This document summarizes key aspects of different types of scales used in research methodology. It discusses nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. For nominal scales, it describes how they are used for classification but cannot determine distances between categories. Ordinal scales allow ranking or ordering but do not assume equal distances between ranks. Interval scales assume equidistant points between scale elements and are useful for calculating differences and performing statistical analyses. Questionnaires can employ different scale types to reliably measure social cognition and manage unpredictable factors in decision making.

1. Research Methodology
Debdulal Dutta Roy, Ph.D.
Psychology Research Unit
INDIAN STATISTICAL INSTITUTE
Kolkata – 700108
Venue: Indian Institute of Management, Calcutta

2.  In his book “The Third Wave”,
Alvin Toffler warned – Things are
going to happen much faster in
the future and only those who will
keep up with the fast pace will
stay alive in the 21st
century.
 The question arises – how are we
going to move with the fast pace?
Is it through random fashion or
through planned goal setting? . If
we want to follow random
fashion, social conflict will be
high. Therefore, attention should
be paid to planned goal setting
and stringent control over our
movement.

3.  Planned goal setting demands assessment of
existing needs, values and attitudes (social
cognition) of people in society initially so that
planned intervention can be made.
 Questionnaire provides in-depth information
about social cognition. It gives us knowledge
with much consistency about specific
dimensions on which individual in society
perceives the social change.

4. Modern enterprise is not
limited at the local
and state level only,
it is now running at
the international
and transnational
market. One potato
grower can export
potato to other
countries without
moving here and
there. He can do it in
the virtual
environment or E-
market.StructuredStructured
StateState
InternationalInternational
TransnationalTransnational
Non virtualNon virtual
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UnstructuredUnstructured
LocalLocal
VirtualVirtual
Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.
Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.

5.  One Vice-Chancellor has planned
to start dual professorship in
semester examination in order to
increase depth of knowledge of
the students. The intervening
components in this planning are
belief systems of faculty, rules and
regulations, installation of new
cell for searching resource persons
from other universities and
allocation of financial resources
Structure Technology
CultureCulture
Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of Management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.
Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of Management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.

6. Each decision includes
several sub decisions.
In considering the
similar properties of
sub decisions, they
form certain clusters.
The cluster is not as
same as decision
maker assumes.
Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.
Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.

7.  Questionnaire is a device that
gauges all the factors
contributing to management
decisions.
 It assists managers to explore
unpredictable things, to partial
out the intervening factors and
to group several components of
management decisions.
 It provides reliable and result
oriented data when managers
use it in different experimental
and survey design of research
Decision MeasuresDecision Measures
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Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of Management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.

8. Scale is the continuum having graded series of numerical values. It has start and end
points. Start and end points are determined by researcher.
The changes in the scale are graded series, therefore, it is systematic in nature. It has
numerical values so it can be used for measurement. Example is thermometer,
weight machine.
Scaling follows principles of maximization and minimization.
Maximization principle asserts wide variation of response categories like five or
seven point response scales. To understand extent of happiness, researcher can
use five point response scales like very happy, happy, undecided, less happy and
least happy.
Minimization Principle: Sometimes, respondent can not make discrimination
between very happy and happy due to low intelligence, depression etc. In this
case, researcher can minimize number of response categories like happy and
unhappy..

10.  Definition: It is a system of assigning number symbols for labeling.
Discrimination: Assigned numbers should make adequate discrimination between the
labels. In EPQ, Items measuring psychoticism do not overlap with items measuring
neuroticism. Non-overlapping enhances good discrimination power of the questionnaire.
Discrimination principle asserts unequal identity or dissimilar properties in the object or
event.
 Equality: In Nominal Scale, only rule for assigning numbers is that all members of any class
shall have the same number and that no two classes shall be assigned the same numbers.
This rule accepts principles of equality. Equality principle asserts that each object or event
must have same identity. For example, girls with different heights have common property,
i.e. they all are girls. Therefore all girl respondents are assigned ‘2’.
INSTRUCTION: Instruction of nominal scale includes how to label the response. For
example, put tick mark over 1 if you are boy and over 2 if you are girl.
 ITEM STEM: Item stem asks for label.
Examples:
a) Are you boy or girl? Boy=1, Girl=2.
b) What is your religion? Hindu=1, Islam=2, Christian=3.
c) What is your Caste? S.T=1, S.C=2, O.B.C=3, General=4.

