Perception and Development
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The document discusses various topics in psychology including cognitive psychology, sensation, perception, motivation, emotion, and social factors that influence perception. It provides definitions and explanations of these key concepts in 3 sentences or less for each topic. The document appears to be teaching materials for an introductory psychology course, as it concisely defines and explains fundamental topics in a straightforward manner.
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Perception and Development
- 1. Syed Md. Sajjad KabirSyed Md. Sajjad Kabir Department of PsychologyDepartment of Psychology University of ChittagongUniversity of Chittagong smskabirpsy@cu.ac.bdsmskabirpsy@cu.ac.bdKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 1
- 2. Topics CoveredTopics Covered ď Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology ď SensationSensation ď Sensation and PerceptionSensation and Perception ď Types of Stimuli and ResponsesTypes of Stimuli and Responses ď Development of PerceptionDevelopment of Perception ď Social Factors of PerceptionSocial Factors of Perception ď Motivation and EmotionMotivation and Emotion ď Motivation and DriveMotivation and Drive ď Motivation and Social Behavior.Motivation and Social Behavior. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 2
- 3. Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology ď Cognitive psychology is the branch ofCognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processespsychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive,including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn.remember, and learn. ď The core focus of cognitive psychology isThe core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and storeon how people acquire, process and store information.information. ď Practical applications for cognitivePractical applications for cognitive research, improving memory, increasingresearch, improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and structuringdecision-making accuracy, and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.educational curricula to enhance learning. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 3
- 4. ď Sensation is the first step in theSensation is the first step in the process of allowing your brain toprocess of allowing your brain to experience the features andexperience the features and characteristics of the environment aroundcharacteristics of the environment around you.you. ď Sensation is the process that allowsSensation is the process that allows our brains to take in information via ourour brains to take in information via our five senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell,five senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch), which can then beand touch), which can then be experienced an interpreted by the brain.experienced an interpreted by the brain. SensationSensation Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 4
- 5. Perception is the active process of selecting, organizing, andPerception is the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses.interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses. Sensation and perception compliment each other to createSensation and perception compliment each other to create meanings from what we experience, yet they are two completelymeanings from what we experience, yet they are two completely different ways of how we interpret our world.different ways of how we interpret our world. Sensation is the stimulation of a sensory receptor which producesSensation is the stimulation of a sensory receptor which produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as a sound, visualneural impulses that the brain interprets as a sound, visual image, odor, taste, pain, etc. Sensation occurs when sensoryimage, odor, taste, pain, etc. Sensation occurs when sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in theorgans absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the environment. Sensory receptors then convert this energy intoenvironment. Sensory receptors then convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the brain. Perception is whenneural impulses and send them to the brain. Perception is when the brain organizes the information and translates/interprets itthe brain organizes the information and translates/interprets it into something meaningful (selective attention) or something thatinto something meaningful (selective attention) or something that can be made sense of or rationalized by us.can be made sense of or rationalized by us. Perception is how one "receives" this feeling or thought, andPerception is how one "receives" this feeling or thought, and gives meaning to it through memories and emotions. Perception isgives meaning to it through memories and emotions. Perception is mainly how our brain interprets a sensation.mainly how our brain interprets a sensation. Sensation and PerceptionSensation and Perception Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 5
- 6. Discriminative StimulusDiscriminative Stimulus: reinforcement/punishment that have been: reinforcement/punishment that have been associated.associated. Eliciting StimulusEliciting Stimulus: essential component of Pavlovian conditioning: essential component of Pavlovian conditioning (unconditioned response is placed unconditioned stimulus.(unconditioned response is placed unconditioned stimulus. Emotional StimulusEmotional Stimulus: emotional reaction which may influence the: emotional reaction which may influence the occurrence of behavior.occurrence of behavior. Reinforcing StimulusReinforcing Stimulus: increases the occurrence of behaviors that it: increases the occurrence of behaviors that it follows.follows. Nominal StimulusNominal Stimulus: unanalyzed stimulus as a whole; It is not clear to: unanalyzed stimulus as a whole; It is not clear to note about the car: its color, make, speed, location, driver, etc.note about the car: its color, make, speed, location, driver, etc. Functional StimulusFunctional Stimulus: specific attributes of the discriminative: specific attributes of the discriminative stimulus; particularly interested in the car's color.stimulus; particularly interested in the car's color. Stimulus ControlStimulus Control: control when a discriminative stimulus changes the: control when a discriminative stimulus changes the likelihood of an operant response.likelihood of an operant response. Types of StimuliTypes of Stimuli Stimuli are events in the environment that influence behavior. A singleStimuli are events in the environment that influence behavior. A single stimulus can serve many different functions.stimulus can serve many different functions. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 6
- 7. Conflict arises between people when they have differing needs,Conflict arises between people when they have differing needs, beliefs or goals. Five ways we respond to them -beliefs or goals. Five ways we respond to them - âŞâŞ AvoidanceAvoidance âŞâŞ CompetitionCompetition âŞâŞ AccommodationAccommodation âŞâŞ CompromiseCompromise âŞâŞ CollaborationCollaboration Conflict occurs everywhere: in the home, in the office and evenConflict occurs everywhere: in the home, in the office and even on the street. Healthy ways to handle a conflict and ways toon the street. Healthy ways to handle a conflict and ways to react to conflicts that can improve the relationship.react to conflicts that can improve the relationship. ââ Fight or FlightFight or Flight ââ Take a Deep BreathTake a Deep Breath ââ Use "I" StatementsUse "I" Statements ââ ListenListen When teaching ways of writing a response to a text, it isWhen teaching ways of writing a response to a text, it is helpful to consider three types of response.helpful to consider three types of response. âĄâĄ Agree/Disagree ResponseAgree/Disagree Response âĄâĄ Interpretive/Reflective ResponseInterpretive/Reflective Response âĄâĄ Analytic ResponseAnalytic Response Types of ResponsesTypes of Responses Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 7
- 8. Development of PerceptionDevelopment of Perception The steps in the perceptual process are âThe steps in the perceptual process are â 1.1. Environmental StimulusEnvironmental Stimulus 2. Attended Stimulus2. Attended Stimulus 3. Image on the Retina3. Image on the Retina 4. Transduction4. Transduction 5. Neural Processing5. Neural Processing 6. Perception6. Perception 7. Recognition7. Recognition 8. Action.8. Action. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 8
