The document discusses various mechanisms of DNA rearrangement and introduction of foreign DNA into cells and organisms. Chapter 17 describes how yeast can switch between silent and active mating type loci, how trypanosomes frequently rearrange genes to express new surface antigens during infection, and how the Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium is able to transfer T-DNA into plant cells and integrate it into the plant genome. It also discusses methods for selecting amplified genomic sequences in mammalian cells and transfection, the process of introducing exogenous DNA into eukaryotic cells.
There are three main methods for genetic mapping and transfer of DNA in bacteria: conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct contact, often mediated by plasmids or sex pili. Transformation is the uptake of extracellular DNA by competent bacteria. Transduction occurs when bacteriophages transfer bacterial DNA between cells during infection. These methods are used to construct genetic maps of bacteria and their viruses through interrupted mating experiments and analysis of recombinant frequencies.
Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in corn in the 1940s. Transposons are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome through a "cut and paste" mechanism. There are two main types of transposons: those that move via a DNA intermediate, either replicatively or non-replicatively; and retrotransposons, which move via an RNA intermediate. Transposons make up about 45% of the human genome and can cause mutations by inserting into genes, though they are also used as tools for genetic engineering and mutagenesis experiments.
The document summarizes the process of translation, where mRNA is read by ribosomes to produce a polypeptide chain. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry amino acids and bind to mRNA codons through complementary anticodons. The ribosome facilitates coupling of tRNA anticodons to mRNA codons and links amino acids together in the correct order. Translation occurs in three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. Mutations can occur through base substitutions, insertions or deletions and affect protein structure and function.
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis (translation) from mRNA to a polypeptide chain. It discusses how tRNA molecules carry amino acids and link them to mRNA codons through complementary base pairing. The ribosome facilitates joining the amino acids into a polypeptide chain. Translation occurs in three stages - initiation, elongation through multiple cycles, and termination when a stop codon is reached. Mutations can occur through base substitutions, insertions or deletions and affect the resulting protein structure and function.
Exchange of genes between two DNA molecules to form new combinations of genes on a chromosome
contributes to a population’s genetic diversity (source of variation in evolution)
Recombination is more likely than mutation to be beneficial
Less likely destroy a gene's function
May bring together combinations of genes
Gene expression and control involves transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into proteins. Transcription occurs when RNA polymerase uses a gene's DNA as a template to make mRNA. Translation occurs when ribosomes use the mRNA to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide chain that folds into a protein. Eukaryotic cells have additional controls over gene expression that allow differentiation of cell types and control which genes are expressed. Mutations can occur that change gene products and cause disorders. Epigenetic modifications like DNA methylation also regulate gene expression.
Translation in prokaryotes involves three main stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, the small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA and forms initiation complexes. In elongation, amino acids are linked together into a polypeptide chain as tRNAs bring successive amino acids to the ribosome. Termination occurs when a stop codon binds, causing release of the complete polypeptide. Prokaryotes regulate translation through ribosome dimerization and other factors that block initiation when nutrients are limited.
1a- What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic informati.pdfeyelineoptics
1a- What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic information? How are these similar
and how are they different? How can they be used to map bacterial genomes?
b) Explain how genes in phages are mapped. (This is different from the above question)
Solution
Ques-1: What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic information? How are these
similar and how are they different? How can they be used to map bacterial genomes?
Answer:
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer is the transfer of genes between two
organisms that are phylogenetically unrelated but can readily exchange genes by conjugation or
transduction or transformation. HGT commonly occurs in prokaryotes and it plays a key role in
their evolution. HGT accelerates evolution.
Horizontal gene transfer: 1. conjugation, 2. transformation; 3. transduction
Similarities & differences:
Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genomes by between bacteria by the routes that does
not involve parent-offspring transmission. Conjugation, transduction and transformation are the
three mechanism of horizontal gene transfer.
In the above case, it has clearly illustrated that the conditions, which can successfully prevents
transduction and abolish transfer of chromosomal DNA from one bacterial cell to another by
generalized transduction with P22 bacteriophage. Initially recipient cell- surface receptors are
important for the attachment of the bacteriophage (P22) and finally spikes of phage enable
bacterial membrane to lyse finally incorporate phage genome into the bacterial cell for
integration. Therefore, for efficient transduction, presence of recipient cell- surface receptors is
essential in the culture otherwise, bacteria exert resistant effects to the phages.
Transformation type of gene transfer occurs between bacteria. The genes released by dead
bacteria can be transferred to the live bacteria, and get integrated into its genome, which results
in genetic recombination of the host.
Transduction is also involving the genetic material transfer, but this needs bacteriophage as
media. The bacteriophage infects the bacteria in lytic cycle and releases the new virions, the
capsids of some of these virions carry the bacterial DNA fragments into the new host bacteria,
followed by genetic recombination of the host bacteria.
Conjugation: It is the transfer of genetic material from cell to cell by means of direct contact or a
bridge like structure. Bacterial conjugation needs the conjugation tube for genome transfer, both
transduction and transformation does not need this.
