Rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery

UNIT 1 RECONSTRUCTION AND,
REWABILIT'ATION AS MEANS OF
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
1.0 Learning Outcome
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of Disaster Mitigation
1.3 Cost-benefit Analysis
1.4 Relationship between Disasters and Development
1.5 The Relief-Rehabilitation-Development Continuum
1.6 Operationalising Linking of Relief and Rehabilitation with Development
1.7 Rebuilding Civil Society
1.8 Rehabilitation as a Bridge between Relief and Development
1.9 Conclusion
1.10 Key Concepts
1.11 References and Further Reading
1.12 Activities
1.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
0 Examine the relationship between disasters and development
Throw light on the importance of disastermitigationand cost-benefit analysis
0 ExplaintheRelief"Rehabilitation-DevelopmentContinuum
Discuss the role of civil society in disasterrehabilitation;and
Analyse the importance of rehabilitationprocess in bridging the gap between relief and
development.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is generally believed that a disaster is also a window of opportunity. A paradoxical statement,
it may be, but it is not far from reality. In this spirit, the time of reconstructioii and rehabilitation
after a disaster is also a time of ensuring appropriate development patterns for the futu?e, and
of using the process to generate resources that will help the local populace in getting access
to economic rehabilitation alongside physical reconstruction. Rehabilitation and reconstruction
operations provide the link for effective coordination between relief (for example, humanitarian
aid) and development.
The boncqt of Linking Relief and Rehabilitation with Development (LRRD or the 'Grey

16 Rehabilitation, Reconstructioiz and Recovery
Zone') dates back to the 1980s and has changed considerably since then. As a starting point,
we have to look at the relationship between disaster mitigation and development. This Unit",
discusses the different aspects of the developmental approach with regard to the post-disaster
rehabilitation process. It aims at understanding the relationship between the rehabilitation and
development aspects of disaster management. The role of civil society, which is so essential
for the relief and development work, is also examined in the Unit.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF DISASTER MITIGATION
The most effective approach toward reducing the long-term impact of natural hazards is to
incorporate natural hazard assessment and mitigation activities into the process of integrated
development planning. To be successful, disaster mitigation exercise needs to be built into the
existing and ongoing developmentprogrammes at every stage namely project design, development
of options, feasibility analysis and implementationframework. Without adequatedisaster pianning,
in the form of adoption and integration of effective mitigation strategies, the results could be
catastrophic. It is, therefore, essential to develop a 'mindset of long-term thinking' and include
new attitudes in all the actors involved in development programmes, be it government officials,
professionals(engineers,architects, and surveyors), legislators,inspectors, builders and ultimately
the users.
According to the briefing notes developed on the subject by the Oxford Centre for Disaster
Studies, disaster management is often mistakenly taken as a discrete short-term intervention.
A disaster management team or a Non-governmental Organisation (NGO) or a consultant that
carries out a consultancy on disaster management or reviews a disaster-affected site is asked
to write a report or comment on just one of the many aspects of a disaster management
programme. Whereas, an effective disaster management requires just the opposite. It calls for
an inclusion of disaster management thinking at all the stages of development and execution
of mitigation programme to promote the continuance and long-term sustenance of policies.
Ideally, awareness of disaster issues should be a second nature to all those involved at all the
stages of programme formulation and execution. However, personal knowledge must be
complemented by guidelines, regulations and checklists as well as delineation of clear
responsibility. Decision-making powers must be assigned to different actors, with respective
accountability for actions. Articulating disaster planning into development programmes is not an
easy task. For many, the importance of disaster planning comes second to social, political,
economic and historical considerations. The 'connect' between socio-economic planning and
disaster planning is generally overlooked. If disaster planning was of primary concern to policy
makers, Lima, Mexico, San Francisco and Tokyo (the cities subjected to devastating disasters
time and again) would have been shifted to different geographical locations a long time ago.
The actors and stakeholders in disaster management must therefore continue to articulate the
critical importance of disaster mitigation even when its importance is not .realised by others.
They must also understand and appreciate the importance of taking a developmental approach
during post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction phases. Increased disaster occurrence is
indicative of flawed and unsustainable development patterns, as well as rapidly accumulating
disaster risks. The processes of land use and economic development, which characterise
development in many countries, lead to increasing physical, social and economic vulnerability.
We will read more about this aspect in Unit 5 of this Course.
Environmental degradation and mismanagement may aggravate the frequency, severity and
predictability of socio-natural hazards such as floods, fires, landslides and droughts. Agencies
like the UNDP therefore observe that when countries fail to include hazard and vulnerability
considerations into their development policies, strategies and plans, economic growth and social

Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development
welfare get eroded by large-scale losses due to ksasters. At the same time, increasing demands
are being made for national and international humanitarian assistance (UNDP, 2001).
1-3 COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
The post-rehabilitation programme generally suffers from a real or a projected paucity of
finances or funds. Not surprisingly, a key hindrance to integrating disaster rehabilitation with
development planning is the inadequacy of balancing the costs of mitigation measures against
their benefits.The balancing of costs against benefits is called cost-benefit analysis. It has been
observed that relatively small and single investments in disaster preparedness or mitigation can
greatly reduce the recurrent losses of capital items caused by disasters.
However,it has also been put forth, that in any divelopment programme, there will be competition
for resources, and so-priorities will have to be set. This gets amplified during rehabilitatibn and
reconstruction phases due to the heavy stress on limited resources. With finite resources,
therefore, a calculation needs to be made of the expenditure.involved in rehabilitation-measures
against the benefits of these measures. Factors influencing the costshenefits decision could be:
i) Economic
Developmental measures involve expenditure and costs. These relate to garnering required
information, hiring of specialist staff, implementing measures and ensuring that they are sincerely
carried out. However, these developmental costs should reduce higher costs (economic, social
and political) that are likely to be incurred in the event of a disaster.
ii) Political
Investingin disaster reduction activities may be electorally advantageous in certain circumstances.
Politicians could cash in on disaster rehabilitation process in the elections that take place in the '
aftermath of a devastating disaster. On the other hand, high cost developmental approach with
low visibility could be disadvantageous. It is believed that it may lend to draining of resources
as they get used up for other more high profile initiatives.
iii) Frequency of Disasters
Frequent disasters heighten the need for greater mitigation measures. Therefore, a stronger
developmental approach monitoring the level of success of mitigation measures is the need of
the hour. On the other hand, prolonged time gap between disasters may have a negative eff'ecl
on utilising the rehabilitation process as means of development.
1.4 RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN DISASTERS AND
DEVELOPMENT
The relationship between disasters and development is not that df straight cause and effect.
There are many complexities, factors and issues involved in it. Let us now reflect on four
specific queries:
i) Do Disasters Destroy Development Programmes?
When disaster mitigation has not been adequately considered in a project's design and
implementation, developmentprogrammes could be impaired, causing costly repair and disruption.
For instance, a new housing project and related infrastructure sited on or near a steep hill slope, '

18 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
where the danger of landslide is high, is doomed from the very beginning. In such a case, as
shown in the Table 1.1, the potential losses to lives and livelihoods are obvious:
Table 1.1
@ Social disruption
e Possible death .
Lives
@ Possible relocation
Livelihoods ,
o Loss of investment
@ Cost of rebuilding
o Loss in unearned income
o Disruption of economic activity
Besides cost-benefit analysis, there are many reasons why disaster planning is not adequately
incorporated into development programmes. The key factors are:
.-
r Lack of Adherence to Legislative Controls *L
Non-adherence to building byelaws and similar legislation can be counterproductive. Even
blindfolded adherence to regulations could have an adverse impact on developlnent planning.
For instance, it has been observed that in Turkey, the problems encountered arise out of
obeying certain archaic legislation. Although some form of the 'Natural Disaster Law' has
been in effect since 1944, a clear disregard of the ea
r
thquake-resistant code stipulations for
both rural and urban construction has widely been the norm. There is enough evidence after
each and every strong earthquake in Turkey to substantiate this kind of outlook.
For several reasons (including ignorance, indifference and the 'nothing would happen' attitude),
the municipalities and/or the local governments have been negligent in the enforcemenl of
building design regulations and inspection of construction work. An effectivecontrol mechanism
for adherence to the earthquake-resistant design rules has not been established.
o Perceived High Costs
Planners of projects may consider mitigation costs to be unaffordable, i.e., the cost-benefit
calculation is seen to be unacceptable. For example, costs of strengthening new buildings or
retrofitting existing constluction might sufficiently increase expenditure to ,make a project
unviable. However, as has been pointed out, successf~~lmitigation strategies need not involve
high costs.
e Social and Historical Precedents
The historical location and subsequent urbanisation of a city in a hazard-prone region such as
Mexico, which is located at the foot of an active volcano, in a seismic area and on the bed
of a drained lake, makes the land unstable and flood-prone. Poor 'trade-offs', occur when
those responsible are aware of the risk but that risk is outweighed by other considerations. For
example, [hose dwelling in informal urban settlements along a ravine edge in Lima and Peru
are aware of the risk, yet have chosen the proximity due to livelihood compulsions. Many
people in India live near the coasts in Mumbai, Kerala, Chennai, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Some of these areas are highly vulnerable to cyclones, but livelihood constraints make the
people stick to these high-risk zones.
Lack of awareness of good mitigation measures could also be an important factor. Traditional
artisans and builders may be unaware of better building methods for earthquake-resistant
structures. Site managers, architects and planners may also not be aware of any disaster
I