- 9. Environmental StimulusEnvironmental Stimulus: The world is full of stimuli that: The world is full of stimuli that can attract our attention through various senses. Thecan attract our attention through various senses. The environmental stimulus is everything in our environmentenvironmental stimulus is everything in our environment that has the potential to be perceived.that has the potential to be perceived. Attended StimulusAttended Stimulus: The attended stimulus is the specific: The attended stimulus is the specific object in the environment on which our attention isobject in the environment on which our attention is focused.focused. Image on the RetinaImage on the Retina: Next, the attended stimulus is: Next, the attended stimulus is formed as an image on the retina. The first part of thisformed as an image on the retina. The first part of this process involves the light actually passing through theprocess involves the light actually passing through the cornea and pupil and onto the lens of the eye.cornea and pupil and onto the lens of the eye. TransductionTransduction: The image on the retina is then: The image on the retina is then transformed into electrical signals in a process known astransformed into electrical signals in a process known as transduction. This allows the visual messages to betransduction. This allows the visual messages to be transmitted to the brain to be interpreted.transmitted to the brain to be interpreted. Development of PerceptionDevelopment of Perception Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 9
- 10. Neural ProcessingNeural Processing: The electrical signals then undergo: The electrical signals then undergo neural processing. The path followed by a particular signalneural processing. The path followed by a particular signal depends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditorydepends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditory signal or a visual signal).signal or a visual signal). PerceptionPerception: In the next step of the perception process,: In the next step of the perception process, we actually perceive the stimulus object in thewe actually perceive the stimulus object in the environment. It is at this point that we becomeenvironment. It is at this point that we become consciously aware of the stimulus.consciously aware of the stimulus. RecognitionRecognition: Perception doesn't just involve becoming: Perception doesn't just involve becoming consciously aware of the stimuli. It is also necessary forconsciously aware of the stimuli. It is also necessary for our brain to categorize and interpret what it is we areour brain to categorize and interpret what it is we are sensing. Our ability to interpret and give meaning to thesensing. Our ability to interpret and give meaning to the object is the next step, known as recognition.object is the next step, known as recognition. ActionAction: The final step of the perceptual process involves: The final step of the perceptual process involves some sort of action in response to the environmentalsome sort of action in response to the environmental stimulus.stimulus. Development of PerceptionDevelopment of Perception Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 10
- 11. Early Childhood Perceptual DevelopmentEarly Childhood Perceptual Development Sensorimotor Stage:Sensorimotor Stage: Simple ReflexesSimple Reflexes (Birth to 1(Birth to 1 month)month) ââ infants begin to coordinate their inborninfants begin to coordinate their inborn reflexes through sensation and action.reflexes through sensation and action. Sensorimotor Stage:Sensorimotor Stage: Primary Circular ReactionsPrimary Circular Reactions (1(1 to 4 months) âto 4 months) â infants begin to coordinateinfants begin to coordinate information from their senses. Infants intentionallyinformation from their senses. Infants intentionally repeat actions that occur automatically as reflexes.repeat actions that occur automatically as reflexes. Sensorimotor Stage:Sensorimotor Stage: Secondary Circular ReactionsSecondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 months) â(4 to 8 months) â infants develop more coordinationinfants develop more coordination between vision and movement.between vision and movement. Piaget's stages of cognitive development describe the developmentPiaget's stages of cognitive development describe the development of perception as-of perception as- Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 11
- 12. Early Childhood Perceptual DevelopmentEarly Childhood Perceptual Development Sensorimotor Stage:Sensorimotor Stage: Coordination of Secondary CircularCoordination of Secondary Circular ReactionsReactions (8 to 12 months) â(8 to 12 months) â babies develop object permanence,babies develop object permanence, meaning that they understand that objects still exist when theymeaning that they understand that objects still exist when they are out of sight. Their spatial perception develops, so they areare out of sight. Their spatial perception develops, so they are able to crawl or walk toward interesting objects.able to crawl or walk toward interesting objects. Sensorimotor Stage:Sensorimotor Stage: Tertiary Circular ReactionsTertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18(12 to 18 months) - toddlers begin to experiment with new behaviors.months) - toddlers begin to experiment with new behaviors. They intentionally vary their actions to get interesting results.They intentionally vary their actions to get interesting results. Sensorimotor Stage:Sensorimotor Stage: Mental CombinationsMental Combinations (18 to 24 months) -(18 to 24 months) - children develop symbolic thought. They can mentally representchildren develop symbolic thought. They can mentally represent events in their minds, allowing them to anticipate and perceiveevents in their minds, allowing them to anticipate and perceive the consequences of certain actions.the consequences of certain actions. Preoperational StagePreoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) - mental representations(2 to 7 years) - mental representations improve and objects do not have to be present for children toimprove and objects do not have to be present for children to think about them.think about them. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 12
- 13. Social Factors of PerceptionSocial Factors of Perception Factors in theFactors in the perceiverperceiver â˘AttitudesAttitudes â˘MoodsMoods â˘MotivesMotives â˘Self-conceptSelf-concept â˘InterestsInterests â˘CognitiveCognitive structurestructure â˘ExpectationsExpectations Factors in theFactors in the targettarget â˘NoveltyNovelty â˘MotionMotion â˘SoundsSounds â˘SizeSize â˘BackgroundBackground â˘ProximityProximity â˘SimilaritySimilarity Factors in theFactors in the situationsituation â˘TimeTime â˘Work settingWork setting â˘Social settingSocial setting Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 13
- 14. Motivation and emotion are usually viewed asMotivation and emotion are usually viewed as two psychological features that seeminglytwo psychological features that seemingly share cause-and-effect relationship.share cause-and-effect relationship. Motivation as something that stimulates aMotivation as something that stimulates a person to act and behave to achieve aperson to act and behave to achieve a desired goal, while emotion is the feelingsdesired goal, while emotion is the feelings that emerge from the motive or drive itself,that emerge from the motive or drive itself, from the actions caused by the motive andfrom the actions caused by the motive and from the achievement or failure of thefrom the achievement or failure of the desired goal.desired goal. Motivation and EmotionMotivation and Emotion Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 14
- 15. Motivation can be defined in the following ways-Motivation can be defined in the following ways- ď An internal or external drive that prompts a personAn internal or external drive that prompts a person to action;to action; ď The ability to initiate and persist toward a chosenThe ability to initiate and persist toward a chosen objective;objective; ď Putting 100% of your time, effort, energy, andPutting 100% of your time, effort, energy, and focus into your goal attainment;focus into your goal attainment; ď Being able to pursue change in the face of obstacles,Being able to pursue change in the face of obstacles, boredom, fatigue, stress, and the desire to do otherboredom, fatigue, stress, and the desire to do other things;things; ď The determination to resist ingrained and unhealthyThe determination to resist ingrained and unhealthy patterns and habits;patterns and habits; ď Doing everything you can to make the changes youDoing everything you can to make the changes you want in your life.want in your life. Motivation and EmotionMotivation and Emotion Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 15
- 16. Motivation and EmotionMotivation and Emotion Motivation is so important because it impactsMotivation is so important because it impacts every aspect of your efforts at change-every aspect of your efforts at change- â˘Preparation to make the changes;Preparation to make the changes; â˘Patience in giving yourself time for thePatience in giving yourself time for the changes to occur;changes to occur; â˘Persistence when old habits and patternsPersistence when old habits and patterns resist your efforts;resist your efforts; â˘Perseverance in overcoming obstacles andPerseverance in overcoming obstacles and setbacks;setbacks; â˘Lifestyle that supports the changes;Lifestyle that supports the changes; â˘Ultimate achievement of the desiredUltimate achievement of the desired changes.changes. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 16
