R221 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2018). How do speech model proficiency and viewing order affect Japanese EFL learners' speaking performances? Computer-Assisted Language Learning-Electronic Journal, 19, 61-81.
Learners in foreign language classrooms can benefit from viewing model videos featuring other non-native speakers, which helps to develop their public speaking performance. The present study attempts to replicate Okada, Sawaumi, and Ito (2017), who demonstrated how the viewing order of different model speakers affected learners’ public speaking performance. The participants were Japanese freshmen (N = 24) enrolled English communication courses. In the classroom-oriented study, one group was shown more- and less-proficient speaker models prior to delivering the second and third presentations, respectively; the other group was shown the same models in the opposite order. To determine whether the models impacted learners in any meaningful way, self- and peer evaluations were obtained from participants following each speaking performance and analyzed in conjunction with responses to reflection papers. Results from two-way ANOVAs indicated that video-based observational learning in the viewing order of less-proficient speakers first and more-proficient ones next resulted in improved peer evaluation in subsequent performances, which was consistent with the findings of Okada et al. (2017). Responses to reflection papers revealed that either more-proficient or less-proficient speaker models helped enhance learners’ awareness of self/others and improve their own public speaking skills in the EFL classroom.
Keywords: model video, viewing order, public speaking, replication, observational
G224 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2014, December). Different effects o...Takehiko Ito
G224 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2014, December). Different effects of sample performance observation between high and low level English learners
The Sixth CLS International Conference, December 4-6, 2014, Singapore, 394-413
The aims of this study were to investigate the employment of Other-Initiated Repair Strategies (OIR Strategies) in solving understanding problem in EFL learners’ conversation and to examine the kinds of trouble sources that prompt the employment of OIR Strategies. The participants were nine EFL learners participating in a speaking class in small university in Indonesia. To elicit the learners’ conversations two communicative tasks, Spot the Difference and Desert Island were used. The learners’ conversations during task performance were video-recorded, then, transcribed using the conventions proposed by Markee (2000) and analyzed qualitatively using Conversation Analysis method. The results showed that EFL learners managed to employ eight types of OIR Strategies comprising of 62 instances in total. The strategies are unspecified repair, interrogative repair, partial repeat plus a question word repair, partial repeat repair, understanding check repair, request for repetition, request for definition, and correction repair. Three different types of trouble sources triggered the use of OIR Strategies, namely linguistic-related problem, interactional-related problem, and meaning-related problem. The study demonstrated that by employing different OIR Strategies, even EFL learners with limited proficiency in English managed to take initiatives to overcome the understanding problem in conversations as part of their learning process. Therefore, the EFL teachers need to consider incorporating the teaching of OIR Strategies as part of their speaking class to improve the students’ fluency.
Using Jigsaw and Problem-SolvingTasks to Enhance English Speaking AbilityIjcmsdrJournal
The purposes of this research were: 1) to study and compare the English speaking ability before and after learning through Jigsaw and Problem Solving Tasks of undergraduate students at Kalasin University, and 2) to study the students’ attitudes towards teaching English speaking using Jigsaw and Problem Solving Tasks. The sample consisted of 23first-year undergraduate students at Kalasin University, Kalasin Province, in the second semester of the academic year 2019. The research was a one group pretest-posttest design. The research instruments included 12 lesson plans, an English speaking ability test and an attitude questionnaire. The experiment lasted 12 weeks, 2 hours a week, or 24 hours for all. The mean, percentage, standard deviation and t-test for Dependent Samples were used for data analysis. The findings of this research were as follows: 1) The students’ pretest and posttest English speaking ability scores were 25.04 % and 83.19% respectively. The students’ posttest score was found significantly higher than that of the pretest at the .01 level. 2) The students’ attitude towards teaching English speaking using Jigsaw Task was at a very good level.
G224 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2014, December). Different effects o...Takehiko Ito
G224 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2014, December). Different effects of sample performance observation between high and low level English learners
The Sixth CLS International Conference, December 4-6, 2014, Singapore, 394-413
The aims of this study were to investigate the employment of Other-Initiated Repair Strategies (OIR Strategies) in solving understanding problem in EFL learners’ conversation and to examine the kinds of trouble sources that prompt the employment of OIR Strategies. The participants were nine EFL learners participating in a speaking class in small university in Indonesia. To elicit the learners’ conversations two communicative tasks, Spot the Difference and Desert Island were used. The learners’ conversations during task performance were video-recorded, then, transcribed using the conventions proposed by Markee (2000) and analyzed qualitatively using Conversation Analysis method. The results showed that EFL learners managed to employ eight types of OIR Strategies comprising of 62 instances in total. The strategies are unspecified repair, interrogative repair, partial repeat plus a question word repair, partial repeat repair, understanding check repair, request for repetition, request for definition, and correction repair. Three different types of trouble sources triggered the use of OIR Strategies, namely linguistic-related problem, interactional-related problem, and meaning-related problem. The study demonstrated that by employing different OIR Strategies, even EFL learners with limited proficiency in English managed to take initiatives to overcome the understanding problem in conversations as part of their learning process. Therefore, the EFL teachers need to consider incorporating the teaching of OIR Strategies as part of their speaking class to improve the students’ fluency.
Using Jigsaw and Problem-SolvingTasks to Enhance English Speaking AbilityIjcmsdrJournal
The purposes of this research were: 1) to study and compare the English speaking ability before and after learning through Jigsaw and Problem Solving Tasks of undergraduate students at Kalasin University, and 2) to study the students’ attitudes towards teaching English speaking using Jigsaw and Problem Solving Tasks. The sample consisted of 23first-year undergraduate students at Kalasin University, Kalasin Province, in the second semester of the academic year 2019. The research was a one group pretest-posttest design. The research instruments included 12 lesson plans, an English speaking ability test and an attitude questionnaire. The experiment lasted 12 weeks, 2 hours a week, or 24 hours for all. The mean, percentage, standard deviation and t-test for Dependent Samples were used for data analysis. The findings of this research were as follows: 1) The students’ pretest and posttest English speaking ability scores were 25.04 % and 83.19% respectively. The students’ posttest score was found significantly higher than that of the pretest at the .01 level. 2) The students’ attitude towards teaching English speaking using Jigsaw Task was at a very good level.
The aim of this research study is to analyze the appropriateness of the English syllabus according to the true language needs, which is being offered to the students of International Relations Department of Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. To carry out this research study, students of IR department (Part 1 and 2) have been taken as a sample population to collect required data. To check the appropriateness of the offered English syllabus and existing level of English language competence according to the students’ needs; two research tools have been taken as: test and interview. In order to get the actual feedback from the students, a test consisted of four basic skills of English (listening, speaking, reading and writing) was conducted to 50 students of IR department. Interview was conducted to the teachers of IR department in order to get the actual information about the appropriateness of the English syllabus and the competency level of the students. Collected data through both the sources were analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The findings from these sources provided the results which were expected before the accomplishment of this research work. The findings of this research advocated that the EAP should be adopted to make the existing syllabus appropriate and need based in order to refine the basic English language skills of the students. This recommended course is very productive for social sciences disciplines of the BZU.