Mapping the genome -mechanisms
F factor is mainly pertaining to a class of conjugate plasmids, which meticulously originated to
control sexual functions in prokaryotes via fertility inhibition. The origin of F-factor is mainly
with most common functional segments such as gene traJ, Ori, OriC. The structure of this F
factor contains OriT for origin of transfer and acts as a starting point for gene transmission.
There are three main methods for genetic mapping and transfer of DNA in bacteria: conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct contact, often mediated by plasmids or sex pili. Transformation is the uptake of extracellular DNA by competent bacteria. Transduction occurs when bacteriophages transfer bacterial DNA between cells during infection. These methods are used to construct genetic maps of bacteria and their viruses through interrupted mating experiments and analysis of recombinant frequencies.
Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in corn in the 1940s. Transposons are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome through a "cut and paste" mechanism. There are two main types of transposons: those that move via a DNA intermediate, either replicatively or non-replicatively; and retrotransposons, which move via an RNA intermediate. Transposons make up about 45% of the human genome and can cause mutations by inserting into genes, though they are also used as tools for genetic engineering and mutagenesis experiments.
The document summarizes the process of translation, where mRNA is read by ribosomes to produce a polypeptide chain. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry amino acids and bind to mRNA codons through complementary anticodons. The ribosome facilitates coupling of tRNA anticodons to mRNA codons and links amino acids together in the correct order. Translation occurs in three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. Mutations can occur through base substitutions, insertions or deletions and affect protein structure and function.
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis (translation) from mRNA to a polypeptide chain. It discusses how tRNA molecules carry amino acids and link them to mRNA codons through complementary base pairing. The ribosome facilitates joining the amino acids into a polypeptide chain. Translation occurs in three stages - initiation, elongation through multiple cycles, and termination when a stop codon is reached. Mutations can occur through base substitutions, insertions or deletions and affect the resulting protein structure and function.
Exchange of genes between two DNA molecules to form new combinations of genes on a chromosome
contributes to a population’s genetic diversity (source of variation in evolution)
Recombination is more likely than mutation to be beneficial
Less likely destroy a gene's function
May bring together combinations of genes
Gene expression and control involves transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into proteins. Transcription occurs when RNA polymerase uses a gene's DNA as a template to make mRNA. Translation occurs when ribosomes use the mRNA to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide chain that folds into a protein. Eukaryotic cells have additional controls over gene expression that allow differentiation of cell types and control which genes are expressed. Mutations can occur that change gene products and cause disorders. Epigenetic modifications like DNA methylation also regulate gene expression.
Translation in prokaryotes involves three main stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, the small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA and forms initiation complexes. In elongation, amino acids are linked together into a polypeptide chain as tRNAs bring successive amino acids to the ribosome. Termination occurs when a stop codon binds, causing release of the complete polypeptide. Prokaryotes regulate translation through ribosome dimerization and other factors that block initiation when nutrients are limited.
1a- What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic informati.pdfeyelineoptics
1a- What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic information? How are these similar
and how are they different? How can they be used to map bacterial genomes?
b) Explain how genes in phages are mapped. (This is different from the above question)
Solution
Ques-1: What are three ways that bacteria can exchange genetic information? How are these
similar and how are they different? How can they be used to map bacterial genomes?
Answer:
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer is the transfer of genes between two
organisms that are phylogenetically unrelated but can readily exchange genes by conjugation or
transduction or transformation. HGT commonly occurs in prokaryotes and it plays a key role in
their evolution. HGT accelerates evolution.
Horizontal gene transfer: 1. conjugation, 2. transformation; 3. transduction
Similarities & differences:
Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genomes by between bacteria by the routes that does
not involve parent-offspring transmission. Conjugation, transduction and transformation are the
three mechanism of horizontal gene transfer.
In the above case, it has clearly illustrated that the conditions, which can successfully prevents
transduction and abolish transfer of chromosomal DNA from one bacterial cell to another by
generalized transduction with P22 bacteriophage. Initially recipient cell- surface receptors are
important for the attachment of the bacteriophage (P22) and finally spikes of phage enable
bacterial membrane to lyse finally incorporate phage genome into the bacterial cell for
integration. Therefore, for efficient transduction, presence of recipient cell- surface receptors is
essential in the culture otherwise, bacteria exert resistant effects to the phages.
Transformation type of gene transfer occurs between bacteria. The genes released by dead
bacteria can be transferred to the live bacteria, and get integrated into its genome, which results
in genetic recombination of the host.
Transduction is also involving the genetic material transfer, but this needs bacteriophage as
media. The bacteriophage infects the bacteria in lytic cycle and releases the new virions, the
capsids of some of these virions carry the bacterial DNA fragments into the new host bacteria,
followed by genetic recombination of the host bacteria.
Conjugation: It is the transfer of genetic material from cell to cell by means of direct contact or a
bridge like structure. Bacterial conjugation needs the conjugation tube for genome transfer, both
transduction and transformation does not need this.