?
Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means o f Development 19
mitigationconsiderations. The situation could improve if a combination of training and education,
as well as stricter and b~tter-enforcedbuilding codes is followed. Many of the solutions to
these problems lie in the comprehension and enforcement of disaster legislation, i~nproved ..
communication, training programmes for appropriate groups, awareness- building, a d the provision
and management of adequate resources. Let us now look at the other queiies: c s a
ii) Can Disaster Reconstructiort provide Opportunities to9initiate Development%
programmes?
Disasters often precipitate major changes in both the economic and political spheres ip a - ' ,A
country. While disasters are by definition devastating events, lessons learnt gnd incorporated' . ,
into systematic development planning may serve to reduce future vulnerability. The destruction .
of unsafe infrastructure and buildings can provide an opportunity for rebuilding with better,
standards, or relocation to a better area if the site is found to be vulnerable. Particularly, the
damages caked by disasters will also focus on relief aid and afterwards on investment in , '
rehabilitation, thus providing opportunilies lhat [nay have been previously unavailable. I ,
Damaged buildings may highlight structural ~e~aknesses,+whichcould be rectified, and mhy
'
serve to improve building and planning regulations in the future. A key [okbcus bthis area,isnon-
structural mitigation measures, such as strengthening of disaster legikation toL
mitigate f i ~ ~ r i .-
disaster impact. Most lessons learnt from disasters need to be implemented into develop
programmes at this stage through the adoption of safety building codes and land-use pla*nning
requirements. , .= .-, .
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iii) Do Development Programmes increase Vz~l~zerability?
Development programlnes are often considered to increase vulnerability. A good exa
that of urbanisation. While city growlh cap improve tl~equality of living formwl nl
contribute to industrialisation, the very process of denser cities increases the chanc
casualties in 'the event of an earthqurzke or any other disaster. For instance, there
large-scale damage due to greater threat of loss of lives and livelihoods through
building collapse in cities. After the Istanbul Earthquake in 1999, masonry construction was
prohibited in favour of lighter weight tilnbcr ones (ad it has found that &any deaths had been: .
caused by the collapse of heavy str~ictures).The prohibition, howcvpr;was later revoked after
several fire disasters, which ,were aided by the widespread use of timber, began to engulf the-
city.
I .
iv) Do Developnzent Programlnes successfully include Risk Mitigafion? - '
It has been pointed out that 'every decision about disaster response "strategies- by
mean actions that acknowledge aiidrespond to the likelihood of disztitars -. ha- sk~?I . , & ,
a country's potential development'.: The ideal thing for all dev~lopinentpragrainnies is ' to
include disaster mitigation as their integral component. Hence, throughout The proc~~s,,off f
development planning, from the initial.pyoject idea to irnplelneatation, all aspects of risk, * : "
vulnerability and hazard will have to be taken into account and planned for.
Tools for enhancing development planning for effective disaster lnitigation include:
0 Building safety codes and laws
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6 Scientific informati~ne.g., levels of stress design for'civilengineering Gorks
e Land regulatione.g., prohibitionof buildingin specifically~ ~ l n ~ r a b l e ~ a r ~ s ,'
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Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
4 Prediction, monitoring and warning measures
B Measures to check unplanned urbanisation through laws, regulations, zoning
@ Enforcement of reg~ilationsand laws by civil authorities' etc.
@ Training for builders and attainment of professional qualifications;
@ Raising public awareness amongst children and adults
B Evolving a system for information-monitoring, documentation and dissemination
e Education in planning and technical guidelines for building professionals,including architects,
planners and civil engineers
e Mock rehearsals and drills at the community level
Incorporation of basic disaster management principles in school/college cumcula
@ public-private partnership for disaster preparedness
Mitigation measures are usually not a priority in the development programmes, for precisely the
reasons outlined earlier in this Section. However, after a particularly severe disaster, a positive
political will, supported by necessary investment, could create the right conditions towards
prioritising mitigation measures.
THE RELIEF-REHABILITATION-DEVELOPMENT
It has been suggested that the term "continuum" would be more appropriate to describe the
development programmes of the European Union. It would reflect the fact that programmes
in relief, rehabilitation and development could go on simultaneously within any given country.
The scope of humanitarian aid is defined as follows:
"The community's humanitarian aid shall comprise assistance, relief and protection operations
on a non-discriminatory basis to help people in the Third World countries, particularly the most
vulnerable among them, and as a priority, victims of natural disasters, man-made crises, such
as wars and outbretiks of fighting, or exceptional situations or circumstances comparable to
natural or man-made disasters. It shall do so for the time needed to meet the humanitarian
requirements resulting from these different situations. Such types of aid shall also comprise
operations to prepare for risks or prevent disasters or comparable exceptional circumstances',.
The role of relief assistance is to provide urgent short-term humanitarian assistance to save and
preserve the lives of people facing serious difficulties resulting from natural or man-made
disasters. Rehabilitation programmes are seen as progressively taking over from relief assistance
to stabilise the economic and social situation and facilitate the transition towards a medium and
long-term development strategy.
The basic justification for Linking of Relief and Rehabilitation with Development (LRRD) is
quite simple. Disasters are costly in terms of both human life and resources; they disrupt
economic and social development; they require long periods of rehabilitation; they lead to
separate bureaucratic structures and procedures, which duplicate development efforts by the
institutions involved. At the same time, however, development policy also often ignores the risks

Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development 21
of drought and other shocks, and the need to protect vulnerable households by helping them
to develop 'coping strategies'. If relief and development were to be linked, these deficiencies
could be reduced. Better 'development' can reduce the need for emergency relief; better
'relief' catl contribute to development; and better 'rehabilitation' can ease the transition between
the two.
h his simple model, however, fails to deal with the realities of many emergency situations in the
present set-up. Most are not due to natural disasters, but are the result of interaction of the
political, economic and social instability, frequently stemming from bad governance, failed
economic policies and inappropriate development programmes, which often exacerbate ethnic
or religious differences. The assumption inherent in this model is that the path of short-term
relief via rehabilitation leading to long-term development underestimates the chronic nature of
many disaster situations, Even when there is no overt conflict, the combined effects of failed
governance and economic, policies as well as abuses of human rights and the democratic
process may lead to the suspension of long-term development aid, resulting in an acceleration
of economic and social disintegration. 'Complex emergencies' or chronic crises involving armed
conflict represent the most difficult context for developing a coordinated approach to Relief-
Rehabilitation-Development(RRD) continuum. Disaster prevention and preparedness measures
are difficult to apply.
Thus, increased prominence needs to be given to conflict prevention, through early and
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coordinated intervention at both political and developmental levels with the ultimate goal of
reaching a situation of 'structural stability' i.e., a situation involving sustainable economic
development, democracy and respect for human rights, ,viablepolitical structures, healthy social
and environmental conditions, with the capacity to manage change without resorting to violent
conflict. It is also important to introduce gender analysis into the RRD response, so as to avoid
further marginalisation of women and the other disadvantaged groups. A gender-sensitive
approach helps to identify differing vulnerabilities of men and women to crises as well as their
different (and ever-changing) capacities and coping strategies. Vulnerability is a key concept,
and may be determined by membership of a particular ethnic or social group.
Tbo other issues need to be considered. The Arst is the institutional separation of relief and
development, which exists within most donor organisations. Different criteria and procedures.
are applied to sustainability,funding and implementationarrangements,The international response
to chronic crises in particular may risk reflecting the organisational and political priorities of
implementingagencies, rather than the needs of disaster-affected population, and the vulnerability
of those threatened by disasters. The second issue is financial. Over time, the relief expenditure
of Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member stttes has
increased multifold at a time when overall aid programmes are tending to stagnate or even
decline. For all the above reasons, it is high time that we recoilsidered our approach to LRRD
and examined the ways in which its impact and effectiveness could be improvecl.
1.6 OPERATIONALISING LINKING OF RELIEF AND
REHABILITATION WITH DEVELOPMENT
The analysis of the LRRD problem makes it clear that the approach to economic, political and
social development in the developing countries should be more holistic thcan it has been until
now. This is especially important for countries, which are prone to the risksltensions relating ..,
to political, economic and socio-cultural consequences of natural and man-made disasters. At
all the.phases of their development, and not merely when a crisis is imminent, there is a need
for a strategic planning policy, which comprises political, devqlopmental, social and technical
aspects. This global policy framework should define: ,