There is a fast-moving worldwide shift from English being taught as a foreign language (EFL) to English being the medium of instruction (EMI) for academic subjects such as science, mathematics, geography and medicine. EMI is increasingly being used in universities, secondary schools and even primary schools.
M.Wright
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. That’s why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
English language as a Medium of Instruction Inside the Classroom: Perception ...Marvin Ramirez
This is a research paper for our English 34 which discusses the perception of selected first year college students about the English Language as a medium of classroom instruction.
Cooperative Learning and Student’s Academic Achievement in English Language i...iosrjce
This paper examined cooperative learning and academic achievement of students in English
language in Imo State. The study adopted quasi experimental pre-test, post-test control group design. The
sample for the study consisted of twenty (20) SS2 Students, purposively selected from two classes in a senior
secondary school in Imo State. The instrument used for the study was the English Language Achievement
Test (ELAT). Section A of the ELAT contained the bio-data of the respondents while section B consisted
of 30 multiple-choice question items. The research questions were answered using mean rating to determine the
difference between the pre-test and the post-test while the hypothesis was tested using Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The findings indicated that there was a significant difference
between the achievement mean scores of subjects in the cooperative learning group and those in the control
group. The study revealed that Cooperative Learning plays a significant role in students’ academic
achievement in English Language. The paper therefore, recommended the retraining of teachers towards using
cooperative learning for student’s optimal academic achievement
R211 okada sawaumi ito2017 effects of observing model video presentations on ...Takehiko Ito
As observing model videos can develop learners’ speaking (e.g., pronunciation and word/sentence stress) and oral presentation skills, this study explores its effects on Japanese university students’ performance with respect, in particular, to model videos of presentations. Two types of model video were shown to 27 participants in two classes: in one class, more-proficient model videos were shown prior to less-proficient model videos; in the other, the order was reversed. In both cases, the videos were shown prior to the students’ second and third presentations. To examine any observational learning effects, the first, second, and third presentation scores obtained through self- and peer evaluation were analyzed quantitatively, while student responses to open-ended questions were analyzed qualitatively using text mining. The results indicate that there was no significant effect of any factor on the self-evaluation scores. However, peer ratings show that the third presentation was rated significantly higher than the first for the class in which students watched the less-proficient model videos before the more-proficient. The findings indicate that the observation sequence of model videos may affect the development of learners’ performance, although the use of both more-proficient and less-proficient model videos in any order can improve learners’ cognitive, linguistic, and presentation skills.
R232 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2019). Setting Achievable Goals to M...Takehiko Ito
Setting achievable goals for students is an important part of teaching as it makes learning more effective. Our study aimed to examine how language learners are kept motivated by showing them improvements made by other nonnative speakers. We used two types of motivational tools to achieve this: video clips of the performance of former students and a visual demonstration of the changes in the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) scores of nonnative speakers. Study participants were 56 Japanese college students enrolled in either TOEIC preparation courses or speaking courses. Before and after demonstrating the improvements of other learners, students answered written questions regarding their language learning experiences, their beliefs about language learning, and what they learned from observing other students’ improvements. The results indicated that the motivational tools were useful in building positive attitudes toward language learning. These findings also suggested that both tools were beneficial for students in either the TOEIC preparation or speaking courses. Based on these quantitative results, we propose that it is essential to set achievable goals to keep learners motivated for task performance.
Keywords: motivation, goal setting, Japanese EFL learners, video demonstrations, Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC)
The aim of this research study is to analyze the appropriateness of the English syllabus according to the true language needs, which is being offered to the students of International Relations Department of Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. To carry out this research study, students of IR department (Part 1 and 2) have been taken as a sample population to collect required data. To check the appropriateness of the offered English syllabus and existing level of English language competence according to the students’ needs; two research tools have been taken as: test and interview. In order to get the actual feedback from the students, a test consisted of four basic skills of English (listening, speaking, reading and writing) was conducted to 50 students of IR department. Interview was conducted to the teachers of IR department in order to get the actual information about the appropriateness of the English syllabus and the competency level of the students. Collected data through both the sources were analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The findings from these sources provided the results which were expected before the accomplishment of this research work. The findings of this research advocated that the EAP should be adopted to make the existing syllabus appropriate and need based in order to refine the basic English language skills of the students. This recommended course is very productive for social sciences disciplines of the BZU.
There is a fast-moving worldwide shift from English being taught as a foreign language (EFL) to English being the medium of instruction (EMI) for academic subjects such as science, mathematics, geography and medicine. EMI is increasingly being used in universities, secondary schools and even primary schools.
M.Wright
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. That’s why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
English language as a Medium of Instruction Inside the Classroom: Perception ...Marvin Ramirez
This is a research paper for our English 34 which discusses the perception of selected first year college students about the English Language as a medium of classroom instruction.
Cooperative Learning and Student’s Academic Achievement in English Language i...iosrjce
This paper examined cooperative learning and academic achievement of students in English
language in Imo State. The study adopted quasi experimental pre-test, post-test control group design. The
sample for the study consisted of twenty (20) SS2 Students, purposively selected from two classes in a senior
secondary school in Imo State. The instrument used for the study was the English Language Achievement
Test (ELAT). Section A of the ELAT contained the bio-data of the respondents while section B consisted
of 30 multiple-choice question items. The research questions were answered using mean rating to determine the
difference between the pre-test and the post-test while the hypothesis was tested using Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The findings indicated that there was a significant difference
between the achievement mean scores of subjects in the cooperative learning group and those in the control
group. The study revealed that Cooperative Learning plays a significant role in students’ academic
achievement in English Language. The paper therefore, recommended the retraining of teachers towards using
cooperative learning for student’s optimal academic achievement
A study of the role of rote learning in vocabulary learning
Similar to R221 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2018). How do speech model proficiency and viewing order affect Japanese EFL learners' speaking performances? Computer-Assisted Language Learning-Electronic Journal, 19, 61-81.
