Replicacion de ADN
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The document discusses DNA replication. It describes how DNA replication is semiconservative, with each parental DNA strand serving as a template to produce two new double-stranded DNA molecules. The key steps involve helicase unwinding the DNA, topoisomerase managing supercoils, single-stranded binding proteins coating the exposed strands, primase synthesizing RNA primers, and DNA polymerase extending the primers to replicate the new strands.
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Wobble hypothesis
The document discusses the wobble hypothesis in genetic coding. It begins with introducing genes and the genetic code. It then discusses the structure and properties of transfer RNA (tRNA), which transports amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. The wobble hypothesis proposes that the first nucleotide in the tRNA anticodon can bond weakly to more than one nucleotide in the messenger RNA codon. This allows a single tRNA to bind multiple codons and explains the redundancy in the genetic code. The document outlines the rules of wobble pairing and significance, specifically that it maximizes the genetic code while minimizing errors from codon misreading. In summary, the wobble hypothesis explains genetic code redundancy and versatility through loose bonding at
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The document discusses the wobble hypothesis and variations in genetic codes. It summarizes the wobble hypothesis proposed by Crick to explain the degeneracy of the genetic code through wobble base pairing between the third base of codons and first base of anticodons. This allows some tRNAs to bind to multiple codons. The document also discusses variations found in mitochondrial and ciliate protozoan genetic codes, where certain codons code for different amino acids than the standard genetic code or act as sense codons rather than stop codons.
biologia3
Johannes Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895) was a Swiss physician and biologist who was the first researcher to isolate and identify nucleic acid. He discovered that nucleic acid is a phosphate-nitrogenous base molecule that produces protons in water, making it an acid. The document discusses DNA and RNA nucleotides and bases, transcription, translation, genes, and proteins.
Wobble hypothesis
The document discusses the wobble hypothesis proposed by Francis Crick in 1966. The hypothesis explains how a single tRNA molecule can recognize multiple codons for an amino acid by allowing non-canonical "wobble" base pairing between the third base of the codon and first base of the tRNA anticodon. This wobble pairing means that more codons exist than the number of tRNA molecules, resolving the degeneracy of the genetic code. The relaxed base pairing rules at the third position of the codon-anticodon duplex are significant as they allow for broader tRNA specificity while maintaining translational accuracy.
Genetic code
1. The genetic code is deciphered through research that matched codons (three-nucleotide sequences in mRNA) to their corresponding amino acids. It was discovered that 61 codons code for specific amino acids while 3 are stop codons.
2. tRNA molecules carry specific amino acids and have anticodons that are complementary to mRNA codons, allowing the correct amino acid to be added to the growing polypeptide chain via the ribosome.
3. Translation is the process of protein synthesis, directed by the mRNA template, where tRNA molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome according to codon-anticodon base pairing. The amino acids are linked together through the joining of peptide bonds.
Genetic code
The sequence of nucleotides in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins. Though the linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA contains the information for protein sequences, proteins are not made directly from DNA. Instead, a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule is synthesized from the DNA and directs the formation of the protein. RNA is composed of four nucleotides: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil."(U)."
Wobble Code
The genetic code is degenerate, meaning many amino acids can be encoded by multiple codons. The third base in the codon, called the wobble position, is less discriminatory for amino acid matching than the first two bases. Certain tRNAs can recognize multiple codons due to wobble pairing between the third base of the codon and the first base of the anticodon. In particular, when the first base of the anticodon is inosine, it allows for wobble pairing with multiple third base options in the codon.
Replication
DNA replication is semi-conservative, as proved by the Meselson-Stahl experiment. It occurs during interphase and involves unwinding of the DNA double helix by helicase, followed by synthesis of new strands by DNA polymerases with RNA primers provided by primase. Replication proceeds bidirectionally from an origin of replication and results in two identical copies of the original DNA molecule.
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The document discusses the wobble hypothesis in genetic coding. It begins with introducing genes and the genetic code. It then discusses the structure and properties of transfer RNA (tRNA), which transports amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. The wobble hypothesis proposes that the first nucleotide in the tRNA anticodon can bond weakly to more than one nucleotide in the messenger RNA codon. This allows a single tRNA to bind multiple codons and explains the redundancy in the genetic code. The document outlines the rules of wobble pairing and significance, specifically that it maximizes the genetic code while minimizing errors from codon misreading. In summary, the wobble hypothesis explains genetic code redundancy and versatility through loose bonding at
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The document discusses the wobble hypothesis and variations in genetic codes. It summarizes the wobble hypothesis proposed by Crick to explain the degeneracy of the genetic code through wobble base pairing between the third base of codons and first base of anticodons. This allows some tRNAs to bind to multiple codons. The document also discusses variations found in mitochondrial and ciliate protozoan genetic codes, where certain codons code for different amino acids than the standard genetic code or act as sense codons rather than stop codons.