11.  STATISTICS: Frequency and percentage are common descriptive statistics. Chi-square can
be used for drawing inferences. Variables with nominal scale can be used as explanatory or
independent variables in t-statistics. By adding frequency of similar response, score can be
computed. For example, there are 20 items in the questionnaire, out of them 10 items with
'yes' response measure neuroticism. The questionnaire has been administered to patient
suffering from General anxiety disorder. It is noted all the 10 items receive 'yes' response.
So the score is 10. Extent of score variation indicates extent of neuroticism. Based on score,
distance in traits between individuals can be possible but not between the nominal
categories. Distance between Yes, No categories of two items can not be determined.
 Advantages:
a) Nominal scale is useful for classification or categorization.
b) It is more flexible. According to hypothesis, numerical values can be assigned.
c) Nominal scale is used as explanatory variable.
 Disadvantages:
a) Nominal scale has no metric properties therefore many parametric statistics requiring
continuous distribution can not be determined through nominal scale.
b) It requires different statistical conversation techniques to make it continuous.

12.  Nominal scale can not order the events. It can label the event but can not estimate
successive occurrence of events.
 Ordinal Scale assigns numerals or rank value following principles of successive
categories. These principles make discrimination among the set of objects in terms
of preference. A set of students can be ordered in terms of academic performance.
A set of sportsmen can be ordered in terms of sports performance.
 Order can be made in the form of ascending like first, second, third or descending
order like third, second and first.
 When two students get same marks, their orders will be same. It is called paired
order or tied. Tied orders are averaged and next order occurs after the last order.
For example, 3 events possess equal ranks say 3. Then each event will get 3, 4, 5
ranks and the average will be 4. Next event will start from 6.
 Ordinal scale does not assume equal distance between orders. Distance between
1st and 2nd is not equal to distance between 3rd and 4th. This is the disadvantage
of the ordinal scale.
 Advantage of the ordinal scale is it's flexibility. One can follow both ascending and
descending orders.

13.  Instruction: Instruction of ordinal scale includes how to arrange the events in ascending or
descending order.
 Item stem : Item stem includes the issue or event and it's operational definition.
 Statistics : When data are arranged in order, frequency, percentage statistics are used like
nominal scale. One can estimate which event has received first or second rank by analysis of
frequency. One can use median when data are arranged with rank values. Most of the non-
parametric statistics follow ordinal scale or ranks. Rank order correlation is widely used
statistics when one is interested to determine coefficient of correlation in small sample
distribution.
 Advantages:
a) Ordinal scale is useful to arrange the objects in ascending or descending order.
b) Median value can be estimated through ordinal scale.
c) Relative preference of the object can be determined with ordinal scale.
d) Several non-parametric statistics use ordinal scale.
 Disadvantages:
a) Like, nominal scale, it has limited use in statistics as it does not follow equidistant.
b) It can not be scored.

14.  In ordinal scale one can not make any subtraction or addition to classify the person, object
or event. For example, second rank student can not be subtracted from first rank student to
find out difference in performance between two ranked persons.
 Another problem in rank order scale, equidistance assumption can not be made. We can not
assume rank difference between 1 and 2 is equal to same between 2 and 3.
 But interval scale assumes equidistant points between each of the scale elements. The
widely used summated rating scale or Likert type rating scale is interval scale.
 It has properties of metric scale in terms of the extent of differences in response. It is
assumed that response difference is equidistant. Some researchers call it as quassi
continuous scale as middle response category appears to be neutral.
 Some researchers argue that this is categorical scale as they merely consider the numerical
values. Therefore, we can interpret differences in the distance along the scale.
 We contrast this to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences in order, not
differences in the degree of order. Any parametric statistics are useful to analyze the item
data.
 Instruction: Instruction of ordinal scale includes how to rank. But interval scale includes how
to rate the response categories. Interval scale follows maximization principles. Response
categories are more and equidistant. Numerals are assigned to different ratings. Widely
used ratings are strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree.

15.  Item-stem : It can be both affirmative and interrogative. To assess one's happiness, item
stem may be how much happy are you ? Or I feel happy always. It must be remembered
that response categories should not be in the item stem. In earlier example on 'I feel happy
always', response categories should not include the text 'always' rather it can be strongly
agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. Item stem and response categories will be framed
in such a manner so that data distribution will not be skewed.
 Statistics: Interval scale follows equidistant principles, so any parametric statistics can be
used.
 Advantages:
a) Interval scale follows equidistant principles, so any parametric statistics can be used.
b) It can be scored.
c) it can be classified into groups by cut-off points.
 Disadvantages:
a) Interval scale has undecided point. This violates continuity.
b) It does not have neutral point like ratio scale.