R211 okada sawaumi ito2017 effects of observing model video presentations on ...Takehiko Ito
As observing model videos can develop learners’ speaking (e.g., pronunciation and word/sentence stress) and oral presentation skills, this study explores its effects on Japanese university students’ performance with respect, in particular, to model videos of presentations. Two types of model video were shown to 27 participants in two classes: in one class, more-proficient model videos were shown prior to less-proficient model videos; in the other, the order was reversed. In both cases, the videos were shown prior to the students’ second and third presentations. To examine any observational learning effects, the first, second, and third presentation scores obtained through self- and peer evaluation were analyzed quantitatively, while student responses to open-ended questions were analyzed qualitatively using text mining. The results indicate that there was no significant effect of any factor on the self-evaluation scores. However, peer ratings show that the third presentation was rated significantly higher than the first for the class in which students watched the less-proficient model videos before the more-proficient. The findings indicate that the observation sequence of model videos may affect the development of learners’ performance, although the use of both more-proficient and less-proficient model videos in any order can improve learners’ cognitive, linguistic, and presentation skills.
R232 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2019). Setting Achievable Goals to M...Takehiko Ito
Setting achievable goals for students is an important part of teaching as it makes learning more effective. Our study aimed to examine how language learners are kept motivated by showing them improvements made by other nonnative speakers. We used two types of motivational tools to achieve this: video clips of the performance of former students and a visual demonstration of the changes in the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) scores of nonnative speakers. Study participants were 56 Japanese college students enrolled in either TOEIC preparation courses or speaking courses. Before and after demonstrating the improvements of other learners, students answered written questions regarding their language learning experiences, their beliefs about language learning, and what they learned from observing other students’ improvements. The results indicated that the motivational tools were useful in building positive attitudes toward language learning. These findings also suggested that both tools were beneficial for students in either the TOEIC preparation or speaking courses. Based on these quantitative results, we propose that it is essential to set achievable goals to keep learners motivated for task performance.
Keywords: motivation, goal setting, Japanese EFL learners, video demonstrations, Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC)
Investigating Students’ Attitudes Towards Listening and Speaking in the Engli...SubmissionResearchpa
This study sought to investigate students’ attitudes towards listening and speaking in the English classroom at Al Istiqlal University. The researchers noticed that freshmen students at Al Istiqlal University were de-motivated and reluctant to get involved in listening and speaking activities in the English classroom. One root cause may be students’ prior experience of learning English in Palestinian state schools where Arabic is the dominant language (Hamdallah, 1999) and where there may be little provision of speaking and listening to English. The researchers sought to experiment with innovative teaching methods to address these problems. These included using group work, giving students clearly defined roles, using technological applications and drawing on students’ personal lives as strategies to motivate students and change their attitudes towards listening and speaking activities. A stratified–purposeful sample consisting of 18 freshman students was selected. The researchers used a quantitative approach to measure changes. The researchers also used qualitative instrument for the purpose of the study. A questionnaire was administered at the beginning and end of the study to determine changes in students’ attitudes. Also, interviews were organized to decide and get comments on the influence of the strategies which were used. Results indicated that there was a significant difference in students’ attitudes towards listening and speaking activities in English class. When the researchers used different strategies such as: role plays cards, group activities, technology and different assessment forms, students expressed positive feelings, enjoyment and fun. The researchers recommend that teachers in similar university-level context should implement different strategies such as: group wok, role plays, cards, videos and some applications i.e. Padlet to motivate students bridge the gap between school life and university life. It was also found that such strategies help to change students’ attitudes to listening and speaking by Khaled M S Masood and Hussam A Qadomi 2020. Investigating Students’ Attitudes Towards Listening and Speaking in the English Classroom at Al Istiqlal University: An Action Research. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 8 (Aug. 2020), 70-76. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i8.538 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/538/514 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/538
The students need to be fluent in speaking to express their ideas and what they think in their minds also to communicate with others. As a matter of fact, speaking using Bahasa is not a big deal for students since it is their mother tongue, but as they have to speak in English, it becomes a big problem. They can’t imagine what they want to speak, they are afraid and unconfident if they try to speak English. Therefore the teacher should provide the students' motivation to speak up and use the appropriate method in teaching speaking. Photovoice is a suitable method using a camera for supporting the process of teaching-learning. The purpose of the study is to identify the effect of using Photovoice on speaking skills at the secondary school level. We used a speaking test to complete and process the data. The participants of the study were the students at the secondary level. The outcome of the study revealed that the students who taught using Photovoice had better skills in speaking English than the students who were not taught using Photovoice. Through this method, the students become interested and active during the study. They seemed to enjoy and excited about an exhibition or presentation.
Investigating the implementation of BOAR to develop secondary school students...CherylLimMingYuh
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The Effect of CALL on VocabularyLearning and Reading Comprehension of Iranian...iosrjce
This study aimed at investigating the effect of a computerized program on developing vocabulary and
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achievement test for reading comprehension 2) vocabulary test 3) a computerized program for vocabulary and
reading texts included in the English book 1 of high school. The results of the study revealed that the
computerized program was effective to develop the vocabulary and reading comprehension skills for first
grade high school students. In the light of these findings, the researcher recommends that EFL Iranian teachers
should use CALL as a tool for enhancing students' vocabulary and reading comprehension in particular and
learning the language in general.
A Study on the Perception of Jordanian EFL Learners’ Pragmatic Transfer of Re...Yasser Al-Shboul
This study investigates the perception of Jordanian EFL learners’ (JEFL) pragmatic transfer of refusal strategies in
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act was assigned high ratings by the three groups (i.e., M > 3.00) in all social categories. Individually, however, the
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Similar to R221 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2018). How do speech model proficiency and viewing order affect Japanese EFL learners' speaking performances? Computer-Assisted Language Learning-Electronic Journal, 19, 61-81. (20)
G308 Ito, T., & Uda, H. (2019, March). The spirituality of family members of ...Takehiko Ito
Abstract: Having a dream is a way to meet the deceased for survived family members. We make it clear what kind of dream the bereaved family sees, to resume communication with the deceased. Twenty-seven interview stories in the book She came to see me in my dream were analyzed by the text mining technique. The most frequently used words were nouns such as “togetherness,” “earthquake disaster,” “tsunami,” “dream,” and verbs such as “be,” “get together,” “think,” “see,” and “talk”. The future of the dream was clarified by frequency analysis of dependency and reputation analysis. It will be discussed how surviving family members often have an orientation and sense of values that are together with those of the departed soul in the dream by experiencing the encountering of shadows and the soul of the dead.
Keywords: dream, 3.11 earthquake, text mining, tsunami, spirituality, ambiguous loss
R228 Takehiko ITO, Hitomi UDA (2019). The spirituality of family members of t...Takehiko Ito
Abstract: Having a dream is a way to meet the deceased for survived family members. We make it clear what kind of dream the bereaved family sees, to resume communication with the deceased. Twenty-seven interview stories in the book She came to see me in my dream were analyzed by the text mining technique. The most frequently used words were nouns such as “togetherness,” “earthquake disaster,” “tsunami,” “dream,” and verbs such as “be,” “get together,” “think,” “see,” and “talk”. The future of the dream was clarified by frequency analysis of dependency and reputation analysis. It will be discussed how surviving family members often have an orientation and sense of values that are together with those of the departed soul in the dream by experiencing the encountering of shadows and the soul of the dead.