- 17. Motivation and EmotionMotivation and Emotion Motivation Matrix breaks down motivation along two dimensions:Motivation Matrix breaks down motivation along two dimensions: Internal vs. external and positive vs. negative.Internal vs. external and positive vs. negative. â˘Internal-positiveInternal-positive: Challenge, desire, passion, satisfaction,: Challenge, desire, passion, satisfaction, self-validation (likely outcome: successful change,self-validation (likely outcome: successful change, fulfillment).fulfillment). â˘External-positiveExternal-positive: Recognition and appreciation from: Recognition and appreciation from others, financial rewards, (likely outcome: some change,others, financial rewards, (likely outcome: some change, partial fulfillment, dependent on others for continuedpartial fulfillment, dependent on others for continued change and good feelings).change and good feelings). â˘Internal-negativeInternal-negative: Threat, fear of failure, inadequacy,: Threat, fear of failure, inadequacy, insecurity (likely outcome: some change, possible relapse).insecurity (likely outcome: some change, possible relapse). â˘External-negativeExternal-negative: Fear of loss of job or relationship,: Fear of loss of job or relationship, insufficient respect from others, financial or socialinsufficient respect from others, financial or social pressures, pressure from significant others, unstable lifepressures, pressure from significant others, unstable life (likely outcome: some success, high risk of relapse).(likely outcome: some success, high risk of relapse). Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 17
- 18. Motivation and DriveMotivation and Drive ďDrive reduction is a major aspect ofDrive reduction is a major aspect of learning.learning. ďPrimary drives are innate biologicalPrimary drives are innate biological needs (e.g. thirst, hunger, and sex),needs (e.g. thirst, hunger, and sex), whereas secondary drives are learned bywhereas secondary drives are learned by conditioning (e.g. the desire for wealth).conditioning (e.g. the desire for wealth). ďIndividuals faced with more than oneIndividuals faced with more than one need at the same time are said toneed at the same time are said to endure multiple drives. Research hasendure multiple drives. Research has shown that this condition has an impactshown that this condition has an impact on learning capacity.on learning capacity.Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 18
- 19. Drive reduction theoretical framework consisted of manyDrive reduction theoretical framework consisted of many postulates stated in mathematical form-postulates stated in mathematical form- (1)(1)organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which areorganisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under conditions of stimulation and drive,aroused under conditions of stimulation and drive, (2)(2)habit strength increases with activities that arehabit strength increases with activities that are associated with primary or secondary reinforcement,associated with primary or secondary reinforcement, (3)(3)habit strength aroused by a stimulus other thanhabit strength aroused by a stimulus other than the one originally conditioned depends upon thethe one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the second stimulus in terms ofcloseness of the second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds,discrimination thresholds, (4)(4)stimuli associated with the cessation of a responsestimuli associated with the cessation of a response become conditioned inhibitors,become conditioned inhibitors, (5)(5)the more the effective reaction potential exceedsthe more the effective reaction potential exceeds the reaction threshold, the shorter the latency ofthe reaction threshold, the shorter the latency of response.response. Motivation and DriveMotivation and Drive Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 19
- 20. Motivation and DriveMotivation and Drive The principles of drive reduction theory of motivation are -The principles of drive reduction theory of motivation are - ďDrive is essential in order for responses toDrive is essential in order for responses to occur (i.e., the student must want to learn).occur (i.e., the student must want to learn). ďStimuli and responses must be detected byStimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occurthe organism in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be attentive).(i.e., the student must be attentive). ďResponse must be made in order forResponse must be made in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student mustconditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be active).be active). ďConditioning only occurs if the reinforcementConditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need (i.e., the learning mustsatisfied a need (i.e., the learning must satisfy the learner's wants).satisfy the learner's wants).Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 20
- 21. Motivation is considered goal-orientedMotivation is considered goal-oriented behavior and the underlying motives.behavior and the underlying motives. There are three major categories of motives-There are three major categories of motives- ďą Biological motives are things such asBiological motives are things such as hunger, thirst, and physical needs.hunger, thirst, and physical needs. ďą Stimulus motives are things such asStimulus motives are things such as sensory stimulation, exploration, curiositysensory stimulation, exploration, curiosity etc.etc. ďą Social motives are behaviors such asSocial motives are behaviors such as achievement, power, affiliation, and otherachievement, power, affiliation, and other social experiences.social experiences. Motivation and Social BehaviorMotivation and Social Behavior Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 21
- 22. Abraham Maslow has developed the concept of the hierarch of needs-Abraham Maslow has developed the concept of the hierarch of needs- ďś PhysiologicalPhysiological needs (such as food, water,needs (such as food, water, warmth, rest);warmth, rest); ďś SafetySafety needs (security, safety, shelter);needs (security, safety, shelter); ďś BelongingnessBelongingness (intimacy, friendships, social(intimacy, friendships, social relationships);relationships); ďś EsteemEsteem needs (prestige, feelings ofneeds (prestige, feelings of accomplishment, social acceptance); andaccomplishment, social acceptance); and ďśSSelf-actualizationelf-actualization (achieving ones potential).(achieving ones potential). Motivation and Social BehaviorMotivation and Social Behavior Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 22
- 23. Motivation and Social BehaviorMotivation and Social Behavior Henry Murray (1938) contended that social motivesHenry Murray (1938) contended that social motives are largely learned and he developed a list of basicare largely learned and he developed a list of basic social motives-social motives- ¡¡ AchievementAchievement ¡¡ AffiliationAffiliation ¡¡ AggressionAggression ¡ ¡ AutonomyAutonomy ¡ ¡ DominanceDominance ¡ ¡ NurturanceNurturance ¡ ¡ PlayPlay ¡ ¡ UnderstandingUnderstanding.. He and others suggest we are taught to maintain aHe and others suggest we are taught to maintain a certain level of the above. We are taught andcertain level of the above. We are taught and acquire behavior that allows us to achieve ouracquire behavior that allows us to achieve our learned social motives.learned social motives. The level of intensity byThe level of intensity by which the person attempts to meet the learnedwhich the person attempts to meet the learned social motives is determined both by individual andsocial motives is determined both by individual and familial influences as well as by cultural and societalfamilial influences as well as by cultural and societal influences.influences. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa 23
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Editor's Notes
- Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning. Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension. These processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning. Cognitive psychology is the scientific investigation of human cognition, that is, all our mental abilities â perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning, and understanding. The term âcognitionâ stems from the Latin word â cognoscereâ or "to know". Fundamentally, cognitive psychology studies how people acquire and apply knowledge or information. It is closely related to the highly interdisciplinary cognitive science and influenced by artificial intelligence, computer science, philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, biology, physics, and neuroscience. Traditionally, cognitive psychology includes human perception, attention, learning, memory, concept formation, reasoning, judgment and decision-making, problem solving, and language processing. For some, social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, evolutionary approaches have also become part of cognitive psychology.