@ 'Conflict Prevention' as ameansof managingtheinevitablestrainsresultingfrom social, political
and economic change could be incorporated into development operations..'Peace Building'
must be an intrinsic element of cooperation for development strategies
e , Disasterpreventionant: vulnerabilityanalysesshouldbetakenintoaccountin developmentplanning
and operations . .
@ Once an emergency situation has erupted (either natural or man-made), relief actions should
,takeinto account thelong-termobjectivesof reconstructionand developmentbesidesthe primary
objectiveof keeping the numberof casualities low; and
, * . 7
.
' . a Rehabilitation action for countries in a post-emergency phase should be undertaken so as to
fensure thk most effqctive transition from emergency assistance to long-term development.
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The"backward" i d "forward"linkages between political,developmental, relief and rehabilitation
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operations constitute a complex network of relationships, which has to be examined within the
global policy framework or strategic planning policy, which is a dynamic function of the specific
- situation of each country or region. In other words, the components of the RRD-linkage and
-. theiS design are highly situation specific and should be consideredin the light of the 'contextual'
realities of the country or region concerned.
8 <
This means that the structure of the document on RRD should also be seen in this light i.e.,
' . in a holistic way. The fact that it starts with relief, followed by rehabilitation, and subsequently
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. by development, including a political approach towards the objective of structural stability, does
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not mean that the so-called RRD-continuum is to be considered in this linear manner. As
indicated before, reality is-more complicated and requires a multifaceted approach, based on I
-, the ground reality in each country or region under consideration. I
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. - . .
~ehabilitationmay be defined as an overall dynamic and intermediate strategy of institutional
reform and reinforcement, reconstruction 'and improvement of infrastructure and services;
aimed towards support to the initiatives and actions of the concerned population in the political, I
- ( ,, 1 9 ' economic *andsocial domains, as well as resumption of sustainable development. In other
F , - words, the human dimension is an essential feature of rehabilitation. At this stage, it is most I
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Y I- :feasible to ensure iniegration of the gender concerns into'disaster rehabilitation strategies. I
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j~tteitionshould be paid to the changed roles, circumstances and connotations of the gender
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*issu&,and also to the"need to address such issues if social integration is to take place.
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, .. * . .' , .:-. .Thkree6dstruction pha$ m$t necessarily -includethe reestablishment of the Rule of Law and, ,*.- ,.-. 8 "
' ,Ge -. . + .I ' .~pperationalisatioqi~Ecivil ~ ~ ~ i e t yorganisations. One of the key'elements is the quick restoration
, -.-, . :r ::ofpubli'c confi~enc6'andt r u ~ t a s . ~ ~ l l % srestofation pf economic activities, health and education I
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.. - . + , .. - %iysterng.~he~ad&ist~atii~;s~t-*st involve multiple.stakeholders in the disaster planning
- pimess -far Qe reha6iljtation and i-!6on.struction phase.
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. The recondtruction ph&e mustbe-regardedby its citizens as serving allgroups iri order to allay
., . the'inevitable tensiow, which may cdntinue to exist during such a period. Right atzthe outset, -
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it is.therefore essential that these aspbdts.arenot underestimated, as they will have a determining
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-- -- inDbeqce on the reconstruction of the disaster-affected community itself.On the basis of theseY L - - . L C --...11*
.* i : dr&onditio~s,reco~struction~~~~o~s~shoa1dhe-bnilt+'afmd-ihefollo~~two maxims:
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Recoizstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Developnzent 23
i) Reconstruction and Functioning of the Rule of Law
Particular attention should be given to certain guiding principles on which the Rule of Law
should be built, that is, respect for the rules of good management of public affairs with a view
to legality and transparency; establishment of institutional mechanisms accepted by the actors
and stakeholders, including the importance of clear laws and institutions, which are accessible
to the public; and respect for universally recognised human rights, including specifically the
recognition of the rights of minority groups. It could be that the laws, which were in force prior
to the occurrence of a disaster, are also utilised, provided they are reestablished within a
framework of consensus. On the basis of the particular situation in each society, priorities
concerning the specific actions that need to be put in place should be established. This aspect
is fundamental to reestablishing public confidence, and rebuildng their lives in an environment
where they do not feel under threat.
I
ii) Development of Political Dialogue and Public Participation
.As d prerequisite of democracy, the development of political dialogue should not await the
arrival of better times before being put in place. From the very beginning, specific attention
must be given to involve various groups-minorities, affected people, weaker sections, NGOs,
and political representatives etc. At the same time, it is necess~aryto carry out actions aimed
at effective people's participationin the exercise of decision-making powers, as well as econoinic
participation in the costs and benefits of development.
In this context, there is a need to promote freedom of expression and independence of the
media for the sake of unbiased and informative reporting. This is important in order to allow
'
the forging of public opinion that may have a conducive impact on the implementation process;
thereby reducing ensuing tensions. In addition, it will be useful to undertake positive steps in ,
the areas of training, civic education, support to associations, decentralised cooperation etc.
The actions may also extend beyond the period of reconstruction itself and be incorporated into
longer-term developmeilt plans. Such actions are essential if external assistance is to have a
sustainable impact in the long run. Community actions in these.areas could play a catalytic role
in assisting governments to set the ball rolling. It will, however, be up to the latter to internalise
the process. These issues should therefore be the subject of dialogue process with each
government, especially when rehabilitation and development actions are being planned. It must
also form an intkgral part of the global policy framework. PF.
REHABILITATION AS A BRIDGE BETWEEN RELIEF
AND DEVELOPMENT
In order to make sure that rehabilitation contributes towards the continuity of the transition
from the crisis situation to the resumption of development process, certain essential elements
of the "continuum" must be in place at the time of the transition period. It has to be ensured
that the transition process respects the existence of a minimum level of security, as well as
democratic values and Yundamentalfreedom. It is necessary, however, to insist on three principles
of rehabilitation:
e -Due weightage to the contexlual problems, developmental priorities, and gender issues at the
time.of implementationof a reconstruction process
Recognition of the transitional nature of developmental charges and respect far human values
therein, although specific situationsmay requireinterventions of longer-term; and

o Returnof normalcy,not necessarily in alinearway,but theresumptionof sustainabledevelopment
in a way that is better than the pre-disaster stage; duly taking into account the lessons learned
from the disaster.
Wherever possible, rehabilitation should build upon the achievements of humanitahan assistance
by:
@ Avoiding a significant deteriorationin services and infrastructureto which populatiorishave had
access to during the crisis period; and
@ Conservingand improving local expertisecreated duringthe crisis period.
Rehabilitation should, however, aim at the same time to reduce any adverse effects of
humanitarian aid by:
e Progressivelyremoving theeconomicsubstitution roleof humanitarian aid
0 Removing as soon as possible thesystem of free distributionof goods and services in favour of I
a system of paying at minimumcosts, particplarly for those which can be produced locally;and
@ Supportingactionsin favourof vulnerablegroups(orphans,femaleheadsof family, handicapped
or differently-abled) with theaimof reinstatingtheminto economicand sociallife.Inthis regard,
. the rehabilitation process should also take intoaccount the psychologicaleffects of exposureto
violence,particularlyon children.
In designing rehabilitation programmes, four factors should be borne in mind to optiniise their
,;;contribution to the transition process:
1 '
I
' i) Leverage Effect
e Choose actions,-which are balanced geographically and sectorally, taking account of changes,
which have taken place during the calamity (displacementof population etc.)
8 Reorient, complete and accelerate, through rehabilitation actions, the implementation of
development programmesalready underway in the basic and productive sectors
@ Giveprioritytothoseareas,whichlendthemselves tothemethods,whichmaxirnisetheinvolvement
of thelocal'population(micro-projects,foodforwork), and makeuseof small-scalecredit for the
private sector
. 8 Put in place appropriate technical assistance both at thelevel of projectsand programmes and at
the general level (priority sectors, overall management).This support is especially required for
the management of programmes by beneficiary government and NGO structures
ii) Critical Mass
8 Make available,in a timelyway throughdonor coordination, the financialresources, taking into
account macro-economic forecasts
@ Implement accelerated and flexible procedureito limit the period of 'intensive' rehabilitation
during which certain benchmarks should be attained
e Decide, on the basis of the situation in each society,all the priority sectors.This should be done
bearingin mind thatinstitutionalstrengthening,reconstructionandrehabilitationof infrastructure,

Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development 25.
as well as the supply of essential goodsand servicesfor the rehabilitationperiod are thoselinked
to production, notablyagriculture,healthlsanitation,primary education,access toland, demining
anddernobilisation
iii) Continuity of Partners
e Seek more support for the longer-term operationsof international and local NGOs, which were
present at the time of the humanitarian crisis, by associating those, which are able to do so with
theprogrammingof rehabilitation fundsin the basicsectors,andduringimplementation,insiston
an approach emphasising viability of actions in the medium-term and long-term use of local
structures
e Supportbasiccommunitygroups,whichhavesurvivedthecrisisi.e,,villageassociations,women's
groups,producer groupsand local administration
e Strengthen the restructuring of administration in the priority sectors necessary for the planning
and management of rehabilitation as well as long-term development programmes.
@ Concentrate on the restructuring of administration by those sectors that are able to assist the
process of return to normalcy.Also, support those that are able to give to the State the minimal
means of action, notably at the macro-economic and public finance levels
iv) A Phased Approach
@ Provide programme-based financial assistance to the developmental activities on the basis of
sectoral or geographic 'channels' e.g., from supply of medicines under emergency aid to the
reorganisationof essential medicalsupplies, redeploymentof human resources, rehabilitationof
health centresas well as integrationand developmentof these centres within the health pyramid,
especially when the development aid recommqnces
1 .
e Giveprioritytosocialviability(assimilation)andseek,inthefmtinstance,micro-economicviability
, .
@ Consider (during the various phasesof aid programming), the rehabilitation actionsas important
elements in the definitionof the priority sectorsfor support
Integrate into the approach the policy elementsrelated to the campaign against poverty,and the
macro-economic context to which the society should evolve by the end of the rehabilitation
period
Provide a favourable environment for the recovery of production and trade. Initial activities
under the macro-economic framework should focus upon ensuring the functioning of basic
eichange, promotingtradeand bankingservices,as wellasrebuildinginstitutionsforbasicmacro-
economic management
Determine the conditionality criteria, which are necessary for the success of the rehabilitation
programme; with a view torecornrnencementof the developmentprocess(political, economicor
specific); and make it effective through dialogueon (sectoral) policies
1.9 CONCLUSION
,-...- -
While disasters are by definition catastrophic events, lessons learnt and incorporated into long-
term development planning may serve to reduce future vulnerability. The destruction of unsafe
infrastructure and buildings can provide an opportunity for rebuilding with better standards, or

