Broadside Array vs end-fire array
Higher directivity.
Provide increased directivity in
elevation and azimuth planes.
Generally used for reception.
Impedance match difficulty in
high power transmissions.
Variants are:
Horizontal Array of Dipoles
RCA Fishborne Antenna
Series Phase Array
Details: https://electronicsembeddedworld.blogspot.com/2018/06/performance-management-mcq.html
FM demodulation involves changing the frequency variations in a signal into amplitude variations at baseband, e.g. audio. There are several techniques and circuits that can be used each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
In any radio that is designed to receive frequency modulated signals there is some form of FM demodulator or detector. This circuit takes in frequency modulated RF signals and takes the modulation from the signal to output only the modulation that had been applied at the transmitter.
There are several types of FM detector / demodulator that can be used. Some types were more popular in the days when radios were made from discrete devices, but nowadays the PLL based detector and quadrature / coincidence detectors are the most widely used as they lend themselves to being incorporated into integrated circuits very easily...
RF Carrier oscillator
To generate the carrier signal.
Usually a crystal-controlled oscillator is used.
Buffer amplifier
Low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier.
To isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers.
Modulator : can use either emitter collector modulation
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (pull-push modulators)
Required with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in the AM envelope
Coupling network
Matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the transmission line/antenn
Applications are in low-power, low-capacity systems : wireless intercoms, remote control units, pagers and short-range walkie-talkie
Modulating signal is processed similarly as in low-level transmitter except for the addition of power amplifier
Power amplifier
To provide higher power modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation (carrier power is maximum at the high-level modulation point).
Same circuit as low-level transmitter for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition of power amplifier
Broadside Array vs end-fire array
Higher directivity.
Provide increased directivity in
elevation and azimuth planes.
Generally used for reception.
Impedance match difficulty in
high power transmissions.
Variants are:
Horizontal Array of Dipoles
RCA Fishborne Antenna
Series Phase Array
Details: https://electronicsembeddedworld.blogspot.com/2018/06/performance-management-mcq.html
FM demodulation involves changing the frequency variations in a signal into amplitude variations at baseband, e.g. audio. There are several techniques and circuits that can be used each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
In any radio that is designed to receive frequency modulated signals there is some form of FM demodulator or detector. This circuit takes in frequency modulated RF signals and takes the modulation from the signal to output only the modulation that had been applied at the transmitter.
There are several types of FM detector / demodulator that can be used. Some types were more popular in the days when radios were made from discrete devices, but nowadays the PLL based detector and quadrature / coincidence detectors are the most widely used as they lend themselves to being incorporated into integrated circuits very easily...
RF Carrier oscillator
To generate the carrier signal.
Usually a crystal-controlled oscillator is used.
Buffer amplifier
Low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier.
To isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers.
Modulator : can use either emitter collector modulation
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (pull-push modulators)
Required with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in the AM envelope
Coupling network
Matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the transmission line/antenn
Applications are in low-power, low-capacity systems : wireless intercoms, remote control units, pagers and short-range walkie-talkie
Modulating signal is processed similarly as in low-level transmitter except for the addition of power amplifier
Power amplifier
To provide higher power modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation (carrier power is maximum at the high-level modulation point).
Same circuit as low-level transmitter for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition of power amplifier
The attached narrated power point presentation explores the electromagnetic spectrum classification, attempts to explain the need for modulation and process of analog modulation. The material will be useful for KTU first year students who prepare for the subject EST 130, Part B, Basic Electronics Engineering.
AM – Frequency spectrum – vector representation – power relations – generation of AM – DSB, DSB/SC, SSB, VSB AM Transmitter & Receiver; FM and PM – frequency spectrum – power relations : NBFM & WBFM, Generation of FM and DM, Armstrong method & Reactance modulations : FM & PM frequency.