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Johannes Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895) was a Swiss physician and biologist who was the first researcher to isolate and identify nucleic acid. He discovered that nucleic acid is a phosphate-nitrogenous base molecule that produces protons in water, making it an acid. The document discusses DNA and RNA nucleotides and bases, transcription, translation, genes, and proteins.
Wobble hypothesis
The document discusses the wobble hypothesis proposed by Francis Crick in 1966. The hypothesis explains how a single tRNA molecule can recognize multiple codons for an amino acid by allowing non-canonical "wobble" base pairing between the third base of the codon and first base of the tRNA anticodon. This wobble pairing means that more codons exist than the number of tRNA molecules, resolving the degeneracy of the genetic code. The relaxed base pairing rules at the third position of the codon-anticodon duplex are significant as they allow for broader tRNA specificity while maintaining translational accuracy.
Genetic code
1. The genetic code is deciphered through research that matched codons (three-nucleotide sequences in mRNA) to their corresponding amino acids. It was discovered that 61 codons code for specific amino acids while 3 are stop codons.
2. tRNA molecules carry specific amino acids and have anticodons that are complementary to mRNA codons, allowing the correct amino acid to be added to the growing polypeptide chain via the ribosome.
3. Translation is the process of protein synthesis, directed by the mRNA template, where tRNA molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome according to codon-anticodon base pairing. The amino acids are linked together through the joining of peptide bonds.
Genetic code
The sequence of nucleotides in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins. Though the linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA contains the information for protein sequences, proteins are not made directly from DNA. Instead, a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule is synthesized from the DNA and directs the formation of the protein. RNA is composed of four nucleotides: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil."(U)."
Wobble Code
The genetic code is degenerate, meaning many amino acids can be encoded by multiple codons. The third base in the codon, called the wobble position, is less discriminatory for amino acid matching than the first two bases. Certain tRNAs can recognize multiple codons due to wobble pairing between the third base of the codon and the first base of the anticodon. In particular, when the first base of the anticodon is inosine, it allows for wobble pairing with multiple third base options in the codon.
Replication
DNA replication is semi-conservative, as proved by the Meselson-Stahl experiment. It occurs during interphase and involves unwinding of the DNA double helix by helicase, followed by synthesis of new strands by DNA polymerases with RNA primers provided by primase. Replication proceeds bidirectionally from an origin of replication and results in two identical copies of the original DNA molecule.
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Dna and rna
DNA contains the genetic code and is located in the cell nucleus. It is a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides with a sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. DNA replicates via a semi-conservative process where each new DNA molecule contains one original and one new strand. RNA is a single-stranded copy of DNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm. There are three main types of RNA: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, which help in protein synthesis by carrying amino acids and combining with ribosomes.
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The genetic code is the system by which nucleotide sequences in mRNA determine the amino acid sequences in proteins. The genetic code uses triplets of nucleotides called codons to specify which amino acid will be incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain. There are 64 possible codons but only 20 standard amino acids, so most amino acids have multiple codons. Three codons act as stop signals to end protein synthesis. The genetic code is nearly universal across all life due to its high degree of specificity and redundancy.
Genetic code
1) There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA transfers amino acids during protein synthesis, and rRNA makes up the ribosomes.
2) Transcription copies one DNA strand into mRNA which moves to ribosomes for translation. During translation, tRNAs match their anticodons to mRNA codons and add the corresponding amino acids.
3) Mutations in DNA can lead to production of defective proteins through altered mRNA and incorrect amino acid sequences, resulting in genetic diseases.
Genitic code
The document discusses the genetic code, which was discovered in 1968 by Marshall Nirenberg, Heinrich Matthaei, and others. The genetic code is a triplet of nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid. There are 64 possible codons made up of combinations of the four nucleotides, with 61 coding for amino acids and 3 serving as stop codons. The genetic code is nearly universal across organisms, with only minor exceptions, and has several key properties including being triplet-based, non-overlapping, and having start and stop signals.