Mapping the genome -mechanisms
F factor is mainly pertaining to a class of conjugate plasmids, which meticulously originated to
control sexual functions in prokaryotes via fertility inhibition. The origin of F-factor is mainly
with most common functional segments such as gene traJ, Ori, OriC. The structure of this F
factor contains OriT for origin of transfer and acts as a starting point for gene transmission.
1. Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct contact or a bridge. It is a form of horizontal gene transfer.
2. Some plasmids called self-transmissible or conjugative plasmids can transfer themselves between bacteria. They encode proteins for transfer in a process requiring mating pair formation and DNA transfer systems.
3. The mating pair formation system forms a pilus for bacterial attachment and a channel for DNA passage. The DNA transfer system nicks DNA at the origin of transfer and replicates it unidirectionally for transfer to the recipient cell.
RNA exists in three forms - mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA - and is transcribed in the nucleus and used in the cytoplasm. The genetic code is universal, specific, degenerate, and non-overlapping. Translation is the process by which the mRNA codon sequence is used to direct the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. It involves initiation, elongation, and termination steps mediated by the ribosome, tRNA, and other factors. The completed polypeptide may undergo post-translational modifications before becoming a functional protein.
The document discusses translation and microbial protein production in bacteria. It describes the key steps and components involved in translation initiation, elongation, termination and recycling in prokaryotes. It also discusses how translation is regulated in bacteria during stationary phase through ribosome dimerization and mechanisms to block subunit joining. The document concludes by covering the use of special vectors for expressing foreign genes in E. coli that contain bacterial promoter and ribosome binding sequences to allow for microbial protein production.
Translation and microbial protein productionmithu mehr
This document discusses translation and microbial protein production in bacteria. It covers the key steps of translation initiation, elongation, termination and recycling in prokaryotes. It also discusses the use of special vectors for expressing foreign genes in E. coli, including the importance of promoters, gene fusions, and examples of commonly used promoters like lac, trp and tac. Finally, it outlines some general problems with producing recombinant proteins in E. coli, related both to foreign gene sequences and limitations of E. coli as a host.
1. Fred Griffith discovered that a substance present in the virulent S strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae could permanently transform the nonlethal R strain into the deadly S strain.
2. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty identified this "transforming principle" as DNA, providing the first evidence that DNA serves as the genetic material.
3. Hershey and Chase used radioactively labeled proteins and DNA from T2 viruses to infect E. coli cells. They found that most of the radioactively labeled DNA entered the bacterial cells while most of the labeled proteins remained outside, demonstrating that the genetic material of viruses is DNA rather than protein.
The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is first replicated to produce two identical DNA molecules. Transcription then produces mRNA from DNA, which differs in that only one DNA strand is used as a template. Translation follows, using the mRNA to direct protein synthesis on ribosomes with the help of tRNA. Mutations can occur in genes and chromosomes, altering DNA sequences and potentially changing protein functions or structures. Common gene mutations include substitutions, insertions, deletions, duplications, and frameshifts, while chromosome mutations involve translocations, deletions, duplications, inversions, and isochromosomes.
The document summarizes key concepts about gene expression and regulation:
1. DNA contains genes that encode instructions for proteins; during transcription, genes are copied into mRNA which is then translated by ribosomes into proteins.
2. In eukaryotes, mRNA must carry DNA information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis, since DNA is in the nucleus but protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm.
3. Transcription involves copying a gene into mRNA, which then directs ribosomes during translation to synthesize the encoded protein according to the genetic code where RNA codons specify amino acids.
The document discusses various biology concepts. It provides answers to 22 multiple choice questions related to topics like nucleolus function, T cell receptor engagement, amino acid roles in protein glycosylation, neurotransmitters, translation product molecular weight, protein separation techniques, membrane protein structure, epigenetics, plant hormones, genetic variation, primary production, electron microscope resolution, gene mapping, enzyme function, Mendel's experiments, speciation modes, niche competition, and vaccine success factors.
This document discusses different types of mobile genetic elements including transposable elements and retroelements. Transposable elements are divided into two classes - Class 1 contains DNA-mediated elements like transposons that can move within genomes, while Class 2 contains retroelements like retrotransposons and retroviruses that move via an RNA intermediate and can move between genomes. The document provides details on the mechanisms, structures, and roles of these different mobile genetic elements in genome evolution and their applications in genetic engineering.
The document summarizes key mechanisms of DNA replication and protein synthesis in cells. It discusses how mRNA is translated into proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. DNA replication involves unwinding of the DNA double helix at the replication fork and semi-conservative replication of both strands to produce two identical copies of DNA. Bidirectional replication from an origin of replication increases the efficiency of DNA copying.
The document discusses several key mechanisms involved in gene expression and DNA replication in cells:
1. Translation requires messenger RNA (mRNA) to specify protein sequences, transfer RNA (tRNA) to match amino acids to mRNA codons, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as a component of ribosomes.