Keywords: dream, 3.11 earthquake, text mining, tsunami, spirituality, ambiguous loss
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
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Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
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• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
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R221 Okada, Y., Sawaumi, T., & Ito, T. (2018). How do speech model proficiency and viewing order affect Japanese EFL learners' speaking performances? Computer-Assisted Language Learning-Electronic Journal, 19, 61-81.
1. CALL-EJ, 19(2), 61-81
61
How Do Speech Model Proficiency and Viewing Order Affect Japanese EFL
Learners’ Speaking Performances?
Yasuko Okada (okada92025@gmail.com)
Seisen University, Japan
Takafumi Sawaumi (t.sawaumi@gmail.com)
Ryutsu Keizai University, Japan
Takehiko Ito (take@wako.ac.jp)
Wako University, Japan
Abstract
Learners in foreign language classrooms can benefit from viewing model videos featuring other
non-native speakers, which helps to develop their public speaking performance. The present
study attempts to replicate Okada, Sawaumi, and Ito (2017), who demonstrated how the
viewing order of different model speakers affected learners’ public speaking performance. The
participants were Japanese freshmen (N = 24) enrolled in English communication courses. In
the classroom-oriented study, one group was shown more- and less-proficient speaker models
prior to delivering the second and third presentations, respectively; the other group was shown
the same models in the opposite order. To determine whether the models impacted learners in
any meaningful way, self- and peer evaluations were obtained from participants following each
speaking performance and analyzed in conjunction with responses to reflection papers. Results
from two-way ANOVAs indicated that video-based observational learning in the viewing order
of less-proficient speakers first and more-proficient ones next resulted in improved peer
evaluation in subsequent performances, which was consistent with the findings of Okada et al.
(2017). Responses to reflection papers revealed that both more and less-proficient speaker
models helped enhance learners’ awareness of self/others and improve their own public
speaking skills in the EFL classroom.
Keywords: model video, viewing order, public speaking, replication, observational learning
Introduction
An increasing number of Japanese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) are showing
interest in enhancing their English communication skills. According to the national Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT, 2014), Japanese students are
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expected to improve their communication skills in English to respond to the rapidly globalizing
society. Nevertheless, Japanese people are often considered to be modest and shy compared to
those in Western countries; these traits may prevent them from mastering a foreign language
and speaking in front of others with confidence. Although many universities in the United
States are offering public speaking courses to develop these skills and reduce students’ anxiety
of public speaking (Hancock, Stone, Brundage, & Ziegler, 2010), few Japanese universities
offer such courses. Accordingly, it is important for students in Japan to improve their public
speaking skills when studying at a university or college before becoming full-fledged members
of society.
To improve public speaking skills in classrooms, video-recording students can be effective and
helpful, because this audio-visual information allows them to reflect on their own learning and
develop foreign language skills (Castañeda & Rodríguez-González, 2011; Okada, Sawaumi, &
Ito, 2014; Shrosbree, 2008). This is increasingly so in recent years, as developments in social
media have made students more and more familiar with recording photos or videos and
showing them to others. Thus, it may be worthwhile to conduct a study on the integration of
video-based observational learning with teaching public speaking skills in an EFL context.
Review of Literature
Overview of Okada, Sawaumi, and Ito (2014, 2017)
A study by Okada et al. (2014) examined the effects of viewing more-proficient speaker model
videos on learners’speaking performances in Japanese EFLclassrooms. Findings indicated that
low-proficiency learners (n = 17) were intimidated by viewing these models, whereas model
observation helped high-proficiency learners (n = 12) enhance their motivation for delivering
speeches. This research seems to support the use of videos as practical models, in line with the
theory of observational learning (Bandura, 1971, 1977).
Based on the original study (Okada et al., 2014), Okada et al. (2017) conducted a replication
study to find out whether learners (N = 27) can benefit from viewing not only more-proficient
speaker models but also less-proficient ones. Their study reported that both more-proficient
and less-proficient models help enhance learners’ awareness of their strengths and weaknesses
of speaking skills, and that students observed the models for different purposes and for different
reasons. Further, analyses showed that the group that observed less-proficient models first and
more-proficient ones second scored significantly higher in peer evaluation than the group that
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observed the models in the reverse order. It was thus speculated that the viewing order sequence
affects student performance in the target language.
Video-Based Observational Learning
According to observational learning theory, new behaviors are acquired by watching and
imitating models (Bandura, 1971, 1977). Social learning of this nature has typically involved
observing real-life models; however, recent studies (e.g., De Grez, Valcke, & Roozen, 2014;
Okada et al., 2014; 2017) indicate that videos can be equally effective as educational models.
In the observational learning process, individuals undergo four stages when acquiring new
behavioral patterns: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation (Bandura, 1977). During
the attention phase, one focuses on a model’s behavior so as to understand it; then, in retention,
one memorizes the patterns of the model in order to facilitate symbolic mediation, which assists
in understanding complex behavioral patterns during the preliminary stages of language skill
acquisition. Symbolized images are subsequently transformed into actual behaviors, in the
reproduction phase; unlike behaviors, language skills cannot be learned through observation
alone, and reproduction is therefore necessary once an overview of the model’s behaviors has
been obtained. During the motivation stage, a distinction appears between acquisition and
performance, wherein observed patterns are not necessarily performed unless individuals
anticipate that doing so will produce positive results. In this way, observational learning assists
students in recognizing behavioral patterns and developing cognitive skills that ultimately
affect performance.
De Grez et al. (2014) examined the effect of observational learning on the development of
presentation skills among 38 Dutch-speaking Belgian university students. Participants were
divided into two groups: one group watched video clips followed by practice activities, while
the other group did the reverse. Learners in the former group improved strongly after observing
the clips; however, members of the latter group improved just slightly following the practice
activities, but significantly after watching the clips.
Effects of Instructional Sequence in Foreign Language Teaching
Researchers have focused on the effects of methodological order sequence to help students
develop language skills, especially reading and listening. Shimizu (2007) compared higher-
and lower-proficiency learners across two types of question order: inference (local) questions
and thematic (global) questions. Her results showed that lower-proficiency learners scored
higher in answering local-questions first and global ones next, while higher-proficiency
learners scored higher in the reverse order. She suggested on this basis that learner language
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proficiency needs to be considered when an instructional treatment is applied, as is proposed
in work on aptitude treatment interaction (ATI), where effects are optimal when the
instructional treatment and a learners’ aptitude are matched (Cronbach & Snow, 1977).