- Sensation is the first step in the process of allowing your brain to experience the features and characteristics of the environment around you. Sensation is the input about the physical world that is produced by our sensory receptors. Perception is the process by which the mind selects, organizes, and interprets sensations. Â Sensation is the process that allows our brains to take in information via our five senses, which can then be experienced an interpreted by the brain. Sensation occurs thanks to our five sensory systems: vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Each of these systems maintains unique neural pathways with the brain which allows them to transfer information from the environment to the brain very rapidly. Without sensation we would not be able to enjoy the sunny spring day at the park.
- Sensation and perception although closely related, have distinct qualities that set them apart. Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing" process. Perception can be defined as the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses. Â Sensation is the stimulation of a sensory receptor which produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as a sound, visual image, odor, taste, pain, etc. Sensation occurs when sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the environment. Sensory receptors then convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the brain. Perception is when the brain organizes the information and translates/interprets it into something meaningful (selective attention) or something that can be made sense of or rationalized by us. Furthermore, perception is how one "receives" this feeling or thought, and gives meaning to it through memories and emotions. Perception is mainly how our brain interprets a sensation. Information is obtained through collector, receptor, transmission, and coding mechanisms. Sensation and perception compliment each other to create meanings from what we experience, yet they are two completely different ways of how we interpret our world.
- Stimuli are events in the environment that influence behavior. A single stimulus can serve many different functions. Listed below are several functions that a stimulus can serve. Â Discriminative Stimulus: A discriminative stimulus influences the occurrence of an operant response because of the contingencies of schedules of reinforcement or paradigms of reinforcement/punishment that are or have been associated with that response. Many authors further suggest that discriminative stimuli provide information to the organism, allowing it to respond appropriately in the presence of different stimuli. An observing response is sometimes necessary for presentation of the discriminative stimulus/stimuli. Â For example, different individuals can serve as discriminative stimuli in a joke-telling situation. The jokes that you tell your priest are probably different from the jokes that you tell your best friend because of your past history of telling jokes to both people. Experimentally, we can observe the discrimination of stimuli by associating different discriminative stimuli with different schedules of reinforcement or paradigms of reinforcement/punishment. For instance, in the laboratory, a pigeon could be required in the presence of a steady chamber light to peck a key on a Fixed Interval schedule to produce food, whereas it could be required in the presence of a blinking chamber light to pull a chain on a Variable Ratio schedule to turn off a loud noise. The discriminative stimuli clarify the "rules of the game", making each prevailing three-term contingency unambiguous. Â Eliciting Stimulus: An eliciting stimulus is a change in the environment that is highly correlated with the occurrence of a later response. An eliciting stimulus is an essential component of Pavlovian conditioning. Â For example, if a piece of chocolate (unconditioned stimulus) is placed into your mouth, then you will probably salivate copiously (unconditioned response). Placing the piece of chocolate into the mouth is said to elicit salivation. Â Emotional Stimulus: Some stimuli may produce an emotional reaction which may influence the occurrence of behavior. For example, a game of backgammon might be interrupted by news of the unexpected death of a famous politician. Â Reinforcing Stimulus: A reinforcing stimulus is one that increases the occurrence of behaviors that it follows. For instance, the receipt of a trophy may increase the chances of a young girl competing in a yearly road race. Â Nominal Stimulus: A discriminative stimulus may have many identifiable attributes. Although we can readily observe the organism's response to the whole stimulus, it may not be clear exactly which attributes of the stimulus are controlling the behavior. The unanalyzed stimulus as a whole is said to be the nominal stimulus. For example, your friend asks you to look at a passing sports car. It is not clear just what your friend wanted you to note about the car: its color, make, speed, location, driver, etc. Â Functional Stimulus: The functional stimulus refers to the specific attributes of the discriminative stimulus that exert control over the organism's behavior. In the above example, your friend may have been particularly interested in the car's color. Â Stimulus Control: We speak of stimulus control when a discriminative stimulus changes the likelihood of an operant response. The controlling relation between the discriminative stimulus and the operant response (what Skinner called attention) comes about because of the reinforcer/punisher that has followed the operant response in the presence of that discriminative stimulus.
- Conflict arises between people when they have differing needs, beliefs or goals. According to the Foundation Coalition, the average person experiences about five conflicts per day, and the way we respond to them not only impacts our chances of resolving them, but may also affect our emotional and physical well-being. Â Avoidance: People often avoid conflict because of fear of failure or personal harm, but they may also simply wish to avoid the unpleasantness of openly dealing with it. While this response to conflict obviously lacks a defense of your own self-interests, there are times when it is the most appropriate response. If you are in conflict with a more powerful person or group, if it is not the best time for dealing with the conflict or if you simply want to reduce tensions, avoidance may be your best choice. Competition: Competition is a common response to conflict and involves a high degree of self-assertiveness. When seeing that your goals are achieved is more important to you than avoiding unpleasantness or maintaining smooth relationships, competition is an appropriate response. If this is your response, you will stand your ground, debate your point and make certain that your views are considered. Accommodation: Accommodation is a cooperative response to conflict that helps ensure peace and goodwill among the subjects of the conflict and a reasonable solution to the problem. It is characterized by a willingness to forgo your own agenda in favor of moving forward and resolving the conflict. In work situations this mode can be productive, but if you use your willingness to sacrifice in one conflict as leverage in other conflicts, it can be counterproductive. Compromise: Compromise is an appropriate response to a conflict when the importance of realizing your personal goals is about equal to the importance of maintaining a good relationship. It involves negotiating between the parties so that a final common ground is agreed to. Collaboration: Collaboration is a cooperative response to conflict that aims to meet the needs of all parties as much as possible. It is an important and productive response, especially to conflicts in the workplace. By listening to all concerns, analyzing goals, and dealing peaceably with the differences, it is possible for conflicting parties to not only resolve their conflict but to meet, to some extent at least, the needs of all parties. It is appropriate when the stability of the relationship is necessary for the achievement of everyone's goals. Â Conflict occurs everywhere: in the home, in the office and even on the street. Two or more people disagree about something and each side becomes more frustrated and angry as the seconds pass. A verbal, or even physical, altercation could occur during a situation like this, but there are healthy ways to handle a conflict and ways to react to conflicts that can improve the relationship. Fight or Flight: For many people, the natural response to any conflict is "fight or flight". This refers to the tendency for people to either immediately stand up for themselves or what they believe in, thus triggering a fight, or to become passive and figuratively run away from the conflict. When these reactions are immediate, the conflict can escalate quickly. It can be hard to break this pattern of behavior, but realizing what is going on emotionally and physically to both parties involved in the conflict can keep it from escalating. Take a Deep Breath: Just taking a second to cool down can resolve many conflicts that escalate too quickly. Deep breathing exercises have been proven to calm the body and slow the heart rate. Maybe the other person is completely wrong and being stubborn and mean, but taking that one second to breathe deep gives a person the time