relocation to a better place if the present site is found specifically vulnerable. Particularly
damaging disasters will also focus on relief aid and rehabilitation investment, thus providing
developmental opportunities that were previously unavailable.Damaged buildings may highlight
structural weaknesses, which could be rectified to improve building and planning regulations.
A key focus in this area pertains to enactment of non-structural mitigation measures, such as
extensive development of disaster legislation to mitigate future disaster affects. Most lessons ,
learnt from disasters get actualised into development programmes at this level through the
adoption of safety building codes and land use planning requirements. The basic disaster
management cycle gives the lead to a chain starting with development, moving to disaster relief
and response, and going on to rehabilitation and development again.
In this sense, there is a need for programme managers to follow an approach of Linking Relief
and Rehabilitation with Development (LRRD) in the manner of a transitional programme for
effective management of disasters. This Unit brought out the relevance of the LRRD continuum
that underlines the crucial relationship between disasters and development. It discussed some
of the critical factors that need to be kept~in view for long-term disaster rehabilitation.
1 . 0 KEY CONCEPTS
Civil Society
A society consists of three distinct components - the State, market and civic sector. The
relationship among these three sectors has been a matter of debate all through their evolution.
. Civil society is generally defined as a particular group of society with a clearly demarcated
purpose, functions, organisation and means in pursuit of its agenda. Its functions and goals
could either be pro-state or anti-state. The contemporary civil society is considered to be more
in tandem with the State, It has been described as the locus of light side of collective action
of social movements. It comprises the social realm in which tlie creation of norms, identities,
institutions and social relations of domination and resistance are located.
The NGOs, public institutions, social movements, media, self-help groups, and community-based
organisations all fall under the civil society realm. The term civil society has, in the past, been
interchangeably used with the State, but is regarded as sphere quite distinct from the State and
commercial sector in the present context. The concept has reemerged due to the collapse of
Soviet Union and East European States. The research work by scholars such as Robert
Putnam, Peter Evans and Anthony Giddens has rekindled the interest in civil society.
(Alka Dhameja, -2003, "Emergence of Civil Society Organisations: The Globalisation Context"
in Alka Dhameja (Ed.), Colttemporary Debates in Public Administration. Prentice-Hall of
India, New Delhi.)
Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster management is a comprehensive process. It begins with disaster prevention,
preparedness and mitigation. This is followed by disaster impact; it is the point in disaster
management cycle when the disaster occurs. It is very important to gauge the disaster impact
before going to the disaster response stage. Disaster response is an important intermediate
stage of disaster management cycle, which includes search, rescue, evacuation and relief.
Another important constituent of the cycle is the disaster recovery stage. Reconstructioll and
rehabilitation form an important part of disaster recovery, which eventually need to be linked
- to the broader development process in the affected area.

Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Developinent 27
Human Development Index
A measurement of human progress introduced by the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) in its Human Development Report 1990. By combining indicators of real purchasing
power, education and health, the Human Development Index (HDI) provides a more
comprehensive measure of developn~entthan does the Gross National Product (GNP) alone.
Land Use
The range of uses of Earth surface made by humans. Uses are classified as urban, rural,
agricultural, forested etc., with more specific sub-classifications. It meails the way the land is
developed and used in terms of the kind of activities allowed and the size of buildings and
structures permitted in agricultural, residential and industrial .areas.
www.wasd.kI2.pa.~is/district/curriculumn/geo~ra~vhv/aeog~-aphv-glossar~v.Iztm:and
www.abag.ca. gov/bayarea/.rfep/revorts/soe/soelploss.htm
Linking Relief and Rehabilitation with Development
It is essential to have a holistic perspective to the developmental process in disaster-affected
areas. Linking Relief and Rehabilitation in order to provide a means of development is the most
appropriate way of addressing the issue of disaster management, as well as treating disasters
as developmental opportunities.
1.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER'READING
Asian. Developme~ztBank (ADB) Report, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the Pacific"
ADB, Manila.
Carter, Nick W, 1991, Disaster Managenzent: A Disaster Manager's Handbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Gupta, Harsh K, 2003, Disaster Management, University Press, Hyderabad.
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Rej'lectiolzs, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi,Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction i7z
South Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Smith, Keith, 1996 (2nd Edition), Environnzental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing
Disastel; Routledge, London.
World Bank Report (1992-2003), Oxford University Press, Oxford.
...
,1) On thebasisof newspaperclippings,magazines,jourilals, governmentalreports,non-governmental
surveys etc.& to trace and note down the history of disasters in your hometown or the place
where you stay, in order to find out the time-line of disasters that have occurred so far.
". - . . " 1
2) In context of any recent disaster that has occurred in your area or nearby place, assess the

recovery process and examine whether the developmentalapproach has been taken into purview
or not. Make a note on your observations.
3) Collect the news coverage on the Gujarat Earthquake of January 26, 2001 or Muzzafarabad
Earthquakeof October 8,2005 from that year's magazines,journals and news clippings. Makea .
list of the factors that have made the reconstruction and rehabilitation process a means of
development in the affected areas. Visualise the ways these factors could be furth%rimproved
and pen them down.

UNIT 2 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Structure
Learning Outcome
Introduction
Sample Surveys
2.2.1 Simple Random Sampling
2.2.2. Systematic Sampling
2.2.3 Cluster Sampling
2.2.4 Stratified Sampling
EpidemiologicalSurveillance
Nutrition Centred Health Assessment
Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography
Conclusion
Key Concepts
References and Further Reading
Activities
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
8 Explain the different types of sample surveys
o Discuss the need for EpidemiologicalSurveillance
o Examine the Nutrition Centred Health Assessment Process; and
e Throwlighton the relevanceof RemoteSensingand AerialPhotography todisastermanagement.
2.1 INTRQDUCTION
Damage assessment is a precondition for effective disaster management. Unless we are clear
about the nature, extent and intensity of damage in the aftermath of a disaster, we can never
plan out, implement or evaluate the disaster management plans and strategies. Over the years,
many different methods and tools have been devised for collecting information about disasters.
Many new techniques and equipment such as sample surveys, Epidemiological Surveillance,
Nutrition Centred Health Assessment and Remote Sensing axe also constantly being developed.
In this Unit, we will discuss these developments and examine the different methods and
techniques of damage assessment.
A sample survey is the primary tool for needs assessment and is relevant for evaluation

30 Rekabilitatioiz, Reconstruction and Recovery
purposes in order to detect and monitor the disaster impact. A representative s;imple of a
population is surveyed, from which valid estimates of the status of an entire target group are
made. Even though it can never be a complete assessment, it could still provide a good
indication of the rehabilitation needs and requirements.
Sampling will provide information on the entire range of problems and/or conditions facing the
population. While it cannot be a complete assessment, it could still provide a good indication
of the needs of the people. Sample surveys can be undertaken by administering questionnaires
for collecting some of the required information like morbidity / mortality figures and statistical
analysis for assessing the data collected. These surveys are used by both governmental and
non-governmental organisations.
The advantage of a sample survey is that it enables the surveyor to gain a good amount of
information about a population or situation without having to conduct a detailed survey of the
entire population. When conducting a sample survey, however, attention must be given (in
addition to appropriate assessment techniques) to developing a survey questionnaire appropriate
for the target population, selecting sites that are statistically representative of the affected area,
choosing the correct time period in which to conduct the survey; and structuring the questionnaires
to get accurate information. It is also extremely important to determine as to how the persons
or families will be selected in order to get information that is truly representative of the entire
population. Several different methods can be used to conduct the sample survey. They include:
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling; and stratified sampling. Let us
discuss these methods now:
, 2.2.1 Simple Random Sampling
.,.-7
In cases where a colnplete list of all population elements already exists or can be readily
constructed, simple random sampling could be employed. The procedures for simple random
sampling are convenient and inexpensive; especially once a list on the basis of data collected
has been assembled. A simple random sample is one in which every element in the population
has an eq~lalprobability of being included in the sample (hence each one of all possible samples
is also likely to be drawn equally).
Furthermore, sampling takes place at one stage, with elements of the sample selected
independently of one another. A convenient and accurate procedure for obtaining a random
sample is to use a table of random numbers. A table of random numbers contains a list of
numbers that have been generated by an unbiased inechanised process, each number having
an equal probability of being selected at any point in a sequence.
The first step in the sampling procedure is to assign a serial number to each unit or element
in the population. A table of random numbers is then used to identify which serial nunibers are
to be drawn from the desired sample. It is worth stressing that random sampling does not
guarantee that any single sample will be representative of the population. However, in the long
run, if random samples were drawn repeatedly from a population, on an average, all those
samples would provide rather accurate estimates of the population. Moreover, for random
sampling, the extent of variability or error can be estimated, since statistical tests ask for the
probability of sampling errors. In practice, true simple random samples are almost never
encountered, mostly because complete and accurate listing of the population under study is rare.

Damage Assessment 31
2.2.2 Systematic Sampling
An alternative random sainpling method, which is particularly useful for sampling from a very
large listed population, is a systematic sample method, in which cases are selected at given
intervals. For example, if 200 cases are to be selected from a listed population of 10,000, one
can select every 50'" case. It needs to be noted that the entire list does not need to be
numbered. Along with a complete and accuratelist, two additional things are required for systelnatic
sampling: the 'sampling fraction' (or its inverse, the sampling interval) and a 'random start'.
The sampling fraction is simply the ratio of the desired sample size to the total number of
elements in the population. The sampling interval is the ratio of the number of elements in the
population to the siinlple size:
Fraction = NIM
I = SanlplingInterval = MIN
(N is the sample size and M is the populatio~lsize).
To obtain a random start, a table of random numbers is used to select a n~unberbetween F
(sampling fraction) and I (sampling interval). This ensures that every element in the population
has an equal chance of selection. It avoids the small bias that could be introduced if the first
or the last element in the population were always selected as starting points. Systematic
sampling is con~~llonlyused when choosing a sample from pre-existing but unnumbered lists.
The procedure might amount to taking evcry 4'I1pageand the 10"'entry down. One has to, thus,
know how tnany pages the list contains and how many entries are there per page.
The most serious problem of systematic sampling occurs when Ihe list is arranged in an order
that coincides with the sampling interval. The result is a biased sample. For cxamplc, in some
cilies or towns, it is often thc case that corner houses are more expensive and thus stronger.
In selecting a systematic sample of houses from maps (e.g., every 10"' house), the sampling
interval might coincide with or oversample corner houses. An evaluation study of damages to
houses would thus underestilnate damages. Therefore, lists have to be caref~11lyinspected prior
to choosing systematic sainpling rather than simple random sampling.
2.2.3 Cluster Sampling
For most disaster assessment proble~ns,the target population is unlisted and usually widely
dispersed. In case the lists do not exist and cannot be readily constructed, the researchers take
advantage of the fact that most of the target population clusters in one-way or another. People,
for example, cluster-in villages, towns or cities, blocks, neighbourhoods and so on; and while
it is very difficult to prepare a list of all the people in sm area, a complete and accurate listing
of the towns in which they live is not so hard to come by, In cluster sampling, then, one reduces
the listing problem to manageable proportions by first sampling a set of clusters which contain
the population, and then listing the population elements in those clusters, followed by drawing
sample set of elements from these lists.
Since lists of clusters can be easily constructed, it is possible to employ the techniques of
simple random sampling or systematic sampling to such lists. If clusters rather than individuals
are sampled, then data-gathering costs are reduced. Individuals or units within clusters are
obviously much less desired than if they are sampled randomly froin the entire population.
Therefore, travel time for interviewing is greatly reduced.