16.  Interval scale measures single dimension of variable across graded series. One's feeling of
both happiness and unhappiness can be assessed by interval scale using two separate scales
measuring happiness and unhappiness separately.
 Advantage of ratio scale is to assess both feeling of happiness and unhappiness
simultaneously. For example, watching black cloud, farmers sometimes feel pleasant and
sometimes feel unpleasant.
 Ratio scale is composed of two bi-polar adjectives. One adjective will be extremely opposite
of another. For example, strong and weak, good and bad, active and lazy. This scale is often
called as semantic differential scale as meaning of object or event is differentiated
semantically with opposite adjectives. As per hypothesis, rating value is assigned to the
adjective. Strong, good and active are assigned +3 and weak, bad and lazy are given -3
rating. So two opposite adjectives are located at two opposite poles of neutral point or 0.
Other grades like -1,-2 are located between 0 and -3. Similarly, +1 and +2 are located
between 0 and 3. So, final scale to assess strong and weak dimension will be +3, +2, +1, 0,-
1,-2,-3. So, there are two interval scales ranging from +1 to +3 and from -1 to -3. Respondent
assumes +3 as very strong, +2 as strong. Likewise, -3 as very weak, -2 as weak. And 0 is
conceived as neutral. Here zero stands for neither more nor less than none of the property
represented by the scale.

17.  Instruction: Instruction includes systematic rating from 0 to -3 or from 0 to +3. As there is no label from 0 to +3 or from 0
to -3, respondent can assign own label following direction of adjectives. For example, instead of very strong, respondent
can think of very much strong.
 Item-stem: Bi-polar adjectives
 Scoring: Before scoring, researcher first assumes meaning of high score. For example, +3 is highest score and -3 is lowest.
Then +3 will be replaced by 7 and -3 will be replaced by 1. 0 will be replaced by 4. So, highest score will be 7 and lowest
score will be 1.
Statistics: Like interval scale, any parametric and non-parametric statistics can be used with ratio scale.
 Advantages:
a) Ratio scale can assess one object with bi-polar adjectives simultaneously.
b) Like normal probability curve, ratio scale assumes bi-polarity. It has zero like normal probability distribution. And the
successive gradation from 0 to +3 or -3 is equidistant. Therefore, it can be used in any parametric statistics.
c) It is less time consuming for data collection.
d) It can assess different dimensions of one object simultaneously. Osgood has noted three opposite dimensions using
ratio scale.
 Disadvantages:
a)Theoretically, one can not say that attributes of satisfaction are opposite of dissatisfaction. Herzberg has proved that
attributes of job satisfaction is not opposite of the same for assessing job dissatisfaction. Therefore, use of bi-polar
adjectives for assessing one event can not provide sufficient information.
b) It is complex to score as rating values during data collection are replaced by another value during scoring.
c) No event can be neutral, therefore considering 0 value as neutral is not meaningful.

18.  Control measures depend on
demographic, psychological and
situational conditions of the
respondents.
 Demographics: Age, Education;
 Psychological : Cognitive
functions (attention,
Comprehension, attitude);
 Situational: Time, Place.
Lecture note of D. Dutta Roy on Scale Construction, presented at the
Indian Institute of Management, Kolkata, 21.4.2015.

19. 1. Do you feel same like before? (R)
2. Do you get no time for leisure ? (R)
3. Do you get nothing in your life ?
4. Do you feel happy like before ? ( R )
5. Do you feel meaningless feeling in life ?
6. Do you feel tasteless ?
7. Do you feel no burden in other’s life ? ( R )
8. Do you have no disturbances in sleep ? (R )
9. Do you pray to the God for relief ?
10. Do you feel alone ?
11. Do you feel pleasant with others ? (R )
12. Do you feel restless ?
13. Do you feel that you are always with others ?
( R )
14. Do you feel that this period is best in life ? ( R )
15. Do you want to die ?
 Uni-Dimensional ;
 Reverse items;
 High individual
differences;
 High internal
consistency.