2. The genetic code uses three-nucleotide codons in mRNA to specify 20 amino acids. Codons are read sequentially with some redundancy.
3. tRNAs have distinctive cloverleaf structures and transport amino acids to the ribosome based on codon-anticodon pairing, with some flexibility at the third position.
4. Ribosomes contain rRNA and proteins and join amino acids through
13-miller-chap-4b-lecture.urey miller experiment.MAKSGreenworld
The document summarizes key mechanisms of DNA replication and protein synthesis in cells. It discusses how mRNA is translated into proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. DNA replication involves unwinding of the DNA double helix at the replication fork and semi-conservative replication of both strands to produce two identical copies of DNA. Bidirectional replication from an origin of replication increases the efficiency of DNA copying.
Genetic codons and translation of proteinsHar Kamboj
The document summarizes key mechanisms of DNA replication and protein synthesis in cells. It discusses how mRNA is translated into proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. DNA replication involves unwinding of the DNA double helix at the replication fork and semi-conservative replication of both strands to produce two identical copies of DNA. Replication initiates at origins of replication and proceeds bidirectionally away from these sites.
This document summarizes bacterial genetic systems including transformation, conjugation, and transduction. It describes that bacterial genomes are circular and contain chromosomal DNA and plasmids. Plasmids can be conjugative or non-conjugative. Transformation involves the uptake of naked DNA by bacterial cells. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct cell contact via pili. Transduction involves the transfer of bacterial DNA by bacteriophages. These three processes allow for genetic recombination and diversity in bacteria.
This document summarizes three mechanisms of genetic transfer in bacteria: transformation, conjugation, and transduction. Transformation involves the uptake of naked DNA by a bacterial cell. Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria via cell-to-cell contact through a pilus. Transduction is the process by which bacteriophage viruses transmit DNA between bacteria. These three mechanisms allow for genetic recombination and diversity in bacterial populations.
Translation and microbial protein productionmithu mehr
This document discusses translation and microbial protein production in bacteria. It begins by describing the structure of tRNAs, including their length, modified nucleotides, and key regions. It then explains the two-step process of decoding mRNA sequences into amino acid sequences, mediated by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and the interaction of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons. Several figures show the structures of ribosomes, translation initiation and elongation factors, and the multi-step process of elongation. The document also discusses termination, energy requirements, rates of translation, and regulation of mRNA translation. Finally, it covers vectors, promoters, and challenges in producing recombinant proteins in E. coli.
Bacterial genetics involves three main mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer - transformation, transduction, and conjugation. These mechanisms allow bacteria to acquire new genetic material from other bacteria to help them survive in changing environments. Mutation also contributes to genetic variation in bacteria and usually involves changes to single genes, while gene transfer can involve simultaneous transfer of multiple genes.
The document discusses three bacteriophages - Lambda phage, M13 phage, and φX174 phage. It describes the structure and genome of each phage. It then outlines the life cycle of each phage, including adsorption to host cells, DNA replication, gene expression, assembly of new virions, and release from the host cell. Applications of each phage in research are also mentioned, such as using Lambda and M13 for DNA cloning and φX174 being the first genome sequenced.
Translational proofreading and translational inhibitorsShritilekhaDash
Translation proofreading is often the final stage of a translation process.
Transcription creates a complementary RNA copy of a DNA sequence and translation is the subsequent process where RNA is used to synthesize the actual protein from amino acids. Inhibition of this translation step has the effect of blocking protein production and ultimately its function.
Plasmids can transfer genetic material between bacterial cells through a process called conjugation. Joshua Lederberg and Esther Lederberg first observed this process in 1946 when they found that mixing strains of E. coli resulted in new strains with combined genetic traits. Conjugation involves direct contact between a donor and recipient cell and allows for horizontal gene transfer of plasmids and genes they carry. Key genes called tra genes encode machinery for the process, including formation of a pilus for cell attachment and a channel for DNA transfer. Self-transmissible plasmids can transfer themselves while mobilizable plasmids require the proteins from a conjugative plasmid to be transferred. Conjugation plays a major role in spreading antibiotic resistance genes
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
1. Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct contact or a bridge. It is a form of horizontal gene transfer.
2. Some plasmids called self-transmissible or conjugative plasmids can transfer themselves between bacteria. They encode proteins for transfer in a process requiring mating pair formation and DNA transfer systems.
3. The mating pair formation system forms a pilus for bacterial attachment and a channel for DNA passage. The DNA transfer system nicks DNA at the origin of transfer and replicates it unidirectionally for transfer to the recipient cell.
RNA exists in three forms - mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA - and is transcribed in the nucleus and used in the cytoplasm. The genetic code is universal, specific, degenerate, and non-overlapping. Translation is the process by which the mRNA codon sequence is used to direct the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. It involves initiation, elongation, and termination steps mediated by the ribosome, tRNA, and other factors. The completed polypeptide may undergo post-translational modifications before becoming a functional protein.