This is all about MODULATION, AMPLITUDE MODULATION, AND AM DEMODULATION, Techniques
By_ IMTIAZ ALI AHMED
B.Tech Student
Siliguri Institute of Technology(ECE)
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
#vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore#blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #blackmagicforlove #blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #Amilbabainuk #amilbabainspain #amilbabaindubai #Amilbabainnorway #amilbabainkrachi #amilbabainlahore #amilbabaingujranwalan #amilbabainislamabad
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
1. LECTURE ON AM/FM TRANSMITTER
PRESENTED BY
A.ABHISHEK REDDY
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECS.
Mobile No.:8121444996
1 SESSION-1
2. UNIT-4 SYLLABUS
SESSION-1
2
Transmitters and Receivers:
(i)Classification of transmitters. High level and low level
AM transmitters.
(ii)FM transmitters.
(iii) Principle of operation of Tuned radio frequency
(TRF) and super heterodyne receivers.
(iv)Selection of RF amplifier. Choice of Intermediate
frequency. Image frequency and its rejection ratio
(v)Receiver characteristics: Sensitivity, Selectivity,
Fidelity,Double spotting, Automatic Gain Control.
4. Information or
Message
Transducer Transmitter Communication
Channel or
Medium
Information
in Electrical form
•It takes the information to be communicated in electrical
form and convert it into an electronic signal compatible
with the communication medium .
TRANSMITTER
4 SESSION-1
5. TRANSMITTER
In this block diagram of communication
system, the upper section is called the
transmitting section.
5 SESSION-1
6. TRANSMITTER
The main parts of transmitter are explained
as follows :
Microphone : It converts sounds into
electrical signals in wires. It is the opposite
of a loudspeaker.
Modulator : The audio signal is modulated
into the radio frequency carrier in this
modulator stage.
6 SESSION-1
7. TRANSMITTER
Frequency generator : The frequency
generation stage will decide the frequency
on which the transmitter will operate.
RF power amplifier : The power
amplification of the radio signal is carried
out in the final stage. It makes the signal
stronger so that it can be transmitted
through the channel over long distances.
7 SESSION-1
8. TRANSMITTER
An antenna is a transducer which
converts electrical signals into
electromagnetic waves.
8 SESSION-1
9. BASIC BLOCKS OF TRANSMITTER
Modulator
RF oscillator
Power amplifier
9 SESSION-1
10. BASIC FUNCTIONS OF TRANSMITTER
Modulation
Carrier generation
Amplification (Power)
It is an electronic unit which accepts the information
signal to be transmitted and converts it into an RF signal
capable of being transmitted over long distances .
10 SESSION-1
11. BASIC FUNCTIONS OF TRANSMITTER
Every transmitter has three basic functions as follows:
The transmitter must generate a signal of correct
frequency at a desired point in the spectrum.
Secondly it must provide some form of modulation to
modulate the carrier.
Third it must provide sufficient power amplification in
order to carry the modulated signal to a long distance.
11 SESSION-1
12. CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO
TRANSMITTERS
1. According to the type of modulation used.
2. According to service involved.
3. According to the frequency range involved.
4. According to the power used.
12 SESSION-1
13. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
TRANSMITTED FREQUENCY
Low frequency (LF) transmitters (30 KHZ-
300KHZ)
Medium frequency (MF) transmitters ( 300 KHZ-
3 MHZ)
High frequency (HF) transmitters (3 MHZ-
30MHZ)
13 SESSION-1
14. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
TRANSMITTED FREQUENCY
Very high frequency (VHF) transmitters
(30MHZ-300 MHZ)
Ultra high frequency (UHF) transmitters
(300 MHZ- 3GHZ)
Microwave transmitters (>3GHZ)
14 SESSION-1
15. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE
OF SERVICE INVOLVED
Radio telegraph transmitters.
i. AM/FM for point –to-point communication
ii. Transmission of messages are sent by means of dots and dashes
Radio telephony transmitters.
i. used for transmission of telephone signals over long distances.
ii. AM/FM and short waves involve highly directional antennas
iii. Txd power is order of few KW
Television transmitters.
i. Txmitting of picture/video signal—VSB
ii. Txmitting of sound—FM
iii. Both operate in VHF and UHF band with 7MHZ bandwidth
15 SESSION-1
16. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE
OF SERVICE INVOLVED
Radar transmitters.