Examining the order effect on second language (L2) reading comprehension, Chen (2012)
reported that a group who read an English text first and watched the film version with Chinese
captions scored second significantly higher in reading comprehension than did those who
watched the film first in English and read the text then; the former group also significantly
outperformed those who read the text first and then watched the film in English. The research
concluded that language learning may benefit when first language (L1) captions are added to a
film, but that L2 captions may not be helpful for novice learners. Overall, these past studies
demonstrate that instructional sequence order affects reading comprehension.
Similarly, instructional sequence order may have an impact on student listening and speaking
performances in language learning. Examining the effects of viewing order of captioned videos,
Winke, Gass, and Sydorenko (2010) found that viewing the video first with captions and then
without was more effective for listening performance than the reverse. They concluded that
this order helps reduce learners’ anxiety and produced a positive effect on subsequent
recognition. Winke et al. thus suggested that captions can serve as a useful tool to facilitate
second language learning.
Research Questions
The purpose of the second replication study was to examine the effects of showing video clips
to EFL learners to develop their English language and public speaking skills. With the
preceding literature review of sequence order effects and the scarcity of empirical research on
the use of different levels of model video to develop EFL learners’ performances, this
replication may encourage language teachers to use learners’ performance videos to enhance
the quality of learners’ public speaking performances. It is also hoped that EFL students will
benefit from carefully observing video-recorded performances of other learners, as well as their
own. To these ends, two research questions were posed:
1. How does speech model video observation affect EFL learners’ speaking
performance in the classroom?
2. Are learners able to benefit more from viewing speech model videos in less-to-
more-proficient speaker sequence order or vice versa?
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Method
Participants and Setting
During the Fall 2015 semester, 30 Japanese students (26 males, 4 females; reflecting the gender
balance in the economics department) enrolled in two different English communication courses
at a university in the Tokyo metropolitan area were asked to participate in this study. These
individuals were freshmen economics majors who had studied English for at least six years in
junior and senior high school. Prospective participants were informed that partaking in the
research would not require any additional work or affect their grades. Permission was sought
to use video-recordings of students’ presentations as well as textual data (their qualitative
responses) for future research or educational purposes. Four students did not consent to having
their data collected, and two failed to complete the course. Hence, there were a total of 24
participants (10 and 14 in Groups A and B, respectively).
Students were assigned to the course at the beginning of the academic year, according to their
Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) Bridge scores, and thus were not
randomly selected; the average scores for Groups A and B were 130 and 116, respectively.1
There was a statistically significant difference between test scores of the two groups, t(18.86)
= 2.55, p = .019; that is, English language proficiency was not equivalent between the groups.
However, only 21% of the variance in test scores was explained by variance between groups,
so no substantial meaning was attached to this discrepancy. Therefore, we did not further
consider English language proficiency as an intervening variable in this study.
The course was mandatory for graduation, and emphasized developing oral communication
skills through group/pair work. Classes were 90 minutes long and were held twice weekly
throughout a 14-week semester; the content and textbook used in both groups were identical.
Students were informed that components of the research project (regardless of whether their
data were retained) would constitute 45% of their final grade (30% for presentations and 15%
for draft submissions and self-/peer evaluations).
Materials
Model video. Video clips were prepared from 16 clips produced by Japanese EFL students
from preceding years with the consent of each student, selected subjectively by the instructor.
Clips of eight more-proficient speakers were selected, primarily from among students in
higher-level English classes. These videos demonstrated outstanding voice control and body
language in their performances, and therefore, were considered the most appropriate to help
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enable other students to reach their performance targets. Conversely, eight video clips of less-
proficient speakers were taken from lower-level English classes. These speakers still showed
deficiencies in areas such as pausing and pronunciation, although their efforts to prepare for
their performances seemed apparent despite their low proficiency in their target language.
Self-/peer evaluation. To evaluate student performance, self-/peer evaluation forms were used.
These evaluations helped to reflect on students’ learning and provide feedback to other students.
Based on Yamashiro and Johnson’s (1997) study on developing public speaking skills in the
EFL context, the current study used 11 variables based on a four-point Likert-type scale from
1 (weak) to 4 (great). Items 1–4 focused on voice control (i.e., projection, pace, intonation,
diction), Items 5–8 on body language (i.e., posture, foot/hand position, eye contact, facial
expression) and Items 9–11 on effectiveness (i.e., topic choice, language use, vocabulary). In
addition, a comment column was included in the form.2
First and second reflections. After the second and third rounds of performance, participants
completed this form to comment on how viewing the model videos had affected their own
speaking performances.
Final reflection. After the third round of evaluation, a three-section form was administered to
identify the effects of viewing both model videos and students’ own recordings. In Section One,
participants were asked to answer how difficult they had found preparing scripts for each topic
on a five-point Likert-type scale from 1 (easy) to 5 (difficult). In Section Two, to measure the
effect of viewing models and students’ own recordings on their speaking performance, students
were asked to rate the overall benefit on a five-point Likert-type scale from 1 (not useful at all)
to 5 (very useful). In Section Three, students were asked to write in Japanese their general
thoughts on viewing either more- or less-proficient speaker videos, to identify differences in
their attitudes by video type and whether different types of model were beneficial for different
purposes.
Data Collection Procedure
In order to obtain data, participants were instructed to deliver three memorized speeches. The
themes were “My favorite food,” “Memories of high school club activities,” and “My ideal
trip.” Students were taught how to compose a three-paragraph presentation, consisting of an
introduction, body, and conclusion, between 180 and 200 words. Prior to each speech
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performance, students submitted scripts to the instructor and received at least some feedback
on content, organization, and grammar.
In Japanese EFL contexts, “speech” generally implies a prepared talk in which students
memorize a script on a theme and present it in front of others. While Duong (as cited in Duong
& Nguyen, 2006) argues that learners should avoid using memorization because “they then do
not interact with the audience and lose naturalness in communicating,” Duong and Nguyen
(2006) point out that “memorization seems to be a valid learning strategy, provided that
memorization is used appropriately to help students internalize what they have learned to apply
in actual communication” (p. 2). Thus, students in this study were required to complete a
written piece on the given theme and then use it as a script for their talk.
Three speaking performances were video-recorded and simultaneously evaluated by the
instructor. Immediately after the second and third rounds of performances, participants
completed a student performance reflection form.
For student evaluation, recordings of speaking performances were shown to students and self-
/peer evaluations were conducted using the relevant form. Students evaluated their classmates
and returned the completed forms to the respective speakers. The instructor collected the forms
shortly thereafter for future analysis. During the third round of evaluation, students were shown
30-second clips from each of their initial performances to prompt them to consider how their
performances had evolved; afterward, they completed a video-observation reflection form.