The document discusses translation and microbial protein production in bacteria. It describes the key steps and components involved in translation initiation, elongation, termination and recycling in prokaryotes. It also discusses how translation is regulated in bacteria during stationary phase through ribosome dimerization and mechanisms to block subunit joining. The document concludes by covering the use of special vectors for expressing foreign genes in E. coli that contain bacterial promoter and ribosome binding sequences to allow for microbial protein production.
Translation and microbial protein productionmithu mehr
This document discusses translation and microbial protein production in bacteria. It covers the key steps of translation initiation, elongation, termination and recycling in prokaryotes. It also discusses the use of special vectors for expressing foreign genes in E. coli, including the importance of promoters, gene fusions, and examples of commonly used promoters like lac, trp and tac. Finally, it outlines some general problems with producing recombinant proteins in E. coli, related both to foreign gene sequences and limitations of E. coli as a host.
1. Fred Griffith discovered that a substance present in the virulent S strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae could permanently transform the nonlethal R strain into the deadly S strain.
2. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty identified this "transforming principle" as DNA, providing the first evidence that DNA serves as the genetic material.
3. Hershey and Chase used radioactively labeled proteins and DNA from T2 viruses to infect E. coli cells. They found that most of the radioactively labeled DNA entered the bacterial cells while most of the labeled proteins remained outside, demonstrating that the genetic material of viruses is DNA rather than protein.
The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is first replicated to produce two identical DNA molecules. Transcription then produces mRNA from DNA, which differs in that only one DNA strand is used as a template. Translation follows, using the mRNA to direct protein synthesis on ribosomes with the help of tRNA. Mutations can occur in genes and chromosomes, altering DNA sequences and potentially changing protein functions or structures. Common gene mutations include substitutions, insertions, deletions, duplications, and frameshifts, while chromosome mutations involve translocations, deletions, duplications, inversions, and isochromosomes.
The document summarizes key concepts about gene expression and regulation:
1. DNA contains genes that encode instructions for proteins; during transcription, genes are copied into mRNA which is then translated by ribosomes into proteins.
2. In eukaryotes, mRNA must carry DNA information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis, since DNA is in the nucleus but protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm.
3. Transcription involves copying a gene into mRNA, which then directs ribosomes during translation to synthesize the encoded protein according to the genetic code where RNA codons specify amino acids.
The document discusses various biology concepts. It provides answers to 22 multiple choice questions related to topics like nucleolus function, T cell receptor engagement, amino acid roles in protein glycosylation, neurotransmitters, translation product molecular weight, protein separation techniques, membrane protein structure, epigenetics, plant hormones, genetic variation, primary production, electron microscope resolution, gene mapping, enzyme function, Mendel's experiments, speciation modes, niche competition, and vaccine success factors.
This document discusses different types of mobile genetic elements including transposable elements and retroelements. Transposable elements are divided into two classes - Class 1 contains DNA-mediated elements like transposons that can move within genomes, while Class 2 contains retroelements like retrotransposons and retroviruses that move via an RNA intermediate and can move between genomes. The document provides details on the mechanisms, structures, and roles of these different mobile genetic elements in genome evolution and their applications in genetic engineering.
The document summarizes key mechanisms of DNA replication and protein synthesis in cells. It discusses how mRNA is translated into proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. DNA replication involves unwinding of the DNA double helix at the replication fork and semi-conservative replication of both strands to produce two identical copies of DNA. Bidirectional replication from an origin of replication increases the efficiency of DNA copying.
The document discusses several key mechanisms involved in gene expression and DNA replication in cells:
1. Translation requires messenger RNA (mRNA) to specify protein sequences, transfer RNA (tRNA) to match amino acids to mRNA codons, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as a component of ribosomes.
2. The genetic code uses three-nucleotide codons in mRNA to specify 20 amino acids. Codons are read sequentially with some redundancy.
3. tRNAs have distinctive cloverleaf structures and transport amino acids to the ribosome based on codon-anticodon pairing, with some flexibility at the third position.
4. Ribosomes contain rRNA and proteins and join amino acids through
13-miller-chap-4b-lecture.urey miller experiment.MAKSGreenworld
The document summarizes key mechanisms of DNA replication and protein synthesis in cells. It discusses how mRNA is translated into proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. DNA replication involves unwinding of the DNA double helix at the replication fork and semi-conservative replication of both strands to produce two identical copies of DNA. Bidirectional replication from an origin of replication increases the efficiency of DNA copying.
Genetic codons and translation of proteinsHar Kamboj
The document summarizes key mechanisms of DNA replication and protein synthesis in cells. It discusses how mRNA is translated into proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. DNA replication involves unwinding of the DNA double helix at the replication fork and semi-conservative replication of both strands to produce two identical copies of DNA. Replication initiates at origins of replication and proceeds bidirectionally away from these sites.