i. Pulse modulation : uses pulses as carrier and requires typically of 100KW
peak power in microwave band typically 3000MHz(10cm wavelength) or
10,000MHz(3cm wavelength)
ii. Continuous wave transmission : requires FM as carrier (doppler effect)
Navigational transmitters.
i. For seas and air for blind landing of aircraft
ILS-instrumental landing system
GCA-ground control approach
16 SESSION-1
17. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPES
OF MODULATION
CW Transmitters
AM Transmitters
FM Transmitters
SSB Transmitters
17 SESSION-1
18. CONTINIOUS WAVE (CW)
TRANSMITTERS
It is a simple crystal oscillator circuit which generates a carrier signal of the desired
frequency.
Information to be transmitted is expressed in a special form of code using dots and
dashes to represent letters of the alphabet and numbers.
18 SESSION-1
19. CONTINIOUS WAVE (CW)
TRANSMITTERS
The key is a simple hand operated switch connected in emitter of the transistor.
By closing the key we can turn on the crystal oscillator on and by opening the
key the oscillator is turned off.
When the key is closed, the oscillator produces a sinusoidal signal at a
frequency equal to the crystal frequency, whereas with the key open, the
output of oscillator is zero.
The key is opened and closed in order to produce zero output and dots or
dashes.
19 SESSION-1
20. CONTINIOUS WAVE (CW)
TRANSMITTERS
Dots correspond to the short duration output whereas a dash corresponds to a
long duration output.
The required messages can be transmitted using different combinations of
dots and dashes for different alphabets and letters.
Length of dash is 3times the length of dots
Spacing between letters in a word is equal to 3dots or 1 dash
20 SESSION-1
21. ADVANTAGES OF CW TRANSMITTER
Simple to construct
Compact and portable
Can be operated on batteries
21 SESSION-1
22. DISADVANTAGES
A skilled operator is required to convert the
message to be sent into a coded form of dots
and dashes.
Long distance communication is not possible.
Voice or picture can not be sent.
22 SESSION-1
24. AM TRANSMITTER
Amplitude modulation technique is used in AM
transmitters, here the amplitude of carrier is varied
in proportion with the amplitude of the modulating
signal, keeping its frequency and phase constant.
Used in radio & TV broadcasting.
24 SESSION-1
25. AM TRANSMITTER
In AM Transmitter, AM signal is transmitted
by a transmitter. The information is contained
in its amplitude variation.
25 SESSION-1
26. TYPES OF AM TRANSMITTERS
Low Level modulation transmitters.
High Level modulation transmitters.
26 SESSION-1
27. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The generation of AM wave takes place at a low power
level.
The generated AM signal is then amplified using a chain
of linear amplifier ( A , AB or B).
Low Level
Modulator
Power
Amplifier
(Linear)
RF Carrier
Oscillator
Signal
Source
(Modulating
Signal)
27 SESSION-1
29. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The RF oscillator produces the carrier signal.
The RF oscillator is stabilized in order to
maintain the frequency deviation within the
prescribed limit. The carrier frequency is
equal to the transmitter frequency.
Usually the transmitter operates on assigned
frequencies or channels. Crystal provides the
best way to obtain the described frequency
with good stability.
29 SESSION-1
30. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
We cannot use the LC oscillator because
they have low frequency stability.
The carrier signal from the crystal oscillator is
applied to the modulator with a modulating
signal. At the output of the modulator we get
the AM wave.
30 SESSION-1
31. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The modulating signal is obtained from a
source such as a microphone and applied to
a buffer processing unit.
The buffer is a class A amplifier which
isolates the AF source from the rest of high
power circuit and amplifies it to an adequate
level.
31 SESSION-1
32. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The amplified modulating signal is applied to
the modulator along with the carrier. At the
output of the modulator we get the AM wave.
The AM signal is then amplified using a chain
of linear amplifier to raise the power level.
32 SESSION-1
33. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The linear amplifier can be class A, AB or B
type amplifiers. The linear amplifier are used
in order to avoid the wave form distortion in
AM wave.