Prior to the second and third rounds of performance, respectively, students were shown model
speaker videos and instructed to identify the speakers’ weaknesses and strengths. Before the
second round of performance, Group A viewed the more-proficient speakers and Group B the
less-proficient speakers; this order was reversed before the third round. After viewing and
commenting on two to three clips, students in each session were divided into groups of three
or four, wherein they discussed the models for a few minutes. The data collection procedure is
shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Overview of Teaching Procedure. Quoted from Okada et al. (2017)
Research Design
Since this was a classroom-oriented research study using intact classes, a quasi-experimental
revised non-equivalent groups pre-test/post-test design was adopted. Additionally, this study
employed a mixed-methods design; more specifically, a convergent design was employed, in
which quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed separately to merge the
results of these analyses (Creswell, 2015). Quantitative data were collected through self-/peer
evaluations, whereas qualitative data were obtained based on text mining analysis of the three
reflections.
ORAL PRESENTATION
SELF- & PEER EVALUATION
SELF- & PEER EVALUATION
GROUP A:
MORE-PROFICIENTMODEL
OBSERVATION
GROUP B:
LESS-PROFICIENTMODEL
OBSERVATION
GROUP B:
MORE-PROFICIENT
MODEL OBSERVATION
GROUP A:
LESS-PROFICIENTMODEL
OBSERVATION
FINAL REFLECTION
ORAL PRESENTATION &
REFLECTION II
ORAL PRESENTATION &
REFLECTION I
SELF- & PEER EVALUATION
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Results
Quantitative Results
Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the effect of group (A
vs. B [between-participants factor]), performance round (first vs. second vs. third [repeated
factor]), and their interaction with self-/peer-evaluated scores. After confirming high internal
consistency, ratings for the 11 evaluation items were averaged as follows: voice control (Items
1-4), body language (Items 5-8), and effectiveness (Items 9-11). The Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients for the subscales were calculated separately for each performance round
(.85, .82, .95 [first]; .83, .82, .94 [second]; .89, .88, .98 [third]) and the peer ratings (.89, .66, .82
[first]; .93, .77, .97 [second], .89, .64, .95 [third]). Analysis was conducted using SPSS 22. In
the following analyses, the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used where the sphericity
assumption was not met for the repeated factor.
Table 1.
Mean Scores and SDs for the Self-Evaluations
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3
n M SD n M SD N M SD
Group A
Voice 10 2.28 0.75 10 2.48 0.69 9 2.64 0.71
Body 10 2.15 0.84 10 2.48 0.70 9 2.75 0.66
Effect 10 2.47 1.04 10 2.57 0.79 9 2.89 0.60
Group B
Voice 14 2.70 0.65 14 2.84 0.50 14 3.11 0.70
Body 14 2.71 0.70 14 3.04 0.52 14 3.18 0.61
Effect 14 3.33 0.58 14 3.26 0.51 14 3.36 0.61
Note. Data from absent students were eliminated at each analysis stage, but a complete set of
data were used to calculate ANOVA.
Voice: voice control; Body: body language; Effect: effectiveness.
The mean scores for self-evaluated voice control, body language, and effectiveness are
provided in Table 1. A two-way ANOVA (group × round) for voice control revealed a
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significant main effect for round, F(2, 42) = 4.69, p = .02, ηp
2
= .18. A Bonferroni post hoc test
for the main effect showed that voice control evaluations for the third round were significantly
higher than for the first (p = .04); nevertheless, no other effects were significant: group, F(1,
21) = 2.54, p = .13, ηp
2
= .11; group × round, F(2, 42) = 0.17, p = .85, ηp
2
< .01.
A two-way ANOVA for body language also revealed a significant main effect for round, F(2,
42) = 8.67, p < .01, ηp
2
= .29. A Bonferroni post hoc test for the main effect showed that body
language evaluations for the third round were significantly higher than for the first (p < .01).
The main effect for group was marginally significant, F(1, 21) = 3.72, p = .07, ηp
2
= .15, while
the interaction effect for group × round was not significant, F(2, 42) = 0.18, p = .84, ηp
2
< .01.
A two-way ANOVA for effectiveness showed a significant main effect for group, F(1, 21) =
7.29, p = .01, ηp
2
= .26; namely, effectiveness was significantly higher among students in Group
B. No other effects were significant: round, F(2, 42) = 1.64, p = .21, ηp
2
= .07; group × round,
F(2, 42) = 0.87, p = .43, ηp
2
= .04.
Table 2
Mean Scores and SDs for the Peer Evaluations
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3
n M SD n M SD n M SD
Group A
Voice 9 3.34 0.31 10 3.28 0.44 10 3.36 0.25
Body 9 3.34 0.19 10 3.37 0.20 10 3.40 0.16
Effect 9 3.52 0.12 10 3.35 0.40 10 3.46 0.09
Group B
Voice 14 3.05 0.39 14 3.13 0.40 14 3.45 0.22
Body 14 3.07 0.25 14 3.21 0.29 14 3.50 0.13
Effect 14 3.34 0.17 14 3.37 0.16 14 3.61 0.11
Note. Data from absent students were eliminated at each stage, but a complete set of data were
used to calculate ANOVA.
Voice: voice control; Body: body language; Effect: effectiveness.
The mean scores for peer-evaluated voice control, body language, and effectiveness are
provided in Table 2. A two-way ANOVA (group × round) for voice control revealed a
significant main effect for round, F(2, 42) = 7.35, p < .01, ηp
2
= .26, but not group, F(1, 21) =
0.62, p = .44, ηp
2
= .03. However, this main effect for round was qualified by a significant group
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× round interaction, F(2, 42) = 5.31, p < .01, ηp
2
= .20. Post hoc tests showed that Group B’s
third round of voice-control evaluations was significantly higher than the first or second rounds
(p < .01 and p = .01, respectively); however, this was not apparent in Group A’s results (see
Figure 2).
Figure 2. Peer Evaluation of Voice Control as a Function of Round and Group.
A two-way ANOVA for body language also revealed a significant main effect for round, F(2,
42) = 16.51, p < .01, ηp
2
= .44, but not group, F(1, 21) = 1.63, p = .22, ηp
2
= .07. The main
effect for round was qualified by a significant group × round interaction, F(2, 42) = 11.34, p
< .01, ηp
2
= .35. Post hoc tests showed that Group B’s third round of body language evaluations
was significantly higher than the first or second round (p < .01 for both), and that ratings for
the second were also significantly higher than the first (p = .02). A similar phenomenon was
not apparent in Group A’s results (see Figure 3).
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Figure 3. Peer Evaluation of Body Language as a Function of Round and Group.