This document summarizes bacterial genetic systems including transformation, conjugation, and transduction. It describes that bacterial genomes are circular and contain chromosomal DNA and plasmids. Plasmids can be conjugative or non-conjugative. Transformation involves the uptake of naked DNA by bacterial cells. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct cell contact via pili. Transduction involves the transfer of bacterial DNA by bacteriophages. These three processes allow for genetic recombination and diversity in bacteria.
This document summarizes three mechanisms of genetic transfer in bacteria: transformation, conjugation, and transduction. Transformation involves the uptake of naked DNA by a bacterial cell. Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria via cell-to-cell contact through a pilus. Transduction is the process by which bacteriophage viruses transmit DNA between bacteria. These three mechanisms allow for genetic recombination and diversity in bacterial populations.
Translation and microbial protein productionmithu mehr
This document discusses translation and microbial protein production in bacteria. It begins by describing the structure of tRNAs, including their length, modified nucleotides, and key regions. It then explains the two-step process of decoding mRNA sequences into amino acid sequences, mediated by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and the interaction of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons. Several figures show the structures of ribosomes, translation initiation and elongation factors, and the multi-step process of elongation. The document also discusses termination, energy requirements, rates of translation, and regulation of mRNA translation. Finally, it covers vectors, promoters, and challenges in producing recombinant proteins in E. coli.
Bacterial genetics involves three main mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer - transformation, transduction, and conjugation. These mechanisms allow bacteria to acquire new genetic material from other bacteria to help them survive in changing environments. Mutation also contributes to genetic variation in bacteria and usually involves changes to single genes, while gene transfer can involve simultaneous transfer of multiple genes.
The document discusses three bacteriophages - Lambda phage, M13 phage, and φX174 phage. It describes the structure and genome of each phage. It then outlines the life cycle of each phage, including adsorption to host cells, DNA replication, gene expression, assembly of new virions, and release from the host cell. Applications of each phage in research are also mentioned, such as using Lambda and M13 for DNA cloning and φX174 being the first genome sequenced.
Translational proofreading and translational inhibitorsShritilekhaDash
Translation proofreading is often the final stage of a translation process.
Transcription creates a complementary RNA copy of a DNA sequence and translation is the subsequent process where RNA is used to synthesize the actual protein from amino acids. Inhibition of this translation step has the effect of blocking protein production and ultimately its function.
Plasmids can transfer genetic material between bacterial cells through a process called conjugation. Joshua Lederberg and Esther Lederberg first observed this process in 1946 when they found that mixing strains of E. coli resulted in new strains with combined genetic traits. Conjugation involves direct contact between a donor and recipient cell and allows for horizontal gene transfer of plasmids and genes they carry. Key genes called tra genes encode machinery for the process, including formation of a pilus for cell attachment and a channel for DNA transfer. Self-transmissible plasmids can transfer themselves while mobilizable plasmids require the proteins from a conjugative plasmid to be transferred. Conjugation plays a major role in spreading antibiotic resistance genes
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
2. 17.1 Introduction
17.2 The mating pathway is triggered by pheromone-receptor interactions
17.3 The mating response activates a G protein
17.4 Yeast can switch silent and active loci for mating type
17.5 The MAT locus codes for regulator proteins
17.6 Silent cassettes at HML and HMR are repressed
17.7 Unidirectional transposition is initiated by the recipient MAT locus
17.8 Regulation of HO expression
17.9 Trypanosomes switch the VSG frequently during infection
17.10 New VSG sequences are generated by gene switching
17.11 VSG genes have an unusual structure
17.12 The bacterial Ti plasmid causes crown gall disease in plants
17.13 T-DNA carries genes required for infection
17.14 Transfer of T-DNA resembles bacterial conjugation
17.15 Selection of amplified genomic sequences
17.16 Transfection introduces exogenous DNA into cells
17.17 Genes can be injected into animal eggs
17.18 ES cells can be incorporated into embryonic mice
17.19 Gene targeting allows genes to be replaced or knocked out
3. Amplification refers to the production of
additional copies of a chromosomal
sequence, found as intrachromosomal or
extrachromosomal DNA.
Transgenic animals are created by
introducing new DNA sequences into the
germline via addition to the egg.
17.1 Introduction
4. Amplification refers to the production of
additional copies of a chromosomal
sequence, found as intrachromosomal or
extrachromosomal DNA.
Transgenic animals are created by
introducing new DNA sequences into the
germline via addition to the egg.
17.1 Introduction
5. Figure 17.1 Mating type controls several activities.
17.2 The mating pathway is triggered by
signal transduction
6. Figure 17.2 The yeast life
cycle proceeds through
mating of MATa and
MATa haploids to give
heterozygous diploids
that sporulate to generate
haploid spores.
17.2 The mating
pathway is triggered
by signal transduction
7. Figure 17.3 Either a or a
factor/receptor interaction
triggers the activation of a
G protein, whose bg
subunits transduce the
signal to the next stage in
the pathway.
17.2 The mating
pathway is triggered
by signal transduction
8. Figure 17.4 The same mating
type response is triggered by
interaction of either pheromone
with its receptor. The signal is
transmitted through a series of
kinases to a transcription factor;
there may be branches to some
of the final functions.
