.,
uncontrolled observation.It is done to get spontaneous picture of life
and persons.
6- Controlled Observation
When observation takes place according to pre-arranged plans,
with experimental procedure then it is controlled observation generally
done in laboratory under controlled condition.

Advantages of observation Method
Produces Large quantities of data.
All data obtained from observations are usable.
The observation technique can be stopped or begun at any time.
Relatively Inexpensive

disadvantages of observation Method
Interviewing selected subjects may provide more
information, economically, than waiting for the
spontaneous occurrence of the situation.
Limited information
Extensive Training is needed.

ONE OF THE WIDELY USED RESEARCH
DESIGN TO COLLECT DATA IS
SURVEYS

How to collect Primary information through survey
 A researcher can collect information
either
by observation
OR
by asking.
 WHEN HE/SHE ASKS FOR INFORMATION, WE SAY THAT
HE/SHE IS CONDUCTING A SURVEY.

2. SURVEY Method
 A ‘survey’ is a technique of gathering information by questioning those
individuals who are the object of the research belong to a representative
sample, through standardized or questioning procedure, with the aim of
studying the relationship among the variables and/or collecting
information that probably describe the whole population.

There may be different
ways to conduct surveys…
In-Home Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
E-mail Internet
Survey
Methods
Telephonic
Survey
Personal Electronic

3.Interview Method
The Interview Method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral- verbal responses.
where the questions are asked personally directly to
the respondent.
Interviewer asks questions to respondent. (which
are aimed to get information required for study)

 Prepare interview schedule
 Select subjects/ key Respondent Conduct the interview
 Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview
StepsForAn EffectiveInterview

Types of Interview Methods
1- Structured Interviews :
In this case, a set of predecided questions are there.
2- Unstructured Interviews :
In this case, we don’t follow a system of pre-determined questions.

3- Focused Group Interview
 Unstructured and Free flowing
 Focus Group has one Moderator
 Moderator maintains control and focuses
discussion
 It involves 6 to 10 people
 Group interview start with broad topic
and focus in on specific issues
 Relatively homogeneous
 Similar lifestyles and experiences
 Generate discussion and interaction
 Listens to what people have to say
 Everyone gets a chance to speak

4- Clinical Interviews :
• Information is generated and utilized at every step this process including the
activities of investigation, observation, monitoring, diagnosis, planning, treatment
and review.
• They also record their plans, orders, procedures performed, observations, test
results, opinions and discussions.
5- Group Interviews :
It is done in a group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.

6- Qualitative and quantitative Interviews :
It is divided on the basis of subject matter i.e., whether
qualitative or quantitative.
7- Individual Interviews :
Interviewer meets a single person and interviews him.
8- Selection Interviews :
Done for selection of people for certain Jobs.

Advantages of Interview Method
More information at greater
depth can be obtained
Resistance may be overcome
by a skilled interviewer
Personal information can be
obtained

disadvantages of Interview Method
It is an expensive Method
Interviewer bias
Respondent bias
Time consuming

4.Questionnaires
The term “questionnaire” refers to an instrument for
the collection of data, usually in written form,
consisting of open/closed questions and other
enquiries requiring a response from subjects.
A Questionnaire is sent ( by post or by mail ) to the persons concerned with
a request to answer the questions and return the Questionnaire.
A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite
order on a form.

Steps ForAn Effective Questionnaire
Prepare questions
(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies)
Select your respondents
Random/Selected
Administer the questionnaire
(date, venue, time )
Tabulate data collected Analyze and interpret data collected

Types of Questionnaire Methods
1- Open-ended questions
This gives the respondents the ability to respond in their own
words.
2- Close-ended or fixed alternative questions
This allows the respondents to choose one of the given
alternatives.
Types:- Dichotomous questions and Multiple Questions.

Essentials of Good Questionnaire
Should be short and simple
Follow a sequence of questions from easy to difficult one
Technical terms should be avoided
Should provide adequate space for answers in questionnaire
Directions regarding filling of questionnaire should be given
Physical Appearance – Quality of paper, Color
Sequence must be clear

advantages of questionnaire Method
Low cost –even when the universe is large and is widespread
Free from interviewer bias
Responddents have adequate time to think through the answers.
Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
Large samples can be used

disadvantages of questionnaire Method
Time consuming
The respondents need to be educated and cooperative
This method is slow
Possibility of unclear replies.

5. Schedules
Very similar to Questionnaire method
The main difference is that a schedule is filled by
the enumerator who is specially appointed for
the purpose.
Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks
them the questions from the Questionnaire in
the order listed, and records the responses
in the space provided.
Enumerator must be trained in administering the
schedule.

Questionnaire Vs. Schedule
Questionnaire
Q generally send to through mail
and no further assistance from
sender.
Q is cheaper method.
Non response is high.
In questionnaire, it is not confirmed
that expected respondent have filled
the answers.
Schedule
Schedule is filled by the
enumerator or research
worker.
Costly requires field
workers.
Nonresponse is low.
In schedule identity of
person is known.

Questionnaire
Very slow method.
Incomplete and wrong
Information is more.
No personal contacts.
Depends on the quality of
questionnaire.
Q can used only when respondent
is educated and well cooperative.
Schedule
Information is collected well on
time.
Depends on Honesty of the
enumerator.
Direct personal contacts.
Relatively more correct and
complete.
Information can be collected from
illiterates also.
Questionnaire Vs. Schedule

Secondary Data Collection Methods
• Data gathered and recorded by someone else.
• Secondary data is data that has been collected for another
purpose.
• It involves less cost, time and effort.
• Secondary data is data that is being reused. Usually in a
different context.
• For example: data from a book.

SOURCES of secondary data collection
INTERNAL SOURCES
Internal sources of secondary data are usually for
marketing application-
 Sales Records
 Marketing Activity
 Cost Information
 Distributor reports and feedback
 Customer feedback

EXTERNAL SOURCES
External sources of secondary data
 Journals
 Books
 Magazines
 Newspaper
 Libraries
 The Internet

 Other Sources of secondary data collection:
• Publications of Central, state , local government
• Technical and trade journals
• Books, Magazines, Newspaper
• Reports & publications of industry ,bank, stock
exchange
• Reports by research scholars, Universities,
economist
• Public Records
SecondaryData Sources

• Reliability of data - Who, when , which methods, at what time etc. must
be investigated.
• Suitability of data – Object ,scope, and nature of original inquiry should
be studied, as if the study was with different objective, then that data is
not suitable for current study
• Adequacy of data– Level of accuracy, • Area differences then data is not
adequate for study
Factorsto be considered before using secondarydata

 Nature ,Scope and object of inquiry
 Availability of Funds
 Time Factor
 Accuracy Required
Selectionof properMethod for collection of Data

advantages of secondary data Method

disadvantages of secondary data Method

To be Continued ....
THANK YOU ALL

Panel Designs
 Panel Designs collect repeated measurements from the same
people or subjects over time.
 Panel studies reveal changes at the individual level.
 Advantages: reveals individual level changes, establishes time order of
variables, can show how relationships emerge
 Disadvantages: difficult to obtain initial sample of subjects, difficult to
keep the same subjects over time, repeated measures may influence
subjects behavior

Research Methodology

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