20.  Instruction: This questionnaire measures what is
important in your life or values. Below are the 2 sets of
values. Each set consists 14 values in life. The values are in
alphabetical order. Each value is accompanied by a short
description and a blank space. Your goal is to rank each
value in its order of importance to you for each of the two
sets. Study each set and think of how much each value
may act as a guiding principle in your life.
 To begin, select the value that is of most importance to
you. Write the number 1 in the blank space next to that
value. Next, choose the value is of second in importance to
you and write the number 2 in the blank next to it. Work
your way through the list until you have ranked all 14
values of first set. The value that is of least importance to
you should appear in Box 14.
 When you have finished ranking all 14 values, go to 2nd list
and rank the next 14 values in the same way. Please do
each set separately.
 When ranking, take your time and think carefully. Feel free
to go back and change your order should you have second
thoughts about any of your answers. When you have
completed the ranking of both sets of values, the result
should represent an accurate picture of how you really feel
about what’s important in your life.
 SET - I
1. SELF-AWAKENING ( Imagining positive power or
energy )______
2. EMOTIONAL CONTROL(Controlling unwanted
emotion) ______
3. SYSTEMATIC (Following planned step) ______
4. SELF-INSULTING LESS (Not offending to self) ______
5. FEARLESS (Feeling of overcoming fear) ______
6. CLEANLINESS (Neat and tidy) ______
7. NO WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT (Maintaining balance
between family and work demand) ______
8. NISKAM PRINCIPLE (Working without expectation of
reward ) ______
9. CHALLENGING (Competing against one) ______
10. SELF-UNDERSTANDING- (Feedback to self about own
success and failure) ______
11. DOUBTLESS (Free from uncertainty in belief) ______
12. FREE FROM FEAR OF FAILURE (Free from anticipated
failure) ______
13. RESOLUTE (Determined in purpose) ______
14. ACTIVE (Avoiding laziness) ______

22. Graphic Rating Scale

23. Graphic Rating Scales
12-23

24. Itemized rating scale:
The itemized rating scale(also known as numerical
scale) presents a series of statements from which a
respondent selects one as best reflecting his
evaluation.
Suppose we wish to inquire as to how well does a
worker get along with his fellow workers?
In such a situation we may ask the respondent to
select one, to express his opinion, from the following:

25. He is almost always involved in some friction with a
fellow worker.
He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow
workers.
He sometimes gets involved in friction.
He infrequently becomes involved in friction with
others.
He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow
workers.

26. Selected Itemized Rating Scales
PURCHASE INTENT
Definitely Probably Probably will Definitely will
will buy will buy not buy not buy
LEVEL OF AGREEMENT
Strongly Somewhat Neither Somewhat Strongly
agree agree agree disagree disagree
nor
disagree

27. QUALITY
Very Good Neither good Fair Poor
Good nor bad
DEPENDABILITY
Completely Somewhat Not very Not dependable
Dependable dependable dependable at all
STYLE
Very Somewhat Not very Completely
stylish stylish stylish unstylish

28. SATISFACTION
Completely Somewhat Neither satisfied Somewhat Completely
Satisfied satisfied nor dissatisfied dissatisfied dissatisfied
COST
Extremely Expensive Neither expensive Slightly Very
Expensive nor inexpensive inexpensive inexpensive
EASE OF USE
Very easy Somewhat Not very easy Difficult to use
to use easy to use to use

29. COLOR BRIGHTNESS
Extremely Very Somewhat Slightly Not bright
Bright bright bright bright at all
MODERNITY
Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Very
Modern modern modern old-fashioned old-fashioned
nor
old-fashioned

30. Ranking Scales:
There are two generally used approaches of ranking
scales viz.,
 Method of paired comparisons
 Method of rank order
Method of paired comparisons:
Under it the respondent can express his attitude
by making a choice between two objects, say
between a new flavour of soft drinks and an
established brand of drink.

31. But when there are more than two stimuli to
judge, the number of judgements required in a
paired comparison is given by the formula:
N= n(n-1)
2
Where N=number of judgements
n=number of stimuli or objects to be judged.

32. Obtaining Shampoo Preferences
Using Paired Comparisons
Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of
shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two
brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use.
Recording Form: Jhirmack Finesse Vidal
Sassoon
Head &
Shoulders
Pert
Jhirmack 0 0 1 0
Finesse 1a
0 1 0
Vidal Sassoon 1 1 1 1
Head & Shoulders 0 0 0 0
Pert 1 1 0 1
Number of Times
Preferredb
3 2 0 4 1
a
A 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over
the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was
preferred over the column brand. b
The number of times a brand was preferred is
obtained by summing the 1s in each column.

33. Brand Rank Order
1. Crest _________
2. Colgate _________
3. Aim _________
4. Gleem _________
5. Macleans _________
6. Ultra Brite _________
7. Close Up _________
8. Pepsodent _________
9. Plus White _________
10. Stripe _________
Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order
Scaling
Form