17.2 The mating
pathway is triggered by
signal transduction
9. Figure 26.29 Homologous proteins are found in signal
transduction cascades in a wide variety of organisms.
17.2 The mating pathway is
triggered by signal transduction
10. Figure 17.5 Changes of
mating type occur when
silent cassettes replace active
cassettes of opposite
genotype; when
transpositions occur between
cassettes of the same type,
the mating type remains
unaltered.
17.3 Yeast can switch
silent and active loci
for mating type
11. Figure 17.6 Silent cassettes
have the same sequences as
the corresponding active
cassettes, except for the
absence of the extreme
flanking sequences in HMRa.
Only the Y region changes
between a and a types.
17.3 Yeast can switch
silent and active loci
for mating type
12. Figure 17.7 In diploids the a1 and a2 proteins cooperate to
repress haploid-specific functions. In a haploids, mating
functions are constitutive. In a haploids, the a2 protein
represses a mating functions, while a1 induces a mating
functions.
17.3 Yeast can switch silent and active loci for mating type
13. Figure 17.8
Combinations of
PRTF, a1, a1 and
a2 activate or
repress specific
groups of genes to
correspond with
the mating type of
the cell.
17.3 Yeast can switch silent and active loci for mating type
14. Figure 9.10 RNA polymerase
initially contacts the region
from -55 to +20. When sigma
dissociates,the core enzyme
contracts to -30; when the
enzyme moves a few base
pairs, it becomes more
compactly organized into the
general elongation complex.
9.4 Sigma factor
controls binding
to DNA
15. Figure 17.6 Silent
cassettes have the same
sequences as the
corresponding active
cassettes, except for the
absence of the extreme
flanking sequences in
HMRa. Only the Y
region changes between
a and a types.
17.4 Silent cassettes at HML and HMR are repressed
16. Figure 17.9 HO
endonuclease
cleaves MAT just
to the right of the
Y region,
generating sticky
ends with a base
overhang.
17.5 Unidirectional transposition is
initiated by the recipient MAT locus
17. Figure 17.10 Cassette
substitution is initiated by a
double-strand break in the
recipient (MAT) locus, and
may involve pairing on either
side of the Y region with the
donor (HMR or HML) locus.
17.5 Unidirectional
transposition is initiated
by the recipient MAT
locus
18. Figure 14.5 Recombination
is initiated by a double-
strand break, followed by
formation of single-
stranded 3 ends, one of
which migrates to a
homologous duplex.
9.4 Sigma factor controls
binding to DNA
19. Figure 17.11 Switching occurs only in mother cells; both daughter
cells have the new mating type. A daughter cell must pass through an
entire cycle before it becomes a mother cell that is able to switch again.
17.6 Regulation of HO expression
20. Figure 17.12 Three
regulator systems act
on transcription of the
HO gene. Transcription
occurs only when all
repression is lifted.
17.6 Regulation of
HO expression
21. Figure 17.13 A trypanosome
passes through several
morphological forms when
its life cycle alternates
between a tsetse fly and
mammalian host.
17.7 Trypanosomes
rearrange DNA to express
new surface antigens
22. Figure 17.14 The C-
terminus of VSG is
cleaved and covalently
linked to the membrane
through a glycolipid.
17.7
Trypanosomes
rearrange DNA
to express new
surface antigens
23. Figure 17.15 VSG
genes may be created
by duplicative transfer
from an internal or
telomeric basic copy
into an expression site,
or by activating a
telomeric copy that is
already present at a
potential expression
site.
17.7 Trypanosomes rearrange DNA to
express new surface antigens
24. Figure 17.16 Internal basic copies can be activated only by generating
a duplication of the gene at an expression-linked site
17.7 Trypanosomes rearrange DNA to
express new surface antigens
25. Figure 17.17 Telomeric basic copies can be activated in situ; the size of the
restriction fragment may change (slightly) when the telomere is extended.
17.7 Trypanosomes rearrange DNA
to express new surface antigens
26. Figure 17.18 The
expression-linked copy of a
VSG gene contains barren
regions on either side of the
transposed region, which
extends from ~1000 bp
upstream of the VSG coding
region to a site near the 3
terminus of the mRNA.
17.7 Trypanosomes
rearrange DNA to
express new surface
antigens
27. Figure 17.19 An
Agrobacterium carrying a Ti
plasmid of the nopaline type
induces a teratoma, in which
differentiated structures
develop. Photograph kindly
provided by Jeff Schell.
17.8 Interaction of Ti plasmid DNA with the plant genome
28. Figure 17.20 Ti plasmids carry genes involved
in both plant and bacterial functions.
17.8 Interaction of Ti plasmid DNA with the plant genome
29. Figure 17.21 T-DNA is
transferred from
Agrobacterium carrying a Ti
plasmid into a plant cell,
where it becomes integrated
into the nuclear genome and
expresses functions that
transform the host cell.