to reflect and ask themselves if they think their behavior is a normal response. Taking a deep breath can calm both parties down. Use "I" Statements: "You" statements are fairly common during an argument because many people are quick to blame. When one person says something like "You are hurting my feelings", it tends to aggravate the other person and they are likely to throw back another "You" statement. Stop this type of back-and-forth by introducing "I" statements, as in "I understand you think your design shows off their new building more, but I think this example would be more appealing to the clients, based on their past advertising designs". It can often be helpful to repeat the last point the other person made, but change it into an "I" statement. Listen: Getting caught up in a conflict can mean one or both people stop listening to what the other one is saying and just focus on how they can rebut everything being said to further prove their own point. In some cases, two people are on the same side but are saying things in a different way, which can be confusing and can lead to an argument. Listening to what the other person is saying can lead to an instant, or much easier, resolution that pleases both parties. Â When teaching ways of writing a response to a text, it is helpful to consider three types of response. However, keep in mind that once the writer begins to craft an actual response, it is likely that he/she will find him/herself combining elements of more than one response type, or even using elements of all three techniques. Agree/Disagree Response: This form of response is not merely the writer's opinion. However a writer chooses to respond, he/she should show the reader how and why he/she responded to the text as he/she did. They might find that they disagree with some of the author's points, but agree with others. In that case, their response will be a combination of agreeing and disagreeing. Whether they agree or disagree, or some combination of both, the writer must support their response with details, examples, facts, and evidence. Interpretive/Reflective Response: In this type of response, writers focus on a key passage or idea from the text, explaining and/or exploring it further. They also might reflect on their own experiences, attitudes, or observations in relation to the ideas of the text. The writer might use their response to consider how the author's ideas might be interpreted by other readers, how the ideas might be applied, or how they might be misunderstood. Analytic Response: This sort of response analyzes key elements of the text, such as the purpose, the audience, the thesis and main ideas, the argument, the organization and focus, the evidence, and the style. For example, how clear is the main idea? What sort of evidence is used to support the author's thesis and is it effective? Is the argument organized and logical? How are elements such as the author's style, tone, and voice working? This type of response looks at the essay in terms of the effectiveness of specific elements, whether they are working or not.
- The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to our perception of a stimulus and an action in response to the stimulus. This process is continual, but you do not spend a great deal of time thinking about the actual process that occurs when you perceive the many stimuli that surround you at any given moment. Â The process of transforming the light that falls on your retinas into an actual visual image happens unconsciously and automatically. The subtle changes in pressure against your skin that allow you to feel object occur without a single thought. In order to fully understand how the perception process works, we'll start by breaking down each step. The steps in the perceptual process are - Environmental Stimulus Attended Stimulus Image on the Retina Transduction Neural Processing Perception Recognition Action.
- Environmental Stimulus: The world is full of stimuli that can attract our attention through various senses. The environmental stimulus is everything in our environment that has the potential to be perceived. This might include anything that can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled or heard. It might also involve the sense of proprioception, such as the movements of the arms and legs or the change in position of the body in relation to objects in the environment. For example, imagine that you are out on a morning jog at your local park. As you perform your workout, there are a wide variety of environmental stimuli that might capture your attention. The tree branches are swaying in the slight breeze; a man is out on the grass playing fetch; a car drives past with the windows rolled down and the music blaring; a duck splashes in a nearby pond. All of these things represent the environmental stimuli, serving as a starting point for the perceptual process. Â Attended Stimulus: The attended stimulus is the specific object in the environment on which our attention is focused. In many cases, we might focus on stimuli that are familiar to us, such as the face of a friend in a crowd of strangers at the local coffee shop. In other instances, we are likely to attend to stimuli that have some degree of novelty. From our earlier example, let's imagine that during your morning job you focus your attention on the duck floating in the nearby pond. The duck represents the attended stimulus. During the next step of the perceptual process, the visual process will progress. Â Image on the Retina: Next, the attended stimulus is formed as an image on the retina. The first part of this process involves the light actually passing through the cornea and pupil and onto the lens of the eye. The cornea helps focus the light as it enters the eye, and the iris of the eye controls the size of the pupils in order to determine how much light to let in. The cornea and lens act together to project an inverted image on the retina. As you might already be aware, the image on the retina is actually upside down from the actual image in the environment. At this stage of the perceptual process, this is not terribly important. The image has still not been perceived, and this visual information will be changed even more dramatically in the next step of the process. Â Transduction: The image on the retina is then transformed into electrical signals in a process known as transduction. This allows the visual messages to be transmitted to the brain to be interpreted. The retina contains many photoreceptor cells. These cells contain proteins known as rods and cones. Rods are primarily for seeing things in low light, while cones are associated with detecting color and shapes at normal light levels. The rods and cones contain a molecule called retinal, which is responsible for transducing the light into visual signals that are then transmitted via nerve impulses.
- Neural Processing: The electrical signals then undergo neural processing. The path followed by a particular signal depends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditory signal or a visual signal). Through the series of interconnect neurons located throughout the body, electrical signals are propagated from the receptors cells to the brain. In our previous example, the image of duck floating in the pond is received as light on the retina, which is then transduced into an electrical signal and then processed through the neurons in the visual network. In the next step of the perceptual process, you will actually perceive the stimuli and become aware of its presence in the environment. Â Perception: In the next step of the perception process, we actually perceive the stimulus object in the environment. It is at this point that we become consciously aware of the stimulus. Let's consider our previous example, in which we imagined that you were out for a morning jog in the park. At the perception stage, you have become aware of that there is something out on the pond to perceive. Now, it is one thing to be aware of stimuli in the environment, and quite another to actually become fully consciously aware of what we have perceived. In the next stage of the perceptual process, we will sort the perceived information into meaningful categories. Â Recognition: Perception doesn't just involve becoming consciously aware of the stimuli. It is also necessary for our brain to categorize and interpret what it is we are sensing. Our ability to interpret and give meaning to the object is the next step, known as recognition. Continuing our example, it is at the recognition stage of the perceptual process that you realize that there is a duck floating on the water. The recognition stage is an essential part of perception since it allows us to make sense of the world around us. By placing objects in meaningful categories, we are able to understand and react to the world around us. Â Action: The final step of the perceptual process involves some sort of action in response to the environmental stimulus. This could involve a variety of actions, such as turning your head for a closer look or turning away to look at something else. The action phase of perceptual development involves some type of motor action that occurs in response to the perceived and recognized stimulus. This might involve a major action, like running toward a person in distress, or something as subtle as blinking your eyes in response to a puff of dust blowing through the air.