In the simplest cluster design (single-stage), clusters are randomly selected, and then every
"
individual or unit within each cluster is studied. For example, to estimate the casualty rate after
an earthquake in a large city for which current maps are available and from which it is possible
to create sampling clusters such as blocks, we could draw a random sample of city blocks and
' then interview all the families in each block.
But, cluster sampling is more useful when multi-stage sampling is used. For example, to
determine malnutrition rates in a large community, a random sample of blocks can be drawn
and the housing units in each block listed. Then a random sample of housing units within blocks.
can be drawn. After this, within the households, a random sample of children under 5 age
group could be screened.
Thus, cluster sampling essentially involves simple random sawpiingin stages. Lists are constructed
at every sampling stage, but the costs of enumeration are reduced because the entire list of
elements in the population is not required, only lists of elements within sampled clusters are
needed. If the clusters are geographic, cluster sampling is also known as area sampling. It
could prove to be the most efficient method for obtaining national or regional samples of
households or families commonly used for sample surveys.
2.2.4 Stratified Sampling
In stratified sampling, the researcher divides the population into groups or categories called
'strata', and then independent random samples are drawn from each group or 'stratum'.
Stratification is appropriate when the sample is used to do more than one job: to make estimates
or comparisons for sub-groups of the population as well as for the entire population. Depending
on the distributionof sub-groups within the population, a simple random sample of the population
may not include a sufficient number of cases from the relevant categories, which need to be
compared, For example, a single survey miglzt be used to address two separate questions
related to disaster impact after a cyclone: What percentage of the population lost their houses?
and how does the percentage of loss for upper income families compare with that of lower
income families?
A simple random sample of families would be the ideal sample for the purposes of the first
question, but the simple random sample might not produce'enough cases to provide a reliable
estimate for the second query. In this case, the researcher might therefore want to over-sample
one group to the proportion in which they are present in the population. When adjustments of
this sort are undertaken, the result is called a stratified sample. In general, stratified sampling
is used whenever a simple random sample is unlikely to produce enough cases of a certain type
to support the intended analyses.
Stratification criteria commonly used in social research include geographic location or region,
city or community size, individual characteristics such as race, ethnicity, age and so on. For
disaster impact studies, it may be important to compare the impact of an intervention on
individuals who vary in some significant way such as employment status, education, family size
or age. Two types of stratified samples are possible: proportional or disproportional, depending
on the sampling fractions used within strata and the purposes to be served by the sample. In
'proportional sampling', the sampling fractions for each status in the population are equal.
Whereas in 'disproportional stratified sampling', the surveyor needs to select more units from
the smaller proportion of the population.
There are many instances in which stratified sampling is necessary or desirable, Howevel; for
the stratified sampling to be feasible, considerable data about the population is required, an
which the stratification is to be based e.g., age, ethnicity, employment status or occupation.

Stratification by Inore than one variable is possible, although seldom is it done for more than
two or three variables ;it a time. Table 2.1 summarises the different types of sample surveys
that can be used for disast.er assessment, and describes the advantages and disadvantages of
each:
Table 2.1: Types of San~pleSurveys
2.3 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEILLANCE
Interviews are
Epide~niologicalSurveillance (ES) is the collection and interpretation of data on the risk or
actual occul~enceof commrlnicable diseases and other health problems. As an assessnlent tool,
epidelniological surveil1:lnce is most importailt in slow-onset and continuing disasters, especially
where changes in living patterns occur such as the relief camps of disaster victims. These
cl~angesrarely occur after rapid onset disasters. However, because fear of disease is always
prevalent after any nlajor disaster, health status assessment and disease surveillance should be
carried out as a guide for planning and management of health interventions, especially as a tool
for quality control, and as a means of controlling rumours and reassuring the victims.
Epidelniolugical Surveillance should be carried out by government health authorities after
cataclysmic disasters, but it may also involve volu~ltaryagencies and i~lter-governnleiltal
organisations during famines, especially those involved in health and feeding programmes.
Cas~laltyEstimates
Needs Surveys
Health Surveys
Surveillance procedures are ai~nedat detecting changes in disease occurrence. To detect an
increase in the incidence of disease caused by a disaster (or by relief activitjes), pre-emergency
Satnpling List with
SamplingInterval
Cluster Srtnlplc Damage Assessnlent
Nutritional Assessment
Needs Surveys
Multi-stage Cluster or
Area Sample Survey
Stratified SampleSurvey
Decreased costs
Useful when little is
known about the
target population
Increased error in
single-stage snmplirlgs
Damage Assess~nent
Nutritional Assessment
Needs Assessment
I~npactSurveys
Needs Surveys
Health Assessment
Lower costs than
Sinlple Randoln Sample
Useful in cases of
large population
Lower error than
Cluster Sample
Useful when little is
known about target
population
Guarantees adequate
re:epresentntionof small
groups
Usually di~ninisheserror
Higher error than
Si~npleRandom Sample
Higher costs
Soltietimes requires
weighing the responses
Requires extensive dara
about pupulntioti

34 Rehabilitation, Recolzstr.ucrion artd Recovery
baseline data must be available. If it is not, an immediate baseline survey should be uadertaken.
While changes over the pre-disaster norm rnay not be easy to detect, changes in relation to
the baseline can be noted. In long-term disasters, the assessment or surveillance team should
set up a si~nplerecord- keeping system that can provide the necessary data to determine
changes,
In a rapid-onset disaster, such as an earthquake or cyclone, ES cannot be used as an initial
iissessment tool unless baseline information about the affected populationand disease occurrence
can be obtained, It should be recognised that some data is always available.However, cataclysmic
disasters rarely produce abrupt changes in the incidence of an infectious disease. In fact, ES
carried out with the assistance of the U.S. Cenk-e for Disease Control following earthquakes
in Managua, Nicaragua (1972) and Guatemala (1976) failed to demonstrate an increase in the
number of diagnosed cases of communicable diseases in the wake of earthquakes.
Fear of diseases such as typhus, typhoid, hepatitis etc., is normally caused by people's ignorance
about certain basic facts. They feel that the water supply gets contaminated on account of
unattended corpses and sewage. People living outside the damaged houses, it is feared, are
more susceptible to communicable diseases. l'lie vast majority of these fears are unfounded,
but in some situations an increase in endemic diseases and diseases such as tetanus, malaria,
leptospirosis and rabies has been observed. Should changes take place, they are not likely to
occur in the immediate aftermath, and will also be localised and progressive. Thus, any survey
data developed immediately after the impact could serve as a baseline.
Since the actual chances of the incidence of increase in communicable diseases in the aftermath
of a rapid-onset disaster are comparatively low, most ES activities serve to measure the
effectiveness of health care activities, determine priorities of required actions, artd dispel public
fears and consequent inappropriate responses. For example, data may be useful for keeping
over-zealous relief organisations from conducting costly and unneeded mass immunisation
campaigns. We have focused on Epidemiological Surveillance in the Unit 17 of MPA-004 also.
Over here, the emphasis on ES is in context of disaster aftermath.
In slow-onset or continuing disasters, and in the case of floods, the threat of communicable
disease is much higher; here ES is a major disaster management tool as well as a necessary
long-term monitoring technique, and surveillance activities must be initiated following the initial
disaster impact assessment. Occurrence of diseases is of greater concern in long-term disasters
because food supplies are often disrupted and lack of sanitation becomes an uncontrollable
problem, increasing the incidence of malnutrition.
This maltes people (especially small children, pregnant and lactating women) more susceptible
to both acquiring the disease and succumbing to it. Moreover, the convergence of people in
search of food in urban areas and relizf camps increases the likelihood of the spread of
communicable diseases. Of special concern are 'childhood diseases' such as measles, chicken
pox, malaria, encephalitis and diarrhoea, whjch can sweep through a concentrated population
causing large numbers of deaths among srnall children. Other diseases of concern include
dysentery, cllolera, typhoid and specific nutritional deficiencies.
Traditional Epidemiological Surveillance or ES primarily focuses on mitior health problems and
infectious diseases. Data are collected by medical teams operating in the affected areas or by
health surveys among the target population. The three principal surveillance techniques are:
@ Systenlaticreporting of confirmed cases of predominant diseases
s Systematic reporting of symptoms that could indicate major diseases of concern; and