The amplitude modulated signal is then
transmitted using transmitted antenna.
33 SESSION-1
34. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The transistorized modulator circuits can be
used for low level modulator due to the low
power which is to be handled.
The low level transmitter does not require a
large AF modulator power so its design is
simplified.
34 SESSION-1
35. LOW LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
Overall efficiency is much lower compared to
high level modulation . This reduce to the
use of less efficient linear amplifiers.
35 SESSION-1
36. AUDIO PROCESSING
The AF modulating signal is passed
through an audio processing unit before
applying it to the modulator.
This block carries out some form of
“speech processing” in the form of filtering
and amplitude control.
The weak signals amplified automatically
with a higher gain and strong signals are
amplified with smaller gain. This will bring
all the signals to a sufficient level.
36 SESSION-1
37. HIGH LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The generation of AM wave takes place at high power
levels.
RF Carrier
Oscillator
Narrow Band
Power Amplifier
High Level
Modulator
Wide Band
Power
Amplifier
Signal
Source
(Modulating
Signal)
37 SESSION-1
38. HIGH LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
Highly efficient class C amplifier are used in
high level modulation.
Efficiency is more than low level modulation.
38 SESSION-1
39. Class A RF
amplifier
Stabilized RF
crystal
oscillator
Antenna
Class A AF
amplifier
Audio
processing &
filtering
AF
modulating
signal
Class C RF
power
amplifier
High Level
Modulator
Class B AF
power
amplifier
HIGH LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS
39 SESSION-1
40. HIGH LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
Many of the AM transmitters use the high level
modulation technique.
The crystal oscillator produces the required
carrier signal. The class A amplifier following the
oscillator acts as a buffer which isolates the
oscillator from the high power circuit.
40 SESSION-1
41. HIGH LEVEL MODULATION
TRANSMITTERS
The output of this class A amplifier is applied
to a class C power amplifier. It raises the
power level of the carrier to an intermediately
high value.
The AF modulating signal is applied to the
audio processing unit which processes this
signal as discussed in the previous section.
41 SESSION-1
42. COMPARISION BETWEEN LOW-LEVEL
AND HIGH-LEVEL MODULATION
1. Power level :
Modulation is carried
out at low power level.
2. Amplifier stages:
Need lesser amplifier
stages.
Modulation is carried
out at high power
level.
Need more amplifier
stages.
42 SESSION-1
43. COMPARISION BETWEEN LOW-LEVEL
AND HIGH-LEVEL MODULATION
3. Power efficiency :
After modulation linear
amplifiers can only be
used. This gives lower
power efficiency.
4. Power losses :
Power losses in
amplifiers is higher,
the cooling problem is
severe.
Non linear amplifiers
can also be used. This
leads to higher power
efficiency.
Power losses is less,
the cooling problem is
not severe.
43 SESSION-1
44. COMPARISION BETWEEN LOW-LEVEL
AND HIGH-LEVEL MODULATION
5. Applications :
Used as higher power
broadcast transmitters.
Used in TV
transmitters.
44 SESSION-1
48. STANDARD BROADCAST BANDS
AM(MEDIUM WAVE) : 550KHz-1650KHZ
AM(SHORT WAVE) : 3-30MHz
FM : 88MHz-108MHz
TV : 54MHz-88MHz
174MHz-216MHz VHF
470MHz-890MHz(UHF)
48 SESSION-1
49. FM TRANSMITTERS
Frequency modulation technique is used.
In FM frequency of the carrier is varied in
proportion with the amplitude of the modulating
signal keeping its amplitude constant.
49 SESSION-1
50. FM TRANSMITTERS
Used in radio, TV sound broadcasting &
police wireless transmission.
In FM transmitter the FM signal is transmitted
by a transmitter. The information is contained
in its frequency variation.
50 SESSION-1
51. FM TRANSMITTERS
The FCC has assigned a band of 20 MHz to
the commercial FM broad cast service.