Genetic code features and character
This document provides an overview of the central dogma and genetic code. It discusses how DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins. The genetic code uses triplets of nucleotides called codons to specify the 20 amino acids. There are 64 possible codons but only 61 encode amino acids, while 3 serve as stop signals. The code is degenerate, universal and read in a consistent direction. The wobble hypothesis explains how one tRNA can recognize multiple codons. Mutations can alter codons and result in silent, missense or nonsense changes impacting protein synthesis.
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The document discusses the genetic code and the wobble hypothesis. It notes that the genetic code uses triplets of bases to code for amino acids, with 61 codons specifying amino acids and 3 being stop codons. It explains that the wobble hypothesis proposes that the third base of the codon pairs non-specifically with the anticodon through wobble pairing, allowing multiple codons to code for the same amino acid. This wobble pairing allows inosine, the fifth base found in tRNAs, to pair with multiple bases and increases the efficiency of translation.
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This document contains instructions and questions for a genetics homework assignment. It asks the student to:
1) Draw the structure of two base-paired dinucleotides and indicate relevant atoms and bonds.
2) Identify which of several pairs of mutations would have a greater consequence to a gene's function and explain why.
3) Analyze domain structures and mutations in a gene responsible for hearing and memory and explain the resulting phenotypes.
4) Describe the consequences of various mutations in a gene on transcript and protein production.
5) Briefly explain how a gene family can arise.
6) Discuss how the idea that ATP is not limiting in eukaryotic cells relates to the presence of intr
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DNA contains the genetic code that directs protein synthesis. The genetic code is stored in the sequence of nitrogen bases (A, T, C, G) in DNA. Although there are 20 types of amino acids, they are specified by combinations of only 4 bases. According to Crick, the genetic code is organized into triplets of bases (codons), with each codon specifying a particular amino acid. There are 64 possible codons that can uniquely specify each of the 20 amino acids. Experiments by Nirenberg, Khorana, and others helped decipher the genetic code by correlating synthetic RNA sequences with the amino acids produced. The genetic code is nearly universal across all living things.
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The genetic code is universal and specifies how nucleotides in DNA and mRNA are translated to amino acids in proteins. It uses 64 codons consisting of 3 nucleotides each to encode the 20 standard amino acids. The code is degenerate, with most amino acids specified by multiple codons. It also has start and stop codons to initiate and terminate translation. Wobble base pairing in the third codon position allows fewer tRNAs to recognize all codons.
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2. Marshall Nirenberg and others conducted experiments in the 1960s that helped crack the genetic code by determining which codons code for each amino acid. They used synthetic RNA and cell-free protein synthesis systems.
3. The genetic code is nearly universal across all life due to its early development over 3 billion years ago in the first bacteria.
Genetic code
The genetic code is the sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA that encodes information for protein synthesis. It has several key properties: it is a triplet code where each codon consists of 3 nucleotides; it is non-overlapping so codons are read sequentially; it is comma-less so there is no wasted space between codons. The code is also non-ambiguous, polar, and degenerate meaning some codons can specify the same amino acid. Certain codons act as start or stop signals. The genetic code was deciphered using both theoretical approaches and experimental techniques like using homopolymers and random copolymers in cell-free protein synthesis systems. The genetic code proved to be nearly universal across living organisms.
Genetic code 3
The document discusses various topics related to the genetic code, including:
1. The genetic code is degenerate, meaning many amino acids are specified by more than one codon. Wobble in the anticodon allows one tRNA to recognize multiple codons.
2. Three rules govern the genetic code: codons are read in groups of three in the 5' to 3' direction without gaps or overlaps.
3. Suppressor mutations can reside in the same gene or a different gene and suppress the effects of mutations by producing functional proteins.
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Genetic code describes codons that code amino acids. Contents are well defined according to process central dogma specially Translation mechanism.
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The genetic code is composed of triplets of nucleotide bases that correspond to specific amino acids. There are 64 possible codon combinations from sequences of the 4 nucleotide bases, with 61 coding for 20 amino acids and 3 serving as stop codons. The genetic code is universal across all living organisms, specifying the same amino acids for each codon. It is read in sets of 3 bases moving in the 5' to 3' direction on mRNA, and mutations in the code can result in silent, missense, nonsense, or frameshift changes to the specified protein.
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DNA contains the genetic code and is located in the cell nucleus. It is a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides with a sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. DNA replicates via a semi-conservative process where each new DNA molecule contains one original and one new strand. RNA is a single-stranded copy of DNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm. There are three main types of RNA: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, which help in protein synthesis by carrying amino acids and combining with ribosomes.