Damage Ass~s.srt~eizt 35
s Rapid field investigation of ally reports or rumours of an abnormal increase in the incidence of
disease.
In slow-onset and continuing disasters, the major health issues are diseases that are caused and
spread due to poor sanitation, environmental health hazards and malnutrition as well as related
health problems. For this reason, in recent years another method of surveillance that permits
broader assessment and monitoring has been developed; this is called 'Nutrition Centred Health
Assessment.' Let us now discuss its role in the aftermath of disaster.
2.4 NUTRITION CENTRlED HEALTH ASSESSNIENT
Nutrition Centred Health Assessment (NCHA) evaluates the health and nutritional status of
children under the age of five (i.e., 12 months to 5 years) as the 'point of contact' to detect
and assess a full range of health problems. The method is used for: initial assessment of health
and nutritional status, long-tenn surveillance of disease, malnutrition and death as well as long-
term monitoring of food supplies, logistics, water and food quality.
NCHA was first developed as a means of analysing the plight of refugees and displaced
persons; later it was adapted for use in context of drought and famine victims. Most recenlly,
it has come to be used in a situation where people live in cainps or concentrations and their
daily requirements are supplied wholly or in large part by relief agencies. The system works
well in both urban and rural environment or in virtually any type of climate. NCHA uses
ctiildren (1 to 5 years of age) as the focal point for assessment because their health and
nutritional status necessarily reflects what is happening to the whole population. Pregnant and
lactating women, and children under 5 years are known as 'vulnerable groups' because their
needs of food and proper nutrition are greater than other population groups. Also, for a variety
of health and social reasons, illness and death affect this vulnerable group first.
On the basis of health and nutritional data about this group, the planners can determine
indicators of many problems. For example, if a large number of malnourished children are
detected; several probleins such as food shortages or illness may be present. By cross-checking
food supplies, medical records and water supplies, the contributing factors can be traced. When
remedial measures are instituted, such as supplementary feeding for women and srnall children,
NCHA becomes a tool for monitoring the programme. Suppose even after several weeks of
feeding, children still show no improvement, problems in water supply or hygiene could be
suspected and traced by determining the number of children who have diarrhoea. If water is
not found to be a problem, illnesses symptomatic of diarrhoea would then be assumed.
A skilled surveillance team, using NCHA methods, could conceivably detect:
a Food shortages due to problems of logistics
a Food distribution problems,such as unequal distsibutioato certain areas or groups
o Intra-farnily food distributionproblems(food being givedtaken by working males)
Q Problems in diet (in terms of nutritionalcontent of relief foods)
9 Illnesses
e Water shortages
o Water containini~tion
8 , Problems of personal hygiene; and
e Psychological problems among vulnerable groups.

36 Rehabilitation, Recorzstruction and Recovery
2.5 REPJOTE--- SENSING AND AERIAI, PHOTOGRAPI3Y
Remote Sensing is the acquisition of information on disaster related subjects. Weather radar,
weather satellite, seismographs and videotape are exanlples of Renlote Sensing systems. Remote
Sensing infor~l~ntioncan be ~aluablein determining the extent of cataclysinic disasters and
n~onitoringslow-onset disasters such as enviro~imentaldegradation and droughts. These tools
also offer the possibility of acq~iri~igdata over remote regions or areas inade inaccessible by
disruption of normal transportation and communicsition systems. Elowever, both tools require
rllnt ground studies (known as ground-truth studies) be ciwried out to verify and adjust and/or
c llibl.iite the data obtained from air or space, and be made available in time for emergency
responses.
Aerial Photography is a form of Remote Sensing. In disaster management, however, it refers
to the use of satellite with imaging systems that produce computer generated images. Small
Forinat Aerial Pholography (SFAP) is being used to take the aerial photographs. Aerial
photogral~llyis a valuable tool for disaster managers. Possible uses of aerial photography
iriclude hazard analysis and mapping, vulnerability analysis, disaster assessment and reconstruction
planning. Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography by aircraft and satellites are valuable
information-gathering tools for dalilage assessment after earthquakes, cyclones and floods.
These are also used for monitoring droughts and desertification, as well as ascertaining progress
oi' counter disaster measures. Rernote Sensing and Aerial Pllotography can provide a
coinprehensive view of a large area over a short period of time.
liequisition and interpretation of Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography would require trained
specialists. The main Gsers of Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography are governments iind
inter-governmental organisalions. This is due to both the costs and the nature of the imagery
obtained. The things that can be observed (such as damage to public facilities, lifelines, forests,
agriculture etc.), however, are of immense concern to governmental and non-gover~~mental
agencies. We have read about Remote Sensing in Unit 12 of MPA-004 Course and will read
more about it in Unit 4 of this Course.
2,6 CONCLUSION
Sample surveys are the primary tools for needs assessment and are important in evaluation to
detect and monitor the impact of catastrophes. A representative sample of a population is
surveyed, from which valid estimates of the status of an entire target group can be made.
Sampiing can provide information on the entire range of problems and/or conditions lacing the
population. While not a complete assessment, it can still provide a good indication of the ,needs
of the target group. Sample surveys nlslke use of questionnaires for collecting some of the
required information like rnorbidity/mortality figures. Statistical analyses based on sample surveys
are useful for assessiilg the data collected.
Sample surveys are used by both governmental and non-governmental organisations. Besides
surveys that make available impact information, Epidemiological Surveillance for monitoring
, purposes is a very useful tool, primarily for health related impacts.. There are also Ke~note
Sensing and Aerial Photography that are inforination system inan:~gementtools and modern
methods for assessing and analysi~lgclisustcr impacl. In any given situation, it is a combination
of tools that may be most appropriately used, depending on the situational context. This Unit
explained the different lypes of sample surveys and other tools that could be used to ascertain
the impact of disasters in order to facilitate rehabilitation and recovery.,

2,7 KEY CONCEPTS- ----...--
%ampling Fraction
The Sampling Fraction is simply the ratio of the desired sample size to the total t ~ ~ ~ m b o rof
elements in the population. The Sampling Fraction (F) is derived by divicli~zgrhe Sampf~Size.
(N) by the Population Size (M) i,e., F = N/M
Sampling Interval
The Sampling Interval is the ratio of the number of elements in tl~epopulatioll to the sample
size.. Sampling Interval (I) is derived by dividing Population Size (M) by the Sample Size (N)
i.e., I = M/N
Target Group
For any type of programme e.g., clisaseer management programme or a poverty alleviatio~z
programme, a target group is identified. The target group is specially icleritiFied keeping in view
the poverty levels, vulnerability conditions, infrastructure availability and coping capacity of the
population to which the progralnmc attempts to cater. The progranlnle is desigized with the
target group in mind so that nlaximuln benefits could accrue to the targeted population.
2 3 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Carter, W. Nick, 1991, Disctster Managenzerat: A Disaster M u n ~ g e r ' ~ ~~&dbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Cuny, F, 1983, Di.sa,sters and Developnzent, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Dabelstein, Neils, 1995, "Disasters: Threat to Social Development", Stop Disasters; Voltrtne
23, Winter.
Gupta, Harsh K, 2003, Disaster Management, University Press, Hyderabad.
~Rodrick, D, 1988, Where did all the Growtlz go? External Stocks, Social Curlflict unti
Ecorzamic Gro~lfll,Harvard University, Cambridge.
,
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disasret. Mitigution: E.~periences
and Reflections, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabnndu (Eds,), 2003, Disaster Risk Red~criorii ~ t
South Asia, Prentice-Hal1 of India, New "Delhi,
Website:
Drnc.en~r.wis~.edu/co~1rses/airnscopelAA02-05.html.
1) Try to c a ~ yout a random sample survey of your neighbourhood to determine the impact of any
recent major problem faced by the residents (e.g., water shortage, epidemic, water logging etc.)
2) On the basis of Activity One, attempt to determineif the neighbourhood needs to prepare itself I
for any kind of emergencyin tlie future.Pen down your observations.
3) Go througlr the newspaper reportson the Gujarat Earthquake of 2001 or the Bhuj Earthquake of
2003 or the Muzuffarabad Earthquake of 2005. Study the reports thoroughly and suggest the
best form of sample survey that could be used to assess Ole iinpact of the esirthquake on houses
in the affected area. Try to develop a questionnaildeneeded to casry out your survey,

UNIT 3 ROLE OF VARIOUS AGENCIES IN
DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
3.0 Learning Outcome
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Framework for Coordination at the Governmental Level
3.3 Relevance of Community Participation
3.4 Role of Non-governmental Organisations
3.5 Role of Other Agencies in Disaster Management
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 Key Concepts
3.8 References and Further ~ e a d i n ~
3.9 Activities
After reading this Unit, you ~ i lbe able to:
e Highlight tbe framework for coordination of disaster management process a1 different
governmentallevels
e Examine the relevance of community participation; and
Discuss the role of NGOs and other importantagencies involved in disaster management.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster management needs a strong political commitment for erecting an effective planning
and coordination process at the governmental and societal levels. A structure with a clearly
defined authority as well as an appropriate budget to maintain an effective disaster plan is
needed, Preparedness plans should be comprehensive in scale and operation as disaster
management planning is a sequential and continuous process. Effective planning requires
systematic diagnosis, resource evaluation, and continuous feedback towards fulfillment of the
goals of disaster reduction. Since the scope of disaster management is quite wide and the
actors involved in the process are numerous, it is essential that a framework for coordination
is accepted and provided for.
Management is needed at all stages of a disaster: the disaster preparedness and mitigation
phase, the disaster event phase, the response phase, and the recovery phase comprising
rehabilitationand reconstruction processes. This is achieved through various actors-governmental,
non-governmental and private, engaged in the area of disaster management..This Unit deals
with Ule role of the different agencies in disaster management and developmental activities, It
will try to explain the importance of the role of each of these sectors, and also their vital
interlinkages, so essential for a coordinated and comprehensive disaster management system.