The two-way ANOVA for effectiveness showed a significant main effect for round, F(1.32,
27.66) = 7.02, p < .01, ηp
2
= .25, but not group, F(1, 21) = 0.03, p = .87, ηp
2
< .01. This main
effect of round was qualified by a significant group × round interaction, F(1.32, 27.66) = 6.16,
p = .01, ηp
2
= .23. Post hoc tests showed that Group B’s third round of effectiveness evaluations
was significantly higher than the first or second rounds (p < .01 for both), although such a
finding was not apparent in Group A’s results (see Figure 4).
Figure 4. Peer Evaluation of Effectiveness as a Function of Round and Group.
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Text Mining and Qualitative Results
Text mining is an analytic process that enables numeric measurement of qualitative data. In
this study, featured words were extracted using Text Mining Studio 5.1, by NTT DATA
Mathematical Systems Inc., to determine the effects of model speaker videos on students’
performances as well as to collect their thoughts and feelings regarding the more- and less-
proficient speaker videos. In addition, the textual data were analyzed qualitatively to explain
the text mining results.
Table 3
Featured Words in Reflection I
Word Meaning Frequency
1 思う to think 27
2 意識 consciousness 15
3 発表 presentation 14
4 話す to speak 13
5 スピーチ speech 12
6 見る to watch 10
7 人 person 9
8 声 voice 9
9 良い good/well 7
10 姿勢 posture 6
Table 4
Featured Words in Reflection II
Word Meaning Frequency
1 思う to think 15
2 見る to watch 8
3 ビデオ video 6
4 人 person 5
5 できる to be capable 4
6 やる to do 4
7 話す to speak 4
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Reflections I & II. Tables 3 and 4 respectively show words that appeared in students’
reflections following the second and third rounds of performance. In both rounds, the word to
think appeared the most frequently, due to the nature of the question. In addition, words
involving sound and vision (e.g., to speak, speech, to watch, voice, posture) were often used to
describe specific aspects of the performance. For instance, students in Group A reported that
after watching more-proficient speakers, they imitated the models to improve their speaking
performance.
• I tried to stand straight and hold my hands during my performance, because I thought
that I could easily imitate these behaviors from the video. (S1)
• I learned to imitate the more-proficient speakers because the speakers looked calm. I
consequently tried not to move my hands or body during my own performance. (S2)
On the other hand, a student in Group B pointed out the importance of having the audience
understand what the speaker is saying.
• While watching the less-proficient speaker models, I realized that it was important to
be understood by one’s listeners, and so I tried to speak clearly at an appropriate volume.
I performed better than in my initial performance, but I am still not satisfied. I wish that
I could pronounce English more smoothly to deliver a better performance. I also want
to understand all of what others are saying. (S3)
Table 4 indicates the words that appeared with high frequency in the second student
performance reflection. Students used words associated with cognitive functions (e.g., to think,
to watch, to be capable, to do and to speak) to describe their own performances, whereas the
word video was used when referring to the models, whether more- or less-proficient. For
example, after watching less-proficient speakers, students in Group A focused on how the
models were speaking, because they did not want to perform similarly themselves.
• After watching the videos, I made it a point to try and smile while delivering my
performance. I did not want to stop while I was speaking, but I did. In the future,
however, I will work harder. (S5)
• I made a mistake during my previous performance…and therefore spoiled the mood.
This time, I rehearsed several times so that I would not stumble over the words. I was
careful not to move my body or hands, since such behavior seemed to cause the less-
proficient speakers to lose their concentration. (S6)
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Like students in Group A in the initial reflection, those in Group B after the second reflection
emphasized that viewing the more-proficient speakers motivated them to prepare for their
performance.
• Since I noticed that more-proficient speakers tended to pronounce English clearly with
appropriate intonation, I verified the pronunciation of unfamiliar words, and likewise
focused on stressing important words. (S7)
• I thought that I would deliver my performance as before, since the more-proficient
speakers seemed too good to imitate. Nevertheless, I wanted to improve my
performance. (S8)
Final reflection. In Section One, students responded that the topics were equally difficult
overall; M and SD values for each were as follows: “My favorite food” (M = 3.50, SD = 1.18),
“Memories of high school club activities” (M = 3.54, SD = 1.38) and “My ideal trip” (M = 3.42,
SD = 1.28). There was no significant difference in difficulty found between the three topics,
F(2, 46) = 0.08, p = .93, ηp
2
< .01. In Section Two, the perceived usefulness of each video type
was as follows: model videos (M = 3.58, SD = 0.78), own videos (M = 3.88, SD = 0.95), peer
videos (M = 3.63, SD = 0.82). There was no significant difference here either, F(2, 46) = 1.32,
p = .28, ηp
2
= .05, indicating that the three videos were equally helpful for students in both
groups.
Table 5
Featured Words in the Final Reflection
Word Meaning Frequency
1 思う to think 27
2 レベル level 16
3 見る to watch 16
4 スピーチ speech 13
5 ビデオ video 13
6 人 person 13
7 平均的レベル average level3
8
8 わかる to understand 7
9 参考 reference 6
10 する to do 5
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As shown in Table 5, to think was the most frequent word again in this reflection, consistent
with the results of Tables 3 and 4. Other words that frequently appeared, such as to watch,
speech, video and reference, seemed to indicate that the models assisted students in giving their
performances. For example, a student in Group B noted,
• Aside from helping me to evaluate my own performances, I was able to see how well
other students delivered their performances. I also became aware of my weaknesses,
and [therefore] tried to imitate the more-proficient speakers. Watching my own and
other students’videos enabled me to explore ways to possibly improve my performance.
(S11)
Students in both groups also reported that more- and less-proficient speakers helped them
enhance their speaking performance.
• I clearly understood the weaknesses in each model. I therefore learned how to improve
my performance by comparing the more- and less-proficient speakers. (S10, Group A)
• There was a significant difference in performance between the more-proficient and less-
proficient speakers. The more-proficient speakers spoke almost perfectly at an
appropriate pace, and presented suitable content. I attempted to imitate their eye contact
and posture, since imitating their pronunciation seemed too difficult. I compared my
performances to those of the less-proficient speakers to identify weaknesses that I could
improve upon. (S12, Group B)
A student in Group A commented on the negative impact of viewing more-proficient speakers
first on his or her speaking performance.
• It was beneficial for me to view the less-proficient speaker models, because my
performance was not so good. I then felt compelled to watch the more-proficient
speakers. I believe that it is better to watch the less-proficient speakers first. (S9)
Discussion
Quantitative analyses found significant performance round and group interaction effects in
peer-evaluated scores for Group B, who watched less-proficient models first and more-
proficient models next. These findings were consistent with those of Okada et al. (2017). It
appears that this sequence order of model viewing had a positive impact on student
performance.