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FEATURES OF GENETIC CODE
IMPORTANCE
DEGENERATE CODON
UNAMBIGUOUS NATURE OF CODON
CODON ON mRNA AND ANTICODON ON t RNA
Genetic code -
The genetic code is the system by which nucleotide sequences in mRNA determine the amino acid sequences in proteins. The genetic code uses triplets of nucleotides called codons to specify which amino acid will be incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain. There are 64 possible codons but only 20 standard amino acids, so most amino acids have multiple codons. Three codons act as stop signals to end protein synthesis. The genetic code is nearly universal across all life due to its high degree of specificity and redundancy.
Genetic code
1) There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA transfers amino acids during protein synthesis, and rRNA makes up the ribosomes.
2) Transcription copies one DNA strand into mRNA which moves to ribosomes for translation. During translation, tRNAs match their anticodons to mRNA codons and add the corresponding amino acids.
3) Mutations in DNA can lead to production of defective proteins through altered mRNA and incorrect amino acid sequences, resulting in genetic diseases.
Genitic code
The document discusses the genetic code, which was discovered in 1968 by Marshall Nirenberg, Heinrich Matthaei, and others. The genetic code is a triplet of nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid. There are 64 possible codons made up of combinations of the four nucleotides, with 61 coding for amino acids and 3 serving as stop codons. The genetic code is nearly universal across organisms, with only minor exceptions, and has several key properties including being triplet-based, non-overlapping, and having start and stop signals.
Genetic code features and character
This document provides an overview of the central dogma and genetic code. It discusses how DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins. The genetic code uses triplets of nucleotides called codons to specify the 20 amino acids. There are 64 possible codons but only 61 encode amino acids, while 3 serve as stop signals. The code is degenerate, universal and read in a consistent direction. The wobble hypothesis explains how one tRNA can recognize multiple codons. Mutations can alter codons and result in silent, missense or nonsense changes impacting protein synthesis.
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transfer. DNA as a genetic material. Hierarchy of DNA structure- from
single stranded to double helix to nucleosomes. Concept of genetic code.
Universality and degeneracy of genetic code. Define gene in terms of
complementation and recombination.
Gentic code
The genetic code is composed of triplets of nitrogen bases (codons) along mRNA that specify the sequence of amino acids in proteins. Evidence from experiments on mutations in bacteria and viruses showed that the genetic code is read in triplets, with one codon corresponding to one amino acid (except for some amino acids with multiple codons). The genetic code is nearly universal across all life and is non-overlapping, with each codon only being read once without influencing adjacent codons. The genetic code is composed of 64 possible codons that specify 20 standard amino acids.
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The document discusses the genetic code and the wobble hypothesis. It notes that the genetic code uses triplets of bases to code for amino acids, with 61 codons specifying amino acids and 3 being stop codons. It explains that the wobble hypothesis proposes that the third base of the codon pairs non-specifically with the anticodon through wobble pairing, allowing multiple codons to code for the same amino acid. This wobble pairing allows inosine, the fifth base found in tRNAs, to pair with multiple bases and increases the efficiency of translation.
Hw1 Gen320fall07answer
This document contains instructions and questions for a genetics homework assignment. It asks the student to:
1) Draw the structure of two base-paired dinucleotides and indicate relevant atoms and bonds.
2) Identify which of several pairs of mutations would have a greater consequence to a gene's function and explain why.
3) Analyze domain structures and mutations in a gene responsible for hearing and memory and explain the resulting phenotypes.
4) Describe the consequences of various mutations in a gene on transcript and protein production.
5) Briefly explain how a gene family can arise.
6) Discuss how the idea that ATP is not limiting in eukaryotic cells relates to the presence of intr
Genetic code
Deciphering of genetic code and its salient features for undergraduates in biology, biochemistry and medicine
Genetic code properties
DNA contains the genetic code that directs protein synthesis. The genetic code is stored in the sequence of nitrogen bases (A, T, C, G) in DNA. Although there are 20 types of amino acids, they are specified by combinations of only 4 bases. According to Crick, the genetic code is organized into triplets of bases (codons), with each codon specifying a particular amino acid. There are 64 possible codons that can uniquely specify each of the 20 amino acids. Experiments by Nirenberg, Khorana, and others helped decipher the genetic code by correlating synthetic RNA sequences with the amino acids produced. The genetic code is nearly universal across all living things.