Role of Various Agencies in Disaster Mrrizngenze~~tartd Devrloplttetzt 39
-
3.2 FRAMEWORK FOR CO(PIFtDlCNAT16ON AT THE
GOVERNMENTAL LEVEE
There is a systematic structural framework for coordination of disaster rr~anagementtasks at
the central, state and district levels. It is essential that there is some level of undersri~ding
between these levels in order to avoid delays and overlapping of time and efforts. L,ct us
discuss this structural framework now:
Central Level
At the central level, a National Crisis Management Committee, headed by the Cabinet Secsetary,
has been constituted with the nodal rninistries in charge of various types of disasters and
supportjng ministries as members. The Central Relief Coinmissioner functions as the coordi~~ator
at the national level, under whom a Crisis Managenlent Group (CMG) has bee11 constituted.
The CMG meets as often as required in the walce of natural disasters to coordinate at the
central level and also liaise with the state governments as and when required. Tllere is n
National Contingency AhkctionPlan (CAP) that fdcilitates the launching of relief and rescue
operations witl~outdelay. The CAY identifies initiatives to be taken by various central nlinistries
and public dcpartlnents in the wake of natural disasters. It sets down procedures and deter~nirlcs
focal points in the adlninistrative tnnchinery.
The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) acts as the nodal agency for disaster management.
In the MHA, tlie Relief Com~llissionerf~~nctionsas the nodal officer to coordinate I-elief
operations for all natural disasters. Besides, the MHA, some other lninistries arc assignect the
responsibility of disasters that fall in their purview of activity like Agriculture, Railways or Civil
Aviation etc. Thc Ministry of Agriculture is in charge of droughts. Lately, thcre has beeti a
change in focus on disaster management, from 'relief and response' to 'prevention and
preparedness'. The High Powered Committee of the Governlnellt of India (2001) on 'Building
a Culture of Prevention' has come up with a colnprehensive review of disaster situation in
India. Its recomlnendations though still remain on paper.
The Tsunami disaster of Decetnber 2004 has brought the debate on policy reforms back into
focus. It has thrown up new challenges in the area of disister mangement at the governmental
and non-governmental levels. It has forced those concerned to revise their attitudes towards
disaster management. A positive development has been the setting up of the National Disaster
Management Authority with a statutory status at the central and state levels. The Authority
will be chaired by the Prime Minister at the central level and the Chief Minister at the state
levels. The objective is to go into each and every aspect of disaster nlanagetnent in ordcr to
ensure disaster prepaedaess and come up with a 'National Policy on Disastcrs'. There will
be a separate allocation for disaster management for each concerned ministry,L)isaster
Management Authority will also facilitate the streamlining of the number of departrnenls and
ministries involved in disaster management in order to irnprove coorditiation and scientific
thinking, as well as remove red tapism and wastage.
State Level
In tune with the federal structure of the countty, disaster management falls under the State
List. Therefore, the responsibility to cope with natural disasters is essentially that of the state
government. The role of the central government is suppot-tive.It supple~nentsthe physical and
financial resources of the state governments. Most of the states have Relief Commissioners1
Secretaries who are in charge of the relief and rehabilitation measures in the wake of natural
disasters in their states. The Chief Secretary is in overall charge of the relief operations in thc

40 Relzubilitatiorz, I(econsti.uctioiz and Recovery
state and the Relief Commissioner and the Additional Relief Commissioners function under his
direction and control.
In many states, the Secretary, Department of Revenue is also in-charge of relief. The state
governments usually have Relief Manuals and the districts have their Contingency Plans that
are updated from time to time. In case of a disaster, the state government also invites the
NGOs and other national and international relief organisations, to join in the efforts to reach
out to the victims. Recent developments at the state level organisational sei-up include the
setting up of a separate Department of Disaster Management under a Ministry of Disaster
Management and Wealth in the new state of Uttaranchal. The state has also created the
position of a Principal Secretary of DisasterManagement, The creation of a Disaster Management
and Mitigation Centre under the Department of Disaster Management in the Uttaranchal State
is in the pipeline.
District Level
The district administration is the focal point for the irnpleinentation of all governlnent plans and
activities. Considerab!.: ?)wers have been vested in the District Collector to carry out relief
operations in the shortest possible time. In the event of shortage of funds, the Collector is also
empowered to draw money from the district treasury under his emergency powers. The district
administration is also required to prepare a contingency plan in advance depending or1 the type
of disaster likely to affect the district. The actual day-to-day f~inctiorrsof administering relief
are the responsibility of the CollectorlDistrict MagistratetDeputy Co~nn~issio~~erwho exercises
coordinating and supervising powers over all departments at the district level.
There is also a District Level Relief Committee consisting of officials and non-officials including
the local legislators and Members of Parliament to review relief measures, A district is divided
into sub-divisions or 'tehsils' or 'talukas', While the head of the Sub-division is called the Sub-
divisional Officer, the head of the 'tehsil' is generally lcnown as Tehsildaar or Talukclar in some
states. At the block or circle level, there is the Block Development Officer or Circle Officer
who looks after relief works, At the village level, the Patwari or. the Village Level Worker
remains in contact with the villages under his charge.
The organisational set-up, as we just discussed, at the central, state and district levels needs
to be in place and well-geared up to face any eventuality. What we must not forget is that any
type of administrative set-up is.enosmously dependent on the participation of all the stakeholders
involved in disaster management. The community is the most important srakeholder in the
process and, thus, we will now turn our attention to the relevance of community participation
in mitigating the disaster aftermath.
3.3 RELEVANCE OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
The community, as an institution in itself, is emerging as the most powerful among all the
agencies involved in disaster management. In the event of a disaster, the conimunicy, if well
aware of the preventive actions it is required to take, can substantially reduce the damage
caused by the disaster. Education, awareness and training of the community ase particularly
useful in areas that are prone to fi-equent disasters.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines the community as a group in face-to-face
contact with each other, having harmony of interests and aspirations. It is also bound by
common values and objectives. The efforts of the corninunity in certain areas are laudable. At
some places, they have formed their own organisntions that take the initiative in disaster

Role of Vario~isAgetzcies iiz Disasrrt*Mclnagement and Developi~zetzt 41
situations. These Community-based Organisations or the CBOs are doing a lot of work in the
area of disaster management,
The CBOs, it has been pointed out, perform certain pertinent futictions. They:
o Offer nlut~ralsuppoi? and solidarity
o Strengthen people's ability to face crisis
Generate consciousness, awareness and analysis on issues of coxnmon concern
Enable people to demand an access to services and info~mationoffered by government agencies
(the new Right to Infor~nationAct has facilitated this role)
@ Orgiinise collectiveacquisition of skills and knowledgein various spheres
One itnportant community-based organisation is the Village Task Force. These Task Forces have
been formed in villages of Andhra Pradesh, followed by similar task forces in villages 01Orissa
and Gujarrat. The volunteers of the Village Task Force are trained in crnergency evucuation and
relief within the village. Salient features of their training are:
s Orientation tkning in disaster prepwednessfor villagers and staff ~nernbers
r Discussion on disaster preparedness in general meetings
e Sponsoringof staff f ~ rspecialised training; and
o Reparation of a handbook for emergencies.
Each community should have its own Disaster Task Force (DTF) comprising 10-12 members.
The following criteria should be followed while selecting the members:
e They must be young and healthy persons
o They must be members of the gram panchayat
They nust have acceptability and credibility in the community
a They should be persons who do not go to distant places for daily work
r They should have a strong inclination and commitment towards community service and
'
volunteerism
The people should elect the Task Force and during disasters, it must serve as the nodal body
for disaster management at the village level. It has to xnobilise resources for the comn~unity
and disseminate necessary information passed on by the outside agencies to the villagers.
While the communiky as an effective institution is yet to take shape in developing countries like
India with low literacy levels and widespread poverty, considerable efforts are being made to
form and strengthen community-based organisations at the grass roots levels.
The significance of community preparedness in handling disasters has been duly recognised
over time. If human interventions can be listed as the cause for increase in the scale of
destruction then it is through community preparedness that the scale can be reduced, The
Report of the ~ i ~ hPowered Committee, set up in 1999, also emphasises the need to look into
community preparedness components and strategies such as nature of hazard assessment, risk

42 Rehabilitation, Reconstnrction and Recovery
analysis, disaster prevention, emergency planning, public information and awareness.
Any effort towards strengthening the capacity of CBOs should aim at:
s Enabling them to efficiently and effectively develop, nlanage and sustain disaster mitigation,
preparedness and response programmes
s Promotingeffectivecoordinationbetween the colnmunityorganisations,NGOs andgovernmental
agencies in disaster response
a Developing a forum for exchange of knowledge and experiences in managing disasters
a Creating a pool of trained disaster management personnel drawn from the community who can
act as key resource persons in disaster management
r, Ensuring training of women in order to assess and meet the health and safety needs of other
disadvantagedgroups
3.4 ROLE OF NON-C;QVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
The Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) are the most effective means of achieving an
efficient communication link betw~enthe disaster management agencies and the affected
community. There are different types of NGOs working at the advocacy as well as the grass
roots levels. In typical disasler situations, they could be of help in preparedness, relief and
rescue, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and also in monitoring and feedback. If the p~tential
of NGOs is utilised in the right earnest, they could act as the key to a successf~lland
participatory approach to disaster management.
NGO participation forms a vital part of a disaster management strategy. This becomes clear
from the multifarious functions that the NGOs are expected to perform before, duting and after
the disasters. Characteristics unique to NGOs suc11 as their quick response time and the close
links that they share with the community make them the most suitable agencies for specific
activities related to disaster management.
In order to fully capitalise on the non-governmental sector, there is a need to streamline its
structure and also document it. At the same time, the government's role vis-i-vis the NGOs
also needs to be clearly identified and systcmatised so that an effective disaster management
mechanism could be made operatiolial within a short span of a disaster occurrence. In order
to be able to achieve all these objectives, collective action of the entire com~nunityis the need
of the hour, Tile NGOs are the key players in this regard.
The non-governmental sector and the vital CBOs that operate at grass roots level, have an
edge over governmental agencies as Pas as invoking community involvement is concerned. This
is due to their proximity with the comniunity, and the flexibility in their procedural matters.
NGOs are of different types, with specific areas of operation and varied fields of expertise.
Though organic in nature and informed in character, the non-governmental sector covers it
whole range of activities through its various networks. Some major types of NGOs are given
as under:
NGOs with Dedicated Field Operations and Resource Backup
These are large organisations, such as the International Red Cross Society. They have,specific
areas in which they carry out field operations. They have access to a large resource base, and