This band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
51 SESSION-1
52. FM TRANSMITTERS
This 20 MHz band is divided in 100 channels,
each having a bandwidth of 200 KHz.
For providing high quality reliable music the
maximum frequency deviation allowed is 75
KHz, with a maximum modulating signal
frequency of 15 KHz.
52 SESSION-1
53. METHODS OF FM GENERATION
Indirect Methods
Direct Methods
Methods of FM Generation
53 SESSION-1
54. DIRECT FM
In direct FM generation the frequency of the
carrier is changed directly in proportion with the
modulating signal amplitude.
Types of Direct FM
Reactance modulator
Varactor diode modulator
54 SESSION-1
55. DIRECT FM
These methods use a varactor diode or a
reactance transistor for presenting a variable
reactance across the frequency determining
circuit of an oscillator.
55 SESSION-1
57. DIRECT FM
When the variable reactance of the device
varies with the modulating signal the
oscillator generator the corresponding FM
signal.
57 SESSION-1
58. DIRECT MODULATORS
Few other direct modulators are:
Varactor diode modulator.
Reactance modulator.
V.C.O. modulator.
Stabilized reactance modulator.
Cross by direct FM transmitters.
58 SESSION-1
59. REACTANCE MODULATOR
In the reactance modulator, a transistor or
FET is operated as a variable reactance
(inductive or capacitive) device.
This device is connected across the tuned
circuit of an oscillator.
As the instantaneous value of modulating
voltage changes, the reactance offered by
the transistor or FET will change
proportionally.
59 SESSION-1
60. VARACTOR DIODE
Here the voltage applied across the varactor diode
varies in proportion with the modulating voltage.
This will vary the junction capacitance of the varactor
diode. The varactor diode appears in parallel with the
oscillator tuned circuit. Hence the oscillator frequency
will change with change in varactor diode capacitance
and FM wave is produced.
60 SESSION-1
61. ADVANTAGES OF DIRECT FM
MODULATION
The main advantage of direct FM generation is
the simplicity of the modulators and their low
cost.
61 SESSION-1
62. DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT
METHOD
In the direct method of FM generation we have
to use the LC oscillator. The LC oscillator
frequency is not stable.
Therefore its not possible to use such oscillator
for communication or broadcast purpose.
62 SESSION-1
63. DIRECT FM
Therefore we have to use a scheme in which
we can use the crystal oscillator to control
the carrier frequency.
Therefore we have to use the automatic
frequency control system.
63 SESSION-1
64. INDIRECT METHOD ( ARMSTRONG
METHOD)
Here FM is obtained through phase modulation.
A Crystal oscillator is used and hence the
frequency stability is very high.
A narrow band PM signal is generated via DSB-
SC signal and a 90° phase shifted sub carrier
signal from a crystal oscillator.
64 SESSION-1
65. INDIRECT METHOD ( ARMSTRONG
METHOD)
The integration of the modulating signal
makes the NBPM signal to NBFM signal.
This NBFM signal is applied to a harmonic
generator (frequency multiplier) which will
increase both the carrier frequency and the
maximum deviation to the required.
65 SESSION-1
66. COMPARISION OF AM AND FM
BROADCASTING
AM Broadcasting
It requires smaller
transmission
bandwidth.
It can be operated in
low, medium and high
frequency bands.
It has wider coverage.
FM Broadcasting
It requires larger bandwidth.
It needs to be operated in very
high and frequency bands.
Its range is restricted to 50 km.
66 SESSION-1
67. COMPARISION OF AM AND FM
BROADCASTING
The demodulation is
simple.
The stereophonic
transmission is not
possible.
The system has poor
noise performance.
The process of
demodulation is
complex.
In this, stereophonic
transmission is
possible.
It has an improved
noise performance.
67 SESSION-1
68. REVISION
What is Transmitter
Classification of Transmitters
Based on Type of modulation
Based on Transmitted frequency
AM Transmitters
Types of AM transmitters
Low Level modulation transmitter
High Level modulation transmitter
FM Transmitters
Types of FM generation
Direct method of FM generation
Indirect method of FM generation
68 SESSION-1