- Early Childhood Perceptual Development Perception develops through information that is gathered from the senses, which allows children to make sense of their environment. As they grow, babies and young children learn to discern information from the environment that is significant to them. This ability to filter information helps children interpret and attach meaning to objects and events. Piaget's stages of cognitive development describe the development of perception. Â Sensorimotor Stage: Simple Reflexes The simple reflexes substage is from birth to one month of age. At this age, infants begin to coordinate their inborn reflexes through sensation and action. They are born with reflexes that allow them to suck and grasp and they begin to follow objects with their eyes. Â Sensorimotor Stage: Primary Circular Reactions From one to four months of age, infants begin to coordinate information from their senses. Infants intentionally repeat actions that occur automatically as reflexes. In this way, infants repeat behaviors they perceive as pleasurable, such as thumb sucking. Babies this age can also coordinate auditory and visual sensations by turning toward sounds. Â Sensorimotor Stage: Secondary Circular Reactions This substage is from four to eight months of age. At this age, infants develop more coordination between vision and movement. Infants repeat actions that bring about interesting results, such as dropping a cup on the floor to see mom pick it up. Infants this age intentionally grasp objects. As they become mobile, their perception develops, and they gain spatial knowledge.
- Sensorimotor Stage: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions At eight to twelve months of age, babies develop object permanence, meaning that they understand that objects still exist when they are out of sight. Their spatial perception develops, so they are able to crawl or walk toward interesting objects. Their coordination between vision and movement allows them to perceive behaviors as means to an end. In this way, their actions become goal oriented, and they may push a button on a toy to hear the sound it makes. Â Sensorimotor Stage: Tertiary Circular Reactions At 12 to 18 months of age, toddlers begin to experiment with new behaviors. They intentionally vary their actions to get interesting results. For example, a child this age may shake different rattles to hear the variations in sound from each one. They also perceive the different properties of objects and are curious about them. Â Sensorimotor Stage: Mental Combinations From 18 to 24 months of age, children develop symbolic thought. They can mentally represent events in their minds, allowing them to anticipate and perceive the consequences of certain actions. They are not confined to trial-and-error methods to obtain desired results because their perceptions of objects and events are stored in their memories. Â Preoperational Stage Between two and seven years of age, mental representations improve and objects do not have to be present for children to think about them. Younger children do not understand that others may perceive objects differently than they do. Older children are limited by centration. In Piaget's beaker experiment, children did not recognize that the amount of water remained the same when it was poured into another beaker.
- Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information inputs to create a meaningful picture the world. Perception depends not only on the physical stimuli, but also on the stimuliâs relation to the surrounding field and on conditions within the individual. The key point is that perception can vary widely among individuals exposed to the same reality. A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside in the perceiver in the object or target being perceived, or in the context of the situation in which the perception is made.  Factors in the perceiver Attitudes Moods Motives Self-concept Interests Cognitive structure Expectations Factors in the target Novelty Motion Sounds Size Background Proximity Similarity Factors in the situation Time Work setting Social setting  Factors in the Perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are â (a) Attitudes: The perciver's attitudes affect perception. For example, Mr. X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr. X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude with doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews. (b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of other. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably.  (c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a sub ordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.  (d) Self-concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others.  (e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what other perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week.  (f) Cognitive structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits.  (g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see.  The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S. Zalking and Timothy W. Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal- (i) Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately. (ii) One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in other. (iii) People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other people. (iv) Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill. These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives other in the environmental situation.  Factors in the Target : Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motions, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. Verbal Communication from targets also affects our perception of them. Nonverbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in a attempt to form an impression of the target.  Factors in the Situation: The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In this situation, we assume that individual's behaviours can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's disposition.  The context in which we see objects or events is also important. The time at which an object or event is seen can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors. For example, at a nightclub on Saturday night, you may not notice a 22 year old female dressed to the nines. Yet that same woman so attired for your Monday morning management class would certainly catch your attention (and that of the rest of the class). Neither the perceiver nor the target changed between Saturday night and Monday morning, but the situation is different.
- Motivation and emotion are usually viewed as two psychological features that seemingly share cause-and-effect relationship. We often see motivation as something that stimulates a person to act and behave to achieve a desired goal, while emotion is the feelings that emerge from the motive or drive itself, from the actions caused by the motive and from the achievement or failure of the desired goal. However, there is more to motivation and emotion than this kind of relationship. Â Motivation has been defined in various ways over the years, but a common component of the different definitions is that motivation is a force that energizes, activates and directs behaviour. In 2006, Franken defined motivation as the âarousal, direction and persistence of a personâs behaviourâ. Most theorists who proposed their own explanation of motivation believe that any learned behaviour cannot be executed unless it is energized. Thus, motivation is important in performing all kinds of behaviour. Also, this means that any changes in motivation reflect on an individualâs behaviour.
- Hence, motivation can be defined in the following ways- An internal or external drive that prompts a person to action; The ability to initiate and persist toward a chosen objective; Putting 100% of your time, effort, energy, and focus into your goal attainment; Being able to pursue change in the face of obstacles, boredom, fatigue, stress, and the desire to do other things; The determination to resist ingrained and unhealthy patterns and habits; Doing everything you can to make the changes you want in your life.
- But it's one thing to saying you are motivated to make changes and achieve your goals; it's another entirely different thing to have that motivation translate into actual action toward those goals. Motivation is so important because it impacts every aspect of your efforts at change- Preparation to make the changes; Patience in giving yourself time for the changes to occur; Persistence when old habits and patterns resist your efforts; Perseverance in overcoming obstacles and setbacks; Lifestyle that supports the changes; Ultimate achievement of the desired changes.