Genetic code and translation
The genetic code is universal and specifies how nucleotides in DNA and mRNA are translated to amino acids in proteins. It uses 64 codons consisting of 3 nucleotides each to encode the 20 standard amino acids. The code is degenerate, with most amino acids specified by multiple codons. It also has start and stop codons to initiate and terminate translation. Wobble base pairing in the third codon position allows fewer tRNAs to recognize all codons.
Genetic codons
genetic codons are the series of nucleotides that specifies which amino acid will be added next during the process of photosynthesis
Genetic code
1. The genetic code is the set of triplet codons that specify the 20 amino acids during protein synthesis. Each codon is made up of three nucleotides that base pair with the anticodon on transfer RNA molecules.
2. Marshall Nirenberg and others conducted experiments in the 1960s that helped crack the genetic code by determining which codons code for each amino acid. They used synthetic RNA and cell-free protein synthesis systems.
3. The genetic code is nearly universal across all life due to its early development over 3 billion years ago in the first bacteria.
Genetic code
The genetic code is the sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA that encodes information for protein synthesis. It has several key properties: it is a triplet code where each codon consists of 3 nucleotides; it is non-overlapping so codons are read sequentially; it is comma-less so there is no wasted space between codons. The code is also non-ambiguous, polar, and degenerate meaning some codons can specify the same amino acid. Certain codons act as start or stop signals. The genetic code was deciphered using both theoretical approaches and experimental techniques like using homopolymers and random copolymers in cell-free protein synthesis systems. The genetic code proved to be nearly universal across living organisms.
Genetic code 3
The document discusses various topics related to the genetic code, including:
1. The genetic code is degenerate, meaning many amino acids are specified by more than one codon. Wobble in the anticodon allows one tRNA to recognize multiple codons.
2. Three rules govern the genetic code: codons are read in groups of three in the 5' to 3' direction without gaps or overlaps.
3. Suppressor mutations can reside in the same gene or a different gene and suppress the effects of mutations by producing functional proteins.
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Description:
Dive into the fascinating realm of solid-state physics with our meticulously crafted online PowerPoint presentation. This immersive educational resource offers a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental concepts, theories, and applications within the realm of solid-state physics.
From crystalline structures to semiconductor devices, this presentation delves into the intricate principles governing the behavior of solids, providing clear explanations and illustrative examples to enhance understanding. Whether you're a student delving into the subject for the first time or a seasoned researcher seeking to deepen your knowledge, our presentation offers valuable insights and in-depth analyses to cater to various levels of expertise.
Key topics covered include:
Crystal Structures: Unravel the mysteries of crystalline arrangements and their significance in determining material properties.
Band Theory: Explore the electronic band structure of solids and understand how it influences their conductive properties.
Semiconductor Physics: Delve into the behavior of semiconductors, including doping, carrier transport, and device applications.
Magnetic Properties: Investigate the magnetic behavior of solids, including ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and ferrimagnetism.
Optical Properties: Examine the interaction of light with solids, including absorption, reflection, and transmission phenomena.
With visually engaging slides, informative content, and interactive elements, our online PowerPoint presentation serves as a valuable resource for students, educators, and enthusiasts alike, facilitating a deeper understanding of the captivating world of solid-state physics. Explore the intricacies of solid-state materials and unlock the secrets behind their remarkable properties with our comprehensive presentation.
11.1 Role of physical biological in deterioration of grains.pdf
Storagedeteriorationisanyformoflossinquantityandqualityofbio-materials.
Themajorcausesofdeteriorationinstorage
•Physical
•Biological
•Mechanical
•Chemical
Storageonlypreservesquality.Itneverimprovesquality.
Itisadvisabletostartstoragewithqualityfoodproduct.Productwithinitialpoorqualityquicklydepreciates
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Alternate Wetting and Drying - Climate Smart Agriculture
Alternate Wetting and Drying - Climate Smart AgricultureInternational Food Policy Research Institute- South Asia Office
PPT on Alternate Wetting and Drying presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024. MICROBIAL INTERACTION PPT/ MICROBIAL INTERACTION AND THEIR TYPES // PLANT MIC...
MICROBIAL INTERACTION PPT/ MICROBIAL INTERACTION AND THEIR TYPES // PLANT MIC...ABHISHEK SONI NIMT INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL AND PARAMEDCIAL SCIENCES , GOVT PG COLLEGE NOIDA
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
The cost of acquiring information by natural selection
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
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