Role of Variocls Agencies in Disaster Managenzent and Developlnent 43
have the capability to extend material, financial as well as techxifcd support to disaster-affected
sites, In emergencies, their role is laudable as they garner support and resources from all over
the world and come to the rescue of the affected population almost immediately.
NGOs Related with Development Technology
These are NGOs involved in developing and propagating development technologies, such as
Sulabh International, which is renowned for its work in low cost sanitation. These NGOs are
active in times of peace. They carry out their developlnental projects all through the years and
could also be called in at the time of emergency arising out of disaster situations. They
facilitate the work of infrastructure provision to the affected communities. Even in non- disaster
or normal times, their services are important for retrofitting and using latest building technology,
in order to rninimise the incidents of death and destruction at the time of disasters such as
earthquakes and floods.
Interest Groups
These are also NGOs, which are multi-purpose in nature having varied interests, such as the
Rotary Club. However, such interest groups are very active, and have come forward to help
disaster victims in the times of need. They could play a major role in resource mobilisation for
relief aid and rehabilitation purposes.
Associations of Local Occupation Groups
Such associations are formed on the basis of common occupatio~~albackgrounds, and could
include groups such as doctors' associations, traders' associations and Army wives' associatio~ls
etc. Such groups, just like other interest groups, could play a major role in resource mobilisation,
and provision of specialised services to the victims in any emergency situation.
Local Residents' Associations
These Residents' Welfare Associations (RWAs) are formed by the local residents to look into
the interests of those living in their area. These associations are extremely concerned about
the welfare of the local com~nunityand need no external motivation or resource backup to take
active part in disaster reduction. Thus, they could act as a very useful tool for getting across
the message of co~nlnunityparticipation at the ground level.
Religious Bodies
Religious bodies are one of the most important NGO groups that come lo the immediate rescue
and relief of the disaster victims, These bodies have a large and dedicated following in their
communities. They also have control over the local places of worship, which are usually built
on high and safe ground, and can serve as ideal shelters for the disaster victims. Besides, they
often have infrastructure and resources lo feed mass gatherings, which facilitate disaster relief
work.
Educational Institutions
The educational institutions such as schools and colleges play an important role in disaster
management. Their prime responsibility is to spread awareness on natural disasters, provide
preventive action needed to minimise damage due to disasters as well as ensure immediate
relief and rescue. Besides, these institutions have large buildings at Iocal levels, which could
be used as shelters for the victim9 in the times of disaster.

44 Relzabilitatio?z,Reconstruction and Kec:overy
Taking into account all these NGOs and their respective activity areas, it can be stated that
the NGOs can facilitate the process of disaster management by contributing towards:
i) Cominunieation with Community
NGOs have a better link with the coinmunity and also have a presence in the field of action.
This puts them in a better position to assess, decide and implement relief operations at the time
of a disaster.
ii) Human Resources
The human help available with NGOs is unlimited, The human resources of NGOs are very
prompt and highly motivated, as they basically comprise volunteers who are involved at: their
own initiative. There are no pracedural problems such as those of maintaining rolls and handling
related legal issues.
iii) Finances and Materials
NGOs have very flexible means of mobilising resources and a number of them specialise in
just and fair resource mobilisation to be able to fund the activities of other NGOs worlcing in
the field of disasters.
iv) Professional and Technical Services
A number of specialised technical services can be made available to the community by the
NGOs, which would otherwise be too expensive and inaccessible to the common folk, Based
on the identified types of NGOs and their capabilities, organised action of NGOs can be very
useful in the following activities (given in the Table 3.1 below) that need to be attended to at
the different stages of disaster management:
Table 3.1
3.5 ROLE OF OTHER AGENCIES IN DISASTER
Training of local volunteers
I~nn~ediaterescue and first-aid including psycl~ologicalaid,
supply of food, watel; medicines,and other emergency material
' Ensuring sanitation and hygiene
MANAGEMENT
Post-disaster
Indian Red Cross Society
Technical and material aid in reconstructio~~
Assistance in seeking financial aid monitoring
In India, we have Red Cross Society at the national, state and district levels..This is not just
an agency, but also a movement for providing relief to the people when they are in dire rleect

Role of Vnriorrs Agencies i12 Disaster Mnnagenzerit and Devsloprizent 45
of it. Since this is an offshoot of an international movement, it is a co~npletelynon-political
organisation. It 'is the image of the Red Cross that makes it one of the most acceptable
institutions in the area of providing relief to the peoplk in distress.
Till 1995, the Red Cross was working primarily as a relief organisation. Froin 1996 onwards,
the International Federation of Red Cross has shifted its focus from 'relief' to 'disaster
preparedness' and has started developing cornmunity-based disaster preparedness plans. There
are many training p30grammesbeing organised by the Reil Cross. The 5-day training programine
of the Reil Cross co~lsistsof:
ta Field visits
o Making the trainees aware of the terminology related to various items as well as technology irr
use by various agencies
@ Funiliarising the trainees with the role of Red Cross in disaster management, which includes
rescue and relief to meet the challei~gesrelated to health hazards
The Red Cross is basically concerned with relief distributioilincluding first-aid and transporting/
shifting the victims of disnsters to hospitals or other safer places. The other agencies like
National Caclet Corps (NCC) and National Social Service (NSS) should also be made aware
of the role und potential of the Red Cross in order to ensure adequate coordination.
Media
The role of the electronic media has, during recent times, emerged as a major coinponeilt of
disaster innnagenrent. This role has been anlply de~nonstratedin the aftermath of disasters be
it the Gi~jaratearthquake of 2001 or the Muzzaftirabad Earthquake of 2005. At the same time,
the role of the print ~ncdia,especially regional press needs to be given due recognition, as this
continues to be the only medium accessible to a large section of people in many parts of
society, which still rcrnains unreachable by the electronic media. Besides, it is also true that
the print media llas a lnajor role to play in pre-disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness
activities through generatio11of appropriate conlmunity awiiseness. We will discuss the role of
the media in more detail in our next Unit.
Fire Services
In a larger context uf mbanisalion and industrialisarion, calamities play a match box role of
igniting Inore dangerous and uncontrollable disasters like fires. During the Kobe Earthquake,
a large nirrnber of buildings that could resist seismic forces were largely damaged due to post-
disaster fires. As pelqthe Constit~~tionof India, 'fire services' is a state subject under Section
243. The 'fire service" thus, provides coverage to only 30 per cent of the community, which *
is grossly inadcqunte.
Managingfires is Inore technical than perceived. It needs comprehensive study in risk evaluation
of each and cvcry area, prep:trntion of risk n~appingplans for each zone, study of prcparediless
level in terms of special equipment, training of personnel in foolproor co~nrnunicationsystem,
as well as l~oldingof ~criodicmock drills. Unlike, what is generally understood, the role of fire
services is no1just limited to being a fire-fighting service, but it also plays the role of a disaster
prevention agency, especially in urban areas. It can provide basic search and rescue service
ancl can also coordinalu in thc event of a disaster situation with other agencies like the police
and health services. 1

46 Rehabilitation, Xeconstl.uction and Recovery
Recent recommendations with regard to 'fire services' focus on:
e~ Appointmentof a NationalFireServiceCommissiontosuggestthereorganisationof 'fire services'
to cope with the challenges posed by the technological advancements duringpeace-timeand war
situations
o Formulation of a National Policy on Fire Preparednessfor rural and urban areas
e Provision of a comprehensivelegislative backup to.the'fire services' to enforce fire regulations
Risk Mappingof citiesand industrial towns and the norms forfire protectionlevels in such areas
e Examination of training standards and equipment requirements
e Formulation of fire safety programmes for the public
e Planningfor fire preventionand protection in slums and shanty towns
e Review of provisions of themodel Fire ServiceBill
Police and Para-military Forces
Police is always immediately mobilised to reach the site of disaster with a view to carry out,
relief and rescue operations with the coordination agencies. It is also the responsibility of the
police to provide security and maintain law and order at disaster locations where chances of
chaos or miscreants taking advantage of the situation are higher. Police personnel deployed for
such relief operations could prevent commission of cognisable offences including all offences
against life, property and public tranquility.
The police communication system is made available for transmission and receipt of messages
in connection with disasters. The police also regulate movenient of victims, rescue and relief
work, medical assistance and supplies. The role of para-military forces is veiy important, as
they may be called upon for additional assistanceto the police in situations requiring emergency
attention. The Central Industrial Security Force has an important role, particularly in disasters
involving industrial units or locations. The role of Border Security Force in the remote and
inaccessible areas also cannot be overlooked.
Civil Defence and Home Guards
The Civil Defence Organisation was established with a view to protect interests of the civilian
community in the times of war. The Civil Defence Act of 1968 formally established the
structure of the organisation. The Centre is only a guiding agency while the states are responsible
for raising, training and maintaining the corps. The Civil Defence Organisation is primarily a
voluntary organisation, whose resources are mobilised at the time of need through an activation
procedure. Civil Defence Organisation requirements are based on the vulnerability analysis by
the states themselves and are equipped accordingly. Their primary work areas include:
communication, rescue and casualty management, transportation and supply service, sewage
and corpse disposal along with basic welfare services.
Civil Defence has been modeled to save lives, minilnise damage to property and maintain the
continuity of supply of basic services. Although the Civil Defence Act is applicable throughout
the country, tlie organisation is raised only in such areas and zones, which are tactically and
strategically considered vulnerable to enemy attack. This is the reason that 24 of the states1
UTs in India have not raised Civil Defence in 102 out of 225 categorised towns/cities. Deputy

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