17.8 Interaction of Ti plasmid
DNA with the plant genome
30. Figure 17.22 Nopaline and octopine Ti plasmids
carry a variety of genes, including T-regions that
have overlapping functions
17.8 Interaction of Ti plasmid DNA with the plant genome
31. Figure 17.23 The vir
region of the Ti plasmid
has six loci that are
responsible for
transferring T-DNA to an
infected plant.
17.8 Interaction of Ti
plasmid DNA with the
plant genome
33. Figure 17.25 The two-
component system of
VirA-VirG responds to
phenolic signals by
activating transcription
of target genes.
17.8 Interaction of Ti
plasmid DNA with the
plant genome
34. Figure 17.26 T-DNA has almost identical repeats of 25 bp at each end in
the Ti plasmid. The right repeat is necessary for transfer and integration
to a plant genome. T-DNA that is integrated in a plant genome has a
precise junction that retains 1-2 bp of the right repeat, but the left
junction varies and may be up to 100 bp short of the left repeat.
17.8 Interaction of Ti plasmid DNA with the plant genome
35. Figure 17.27 T-DNA is
generated by displacement
when DNA synthesis starts
at a nick made at the right
repeat. The reaction is
terminated by a nick at the
left repeat.
17.8 Interaction of Ti
plasmid DNA with the
plant genome
36. Figure 17.27 T-DNA is
generated by displacement
when DNA synthesis starts
at a nick made at the right
repeat. The reaction is
terminated by a nick at the
left repeat.
17.8 Interaction of Ti
plasmid DNA with the
plant genome
37. Amplification refers to the production
of additional copies of a chromosomal
sequence, found as intrachromosomal
or extrachromosomal DNA.
17.9 Selection of amplified genomic sequences
38. Figure 17.28 The dhfr gene
can be amplified to give
unstable copies that are
extrachromosomal (double
minutes) or stable
(chromosomal).
Extrachromosomal copies
arise at early times.
17.9 Selection of
amplified genomic
sequences
39. Figure 17.29 Amplified copies of the dhfr gene produce a
homogeneously staining region (HSR) in the chromosome.
Photograph kindly provided by Robert Schimke.
17.9 Selection of amplified genomic sequences
40. Figure 17.30 Amplified extrachromosomal dhfr genes
take the form of double-minute chromosomes, as seen
in the form of the small white dots. Photograph kindly
provided by Robert Schimke.
17.9 Selection of amplified genomic sequences
41. Figure 17.30 Amplified extrachromosomal dhfr genes
take the form of double-minute chromosomes, as seen
in the form of the small white dots. Photograph kindly
provided by Robert Schimke.
17.9 Selection of amplified genomic sequences
42. Transfection of eukaryotic cells is the
acquisition of new genetic markers by
incorporation of added DNA.
Transgenic animals are created by
introducing new DNA sequences into the
germline via addition to the egg.
17.10 Exogenous sequences can be introduced
into cells and animals by transfection
43. Figure 17.31 Transfection can introduce DNA
directly into the germ line of animals
17.10 Exogenous sequences can be introduced
into cells and animals by transfection
44. Figure 17.32 A
transgenic mouse
with an active rat
growth hormone
gene (left) is twice
the size of a normal
mouse (right).
Photograph kindly
provided by Ralph
Brinster.
17.10 Exogenous sequences can be introduced
into cells and animals by transfection
45. Figure 17.33 Hypogonadism of
the hpg mouse can be cured by
introducing a transgene that has
the wild-type sequence.
17.10 Exogenous
sequences can be
introduced into cells and
animals by transfection
46. Figure 17.34 ES cells
can be used to generate
mouse chimeras, which
breed true for the
transfected DNA when
the ES cell contributes
to the germ line.
17.10 Exogenous
sequences can be
introduced into cells
and animals by
transfection
47. Figure 17.35 A transgene
containing neo within an
exon and TK downstream
can be selected by
resistance to G418 and
loss of TK activity.
17.10 Exogenous
sequences can be
introduced into cells and
animals by transfection
48. Figure 17.36 Transgenic flies
that have a single, normally
expressed copy of a gene can be
obtained by injecting D.
melanogaster embryos with an
active P element plus foreign
DNA flanked by P element ends.
17.10 Exogenous sequences
can be introduced into cells
and animals by transfection
49. 17.11 Summary
•Yeast mating type is determined by
whether the MAT locus carries the a or
sequence.
•Additional, silent copies of the mating-
type sequences are carried at the loci HML
and HMRa.
•Trypanosomes carry >1000 sequences
coding for varieties of the surface antigen.
50. •Agrobacteria induce tumor formation in wounded
plant cells. The wounded cells secrete phenolic
compounds that activate vir genes carried by the Ti
plasmid of the bacterium.
•Endogenous sequences may become amplified in
cultured cells. Exposure to methotrexate leads to the
accumulation of cells that have additional copies of
the dhfr gene.
•New sequences of DNA may be introduced into a
cultured cell by transfection or into an animal egg by
microinjection.
17.11 Summary