- For every person, there is a different motivation that drives them toward their change goals. The Motivation Matrix breaks down motivation along two dimensions: Internal vs. external and positive vs. negative. The resulting four quadrants can each provide motivation, but will produce different experiences and outcomes. Internal-positive: Challenge, desire, passion, satisfaction, self-validation (likely outcome: successful change, fulfillment). External-positive: Recognition and appreciation from others, financial rewards, (likely outcome: some change, partial fulfillment, dependent on others for continued change and good feelings). Internal-negative: Threat, fear of failure, inadequacy, insecurity (likely outcome: some change, possible relapse). External-negative: Fear of loss of job or relationship, insufficient respect from others, financial or social pressures, pressure from significant others, unstable life (likely outcome: some success, high risk of relapse). Â Obviously, the ideal type of motivation is internal-positive because the motivation is coming from a place of strength and security. At the same time, there has been research that has shown that many successful people are driven to achieve their goals by insecurity, suggesting that an internal-negative or external-negative motivation can lead to change (though rarely happiness). Â Finding the motivation to change means maintaining your efforts consistently when it would be easy to give up. It involves doing everything possible to achieve your change goals. Motivation to change begins with what I call the three D's. The first D stands for direction. Before you can begin the process of change, you must first consider the different directions you can go in your life. You could continue your life as it is now, make immediate and dramatic changes, or take a slower route to change. The second D represents decision. With these three choices of direction, you must decide on one direction in which to go. None of these directions is necessarily right or wrong, better or worse, they're simply your options. Your choice will dictate whether you make changes in your life and the amount of time and effort you put into those changes. The third D stands for dedication. Once you've made your decision, you must dedicate yourself to it. If your decision is to makes significant changes in your life, whether quickly or slowly, then this last step will determine whether those changes are realized. Your decision to change will then become a top priority in your life. Only by being completely dedicated to your direction and decision will you ensure that you have the motivation you will need to achieve your change goals. Â In psychology, emotion refers to the conscious and subjective experience that is characterized by mental states, biological reactions and psychological or physiologic expressions (e.g. facial expressions). The word âemotionâ was a 1579 adaptation of the French word âemouvoirâ (to stir up). Emotion is different from âfeelingsâ because feelings subjectively represent emotions, which means that feelings are only private to the person. Also, emotion is distinguished from âmoodâ based on the period of time that they are present; a mood lasts longer than an emotion. Interchangeably used with emotion, âaffectâ is the experience of emotion, and is associated with how the emotion is expressed (as seen on facial expressions or hand gestures). Â Many psychologists believe that the link between motivation and emotion emerged from three reasons. First, the arousal of emotion and motives of motivation both activate or energize behaviour. Second, emotions often go together with motives. The common Latin root word of emotion and motivation, âmovereâ (to move) seems to imply the said reason. And third, it is typical for basic emotions to possess motivational properties of their own. For example, happiness motivates a person to achieve better performance. A noticeable similarity between emotion and motivation is that they are both linked to energy or intensity instead of information or direction. Another one is that while cognition seems to be wrapped in âcoldnessâ, emotion and motivation are often associated to pressure and heat. Yet another similarity is that both psychological constructs rely on the relationship between an individual and his environment. Theorists such as Thayer, Newman and McClain explained that emotion is related to motivation in such a way that human beings tend to execute things that we hope would lead to happiness, satisfaction and any other positive emotion at some degree. With this said, emotions could be viewed as a reward or punishment for a specific motivated behaviour.
- Drive reduction theory was developed by Clark Hull in 1943 and was the first theory of motivation. According to Hull, drive reduction is a major aspect of learning. Primary drives are innate biological needs (e.g. thirst, hunger, and sex), whereas secondary drives are learned by conditioning (e.g. the desire for wealth). Individuals faced with more than one need at the same time are said to endure multiple drives. Research has shown that this condition has an impact on learning capacity. Â If you have achieved homeostasis your motivation is 0, since you have no drives to reduce. If you are hungry, then your drive is increased to 1. If you are really hungry, your drive becomes 2. If you are thirsty your drive to satisfy the hunger and thirst becomes 3. As drives accumulate your overall motivation increases. Â You may have noticed that human behaviors go far beyond getting food, water, and sex, and being comfortable. If you are reading this right now, you are literally not obtaining any of those. But you are working towards them by way of a secondary drive. Primary drives are biological needs which provide you motivation. If you are hungry, you look for food. If you are thirsty, you look for water. These drives keep you alive. Secondary drives are drives that are associated with the primary drives. Going to work is not fun, or not as fun as running around and doing whatever you want. But working gets you money, and money gets you food, water, and more. You have been conditioned to link the primary drives to the secondary drives. Meaning you are driven to accomplish secondary drives (like work for money) to satisfy your primary drives (food and water). Your brain has been conditioned so thought pathways make these secondary drives nearly as powerful as your primary drives.
- Hull's drive reduction theoretical framework consisted of many postulates stated in mathematical form; They include: (1) organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under conditions of stimulation and drive, (2) habit strength increases with activities that are associated with primary or secondary reinforcement, (3) habit strength aroused by a stimulus other than the one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds, (4) stimuli associated with the cessation of a response become conditioned inhibitors, (5) the more the effective reaction potential exceeds the reaction threshold, the shorter the latency of response. As these postulates indicate, Hull proposed many types of variables that accounted for generalization, motivation, and variability (oscillation) in learning. Â One of the most important concepts in Hull's theory was the habit strength hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific response has a probability which can be changed by reward and is affected by various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some respects, habit strength hierarchies resemble components of cognitive theories such as schema and production systems . Â Here is an example described by Miller & Dollard (1941): A six year old girl who is hungry and wants candy is told that there is candy hidden under one of the books in a bookcase. The girl begins to pull out books in a random manner until she finally finds the correct book (210 seconds). She is sent out of the room and a new piece of candy is hidden under the same book. In her next search, she is much more directed and finds the candy in 86 seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment, the girl finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). The girl exhibited a drive for the candy and looking under books represented her responses to reduce this drive. When she eventually found the correct book, this particular response was rewarded, forming a habit. On subsequent trials, the strength of this habit was increased until it became a single stimulus-response connection in this setting.
- The principles of drive reduction theory of motivation are - Drive is essential in order for responses to occur (i.e., the student must want to learn). Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occur ( i.e., the student must be attentive). Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be active). Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need (i.e, the learning must satisfy the learner's wants).
- Motivation is considered goal-oriented behavior and the underlying motives. Motives arouse and direct our behavior toward some goal. There are three major categories of motives: biological, stimulus, and learned social motives. Biological motives are things such as hunger, thirst, and physical needs. Stimulus motives are things such as sensory stimulation, exploration, curiosity etc. Social motives are behaviors such as achievement, power, affiliation, and other social experiences. Â In the late 1800's the field of psychology initially leaned toward the concept of instinct theory to explain motivation. According to instinct theory people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of genetic programming. Instinct theory was replaced by the concept of Drive theories. This asserted that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. When particular behavior is successful at reducing tension then it is more likely to be repeated. During the 1950's [remember that behaviorism was considered the predominate view of behavior in psychology] psychology began to view motivation as not necessarily involving all of the internal mechanisms. The behaviorists could create or modify many behaviors by manipulating stimulus and/ or rewards [Incentive theories]. Arousal theory holds that you must consider the whole person and to understand how the person regulates his or her arousal level. Arousal is a continuum that ranges from low to high and behavior is motivated by changes in the arousal state which in turn creates behavior to efficiently address the arousal state.
- Abraham Maslow proposed the concept of "Hierarchy of Needsâ. Maslow was a humanist psychologist that did not discount the biological components of motivation but proposed that there were basic needs, psychological needs and self-fulfillment needs. He develop the concept of the hierarch of needs- Physiological needs (such as food, water, warmth, rest, etc.); Safety needs (security, safety, shelter etc.); Belongingness (intimacy, friendships, social relationships); Esteem needs (prestige, feelings of accomplishment, social acceptance); and Self-actualization (achieving ones potential). Maslow approached this by studying people who where view as successful and well adjusted. The cognitive theorists would view motivation based on physical needs or arousal, learned behavior, and maybe non-conscious not only wants or wishes but also on how we think. Your thinking controls how you act and when you act. If you think you are in danger you will behave differently than if you don't think you are in danger. The expectancy-value theory, developed by Julian Rotter (1954) argued that behavior is the result of our expectations of achieving goals and the value that those goals have for us. Evolutionary psychology studies cross culture in an attempt to discover the commonality of human behavior. Â The curiosity motive causes us to seek out a certain amount of novelty and complexity, and with not apparent motivation, we seek out and explore new environments. Young children prefer complex patterns over simple ones. Some of the research suggests that our level of curiosity motive stays stable throughout our lifetime. The motivational theory of competence state that we are motivated to interact successfully with our environment. Intrinsic motivation is behavior that results from interpersonal factors. Extrinsic motivation is behavior that results for extra-personal factors. Edward Deci (1975) proposed his theory of intrinsic motivation. He suggested that we need to feel competent in controlling and interacting with our environment. And self-determination is can increase intrinsic motivated behavior.