It should be emphasized that students in both groups were taught similar content by the same
instructor; therefore, it was expected that their language- and speech-related skills would
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develop solely through regular lessons. A performance gap between the model speakers and
students would have been natural; if the gap was too large at the instruction, students would
not be motivated for delivering a speech; if, however, it was not, they would be motivated for
practicing further. We would then assume that the viewing of less- and more-proficient speaker
models assisted them during each instruction for Group B. On the other hand, for students who
watched more-proficient first, it might be too difficult to model at the instruction, and therefore
this video viewing order would probably not have helped students develop their language and
public speaking skills. In summary, our findings from quantitative analyses support the idea
that students’ development over the course should be carefully considered and such speaker
models should be shown to students.
Given that Group A’s peer evaluations for the three aforementioned factors were already high
following the first round of performance, this group might not have had as much room for
improvement, resulting in a ceiling effect. Accordingly, peer-evaluated scores in this group
may not have improved as much as those in Group B, regardless of model viewing order. There
were two possibilities that may have caused a ceiling effect in Group A. First, the average
TOEIC Bridge score for Group A was higher than that of Group B; it is likely that Group A’s
performances were already satisfactory in the first round of performance. Second, there is a
possibility that students in Group A were more lenient than those in Group B, and thus the
former group scored higher in peer evaluation. Future research should disentangle these
possibilities using a more simplified teaching procedure to examine model viewing effects on
EFL learners’ performance.
On the other hand, qualitative analysis found that video observation positively affected students’
speaking performances, supporting the findings of Okada et al. (2017). For example, viewing
more-proficient speakers helped participants enhance their English pronunciation and public
speaking skills and, seemingly, develop greater awareness of other students as well as greater
self-awareness, thereby improving their speech performance. The less-proficient speaker
models also helped participants improve their performance while being aware of the speakers’
weaknesses. There is thus a possibility that either more-proficient models or less-proficient
ones enable students to raise the quality of their speech presentations for different purposes and
for different reasons.
Due to the small quantities of textual data from the three reflections, there was little variety in
the words shown in the tables. It might also have been possible to clarify differences in the
reflections between the two groups, if more textual data had been collected in the study.
Nevertheless, these featured words were informative enough to encourage us to further
examine textual data in response to our research questions.
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Pedagogical Implications
Live and video-recorded models may both be useful, but for different purposes and for different
reasons. That is, it is not a contest between them; rather, they complement each other. Viewing
video-recorded models can help learners enhance their linguistic awareness and boost public
speaking skills, as can watching recordings of their own performances, while live models can
help them understand how speakers deliver speeches in front of an audience that is actually
looking into the speakers’ eyes and hearing their voice. As mentioned previously, Bandura’s
(1971, 1977) observational learning theory is comprised of four stages: attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation. His theory was originally used to describe the acquisition of
behavior among children; however, language learners who observe a video presentation may
undergo a comparable progression of stages. For instance, the participants in this study viewed
both more- and less-proficient speakers (involving attention) while focusing on their positive
and negative aspects (retention). Students then gave performances and concentrated on
imitating the models (reproduction). Finally, learners viewed recordings of their own
performances, and noted improvements and aspects requiring further refinement (motivation).
It seems, then, that video-based observational learning contributes to enhancing the quality of
learners’ public speaking skills in the foreign language classroom.
Theoretical Implications
This replication study aimed to use non-native speaker model videos to improve broad-based
language skills, including English pronunciation and public speaking skills. While students
were taught English pronunciation in their regular lessons, it was not included as an evaluation
item; however, we would expect these students to benefit from practicing pronunciation in the
context of an exercise like this, especially since most of them had not had instruction in English
pronunciation in junior or senior high school.
As Murphy (2014) pointed out, characteristics in the paralinguistic (e.g., facial expressions),
linguistic, and rhetorical (e.g., topic) realms play an important role in communication by
helping ensure that the speaker is intelligible to listeners. The present study indicates that non-
native speakers’ video clips affect students’ learning performance outcomes by making them
more aware of these paralinguistic and linguistic aspects. The primary reason to use non-native
speaker models, not native speaker ones, is that they are able to encourage learners and inspire
confidence in them (Adams, 2004). It may be therefore reasonable to consider that teaching
public speaking skills using different types of models can be beneficial for EFL learners who
deliver speech performances, as the learners are able to manifest what they observed in and
learned from the videos regarding linguistic, paralinguistic, and rhetorical skills.
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Limitations
This study contained some of the same limitations as the first replication study. First, as
discussed in Okada et al. (2017), this was a quasi-experimental study, in which there was not a
large sample of participants to generalize the findings of the study. Second, although the study’s
purpose was to examine the effects of model video observation and its sequence order on
students’speaking performances, several other factors might have affected students’evaluation
of their speaking performances. Additionally, to evaluate students’ speaking performances,
self- and peer evaluation scores were used for analysis; future research should employ teacher
evaluation in addition to student evaluation, so that it can avoid potential problems with the
internal validity of the study.
Conclusion
In this replication of Okada et al. (2017), we found very similar results: (1) learners who
watched less-proficient speaker models first and more-proficient ones second showed a
significantly higher improvement in peer evaluation scores; (2) more-proficient speaker models
were used for learners to imitate the speakers’ strengthens, and less-proficient speaker models
were used to raise learners’ awareness of self/others to improve their own speaking
performance. While the study failed to quantitatively show that the viewing order of model
speaker videos solely affect learners’ speech performance due to the several limitations of the
study, the qualitative results could have important implications for language teachers and
researchers. The first implication is that it may be necessary for students not only in Japan but
also in other Asian countries to improve public speaking skills as part of curriculum. As many
American universities do (Hancock et al., 2010), Japanese institutions could offer courses that
focus on improving students’ public speaking skills. Second, having an opportunity to develop
public speaking skills seems to be essential for students in a globalizing society. For those who
are afraid of public speaking, it may be helpful and practical to have their own public speaking
performance video-recorded so that they can become aware of their strengths and weaknesses
to improve their speaking skills. As a multi-media assisted learning tool, video-based
observational learning as well as reflective learning brings about a possibility that learners will
be able to develop public speaking skills in the EFL classroom without having a native speaker
model.
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS Kakenhi
Grant Number 15K02730) and the Research Institute for Language Education at Seisen
University, Tokyo. We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.jp) for English language
editing.
Footnotes
1
. Although Group B comprised 14 students, only 13 scores were computed, since one student
did not complete the test.
2
. The comments in the column were excluded from the analysis because this paper focuses
specifically on student performance and video-observation reflections.
3
. The term “average level” was used with the participating students as an alternative to “less-
proficient,” to avoid negative impressions of the video clips.
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