- Myth: Counseling takes forever. Myth: Everyone will know I'm seeing a counselor. Myth: Couples counseling always makes one person the villain. Myth: Counseling will change who I am forever. Myth: Therapy is like having a paid friend. Myth: Therapy will cost a fortune.
- Myth: Therapists will blame you and shame you. Myth: Medication is just as effective as therapy. Myth: Therapy is passive. Myth: Therapy is all happy thoughts. Myth: There's nothing you can do about the past. Myth: Therapy will make your painful problems worse.
- Procedural Misconceptions and Fears The fear of having to reveal yourself to other people. The fear of having to confess shameful behavior. The fear of being criticized or made fun of. The fear of being made sicker by other group member's problems or illness. The fear that what is said will be gossiped about to others outside the group, or that members will discuss you behind your back. Perceived goal incompatibility.
- Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) Whatâs the difference between a psychiatrist and a psychologist? A psychiatrist has an MD degree (Doctor of Medicine) or DO (Doctor of Osteopathy) and has chosen to specialize in the branch of medicine that focuses on mental health issues. A psychiatrist treats patients by talking with them as well as by prescribing medication (if needed). Psychologists have one of these degrees: PhD (Doctor of Philosophy), PsyD (Doctor of Psychology), or EdD (Doctor of Education). A psychologist treats patients by talking with them but does not prescribe medication. If medication is needed, a psychologist will refer the patient to an MD such as a psychiatrist, a family physician, or another type of MD.
- What's the difference between the terms âcounseling,â âtherapyâ and âpsychotherapyâ? In one sense, there are no differences since they all imply that you talk to a mental health professional to help solve various problems in your life. In another sense, there is a significant difference. I view the term counseling to mean that a short-term and very focused approach is taken toward solving the client's problems. I view the term psychotherapy to mean that a long-term and more in-depth approach is taken. The term therapy is simply an abbreviated version of the term psychotherapy.
- What's the difference between a counselor, therapist, psychotherapist, psychologist, psychiatrist, social worker, marriage and family therapist, etc.? At a basic level, there are no differences in that all of these mental health professionals talk to clients to help them solve their problems. At another level, there are significant differences in education and training that can impact the type of help you receive. For instance, typically the terms therapist, psychotherapist, psychologist and psychiatrist denote practitioners with a doctoral level of training, while the other terms denote practitioners with a master's level of training. But I believe that what determines how much a client resolves their problems while in treatment lies more within the client than within the therapist (such as the desire to get help and the determination to persevere until the goals of psychotherapy are met).
- Â Will my psychologist think I'm weird, crazy or sick? In a word, ânoâ. In fact, I think that anyone who enters psychotherapy is courageous and to be respected because they are doing something about their problems by facing and confronting them. Â How long will I be in treatment? In general, a circumscribed issue with a short history will probably be dealt with fairly quickly, for example in 10 to 20 sessions. However, a non-specific issue with a long history like, "I've never really been a happy person," will probably need a much longer time period to be dealt with, say six months to several years.
- Will I be sent off to a mental hospital against my will? No, this does not happen to most people. There are very few instances that would dictate hospitalization, namely, only when safety issues are a concern. Out of the general population, only a very small percentage ever need to be hospitalized for psychological reasons and even fewer are taken against their will (Again, these few have to threaten harm to themselves or someone else.).
- Am I a failure if I go to a psychologist? No, I do not believe this to be true. However, the answer depends upon who you listen to. Unfortunately, many in our society still view a visit to a psychologist as a sign of some inherent weakness or deficiency in the person. The good news is that many others are seeing this view as outdated and even foolish. I suggest that consulting a psychologist be viewed the same as when one visits another professional, for example, a physician. While on the one hand we could say someone has a physical weakness if they get the flu and have to visit their physician, on the other hand we could say that person is wise to seek the help of a trained professional. I believe it is the same for an emotional or behavioral problem, that is, it is wise (not weak) to seek professional help.
- Can't I just read a book, attend a support group, etc. and get the help I need? You certainly can try that, but you may have already tried several of those methods. From my experience, most of my clients have already tried several avenues to deal with their problem by the time they come in for psychotherapy. In fact, the problem I hear over and over is that the self-help book, seminar, support group, etc. that was utilized was not specific enough to the client's particular situation. In psychotherapy, problems and the application of solutions to those problems can be discussed in great detail.
- Can't I just put my problems behind me, move on and hope for the best next time? You can certainly try that but it often doesn't work if we are honest with ourselves. And in fact, the more we deal with life in that manner the more difficult it usually becomes to move on after each successive disappointment, frustration, or conflict. I think this is because each issue or situation that isn't dealt with appropriately accumulates with other prior unresolved issues. Then when too many issues accumulate, the overflow comes out in the form of symptoms like stress, anxiety, depression, irritability, lack of focus, stomach upset, headaches, muscle tightness, and the like. It is akin to a container that becomes too full and spills over if not monitored.
- How do I know if I need to see a psychologist? One way to answer this question is to continue with the above metaphor, that is, you need to see a psychologist when the container gets too full and strategies aimed at helping don't work. For example, you may find that talking to a friend or reading a self-help book doesn't change things for the better. Other indicators that you might want to a see a psychologist include: you know the problem is too big or complex to handle easily; others suggest you need to talk to someone or get help; you've tried numerous strategies over the years and have had some success with the issue but no real lasting or deep changes have occurred; or, you just don't seem to be reaching your full potential in your marriage, career, friendships, or hobbies.
- What can I expect in the first session? In the first session, you will be asked to begin talking by responding to the question, âWhat prompted you to call a psychologist?â From there I will seek to gain a clear understanding of what issue(s) you want to work on, how and to what extent the issue gives you difficulty or concern on a regular basis, what factors led to the development of the issue, and how we can address the issue in terms of working toward a solution. We will end the session by discussing how many sessions it is likely to take to attain your goals, as well as find a time and day each week to meet on a consistent basis.
- Will what I say in therapy sessions be kept private and confidential? Generally, what you say in therapy sessions will be kept confidential. However, there are circumstances under which exceptions do exist. The following is not a complete list of exceptions to confidentiality but it does contain a few of the more common ones: (i) you are a threat to harm yourself or someone else; (ii) child abuse or neglect is suspected; (iii) your treatment records are requested by subpoena; or (iv) to collect payment for services rendered.