2. Memory
The retention of things learned over time
Memory refers to the processes by which organisms encode,
store and retrieve information.
3. How are Memories Formed?
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Model
Sensory Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-term Memory
EXTERNAL
EVENTS
------------------------Encoding
--------------------
Encoding
Retrieval ---------------------------
4. Working Memory/Short term Memory
Conscious, active processing of incoming
auditory and visual-spatial information, and of
information retrieved from long term memory
Memory skipping the two step process and
stored directly in the Long-term storage
Implicit Memory
Retention of information that happens
unconsciously
e.g. Classical conditioning
Remembering a significant event such as a car
accident
6. Process of Encoding
Encoding is the process of converting
information into storable forms
The process can be automatic, effortful or
both
7. Automatic Processing and Effortful
Processing
Automatic process: Is unconscious encoding or
storage of information
Effortful process: Is conscious encoding of
information
Usually through the process of rehearsal
Automatic process leads to formation of
implicit memories
Effortful process lead to formation of explicit
memories
8. Automatic processing usually occurs f space, time,
frequency and well-learned information
Effortful processing usually occurs of learning new
concepts of a chapter or memorizing certain formulae
Learning of certain things at times requires conscious or
effortful encoding and then later it is retained and
recalled automatically.
Example: learning a language, swimming or texting or
any other skill
9. What Do We Encode ?
Visual Encoding: The encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding: The encoding of sound, the sound of
words
Semantic Encoding: The encoding of meaning, the
meaning of words
Mnemonics: Memory aids or tool that help us learn
information
e.g. abbreviation etc.
Chunking: Taking individual pieces of information and
grouping them together e.g. memorizing phone numbers
Hierarchies: Dividing broad concepts into its sub concepts
12. Shallow and Deep Processing (Levels of
processing theory)
Shallow Processing: encoding information on basic
auditory or visual levels, based on the sound,
structure or appearance of a word.
Visual and Auditory encoding are examples of shallow
processing
Deep Processing: Encodes semantically based on
actual meaning associated with the word
To make it more consolidated you associate the
memory with something more meaningful or personal
to you
Semantic encoding is an example of deep processing
14. Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory stores sensory information for few seconds; ½ second for visual
and 2 seconds for auditory
Sensory Memory
Ichonic Memory
Haptic Memory
Echoic Memory
15.
16. Short Term Memory
Stores memory for a period of several
seconds to a minute without rehearsal
Short term memory can store around 7
(7±2) bits of information
This was found by George A. Miller (1956)
His published his conclusions in his paper
The magical number 7±2 Some Limits on
our Capacity for Processing Information
17. Long Term Memory
• Can store unlimited amounts of information for potentially unlimited
duration (sometimes a whole life span)
• The conscious retention is also done through memory aids and
rehearsals (practice)
18. Types of Long-Term Memories
Procedural
Episodic
Semantic
L
O
N
G
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T
E
R
M
M
E
M
O
R
Y
19.
20. Retrieval
Memories are accessed in three ways:
Recognition: A measure of memory where a person
needs to identify the information learned
Recall: A measure of memory in which the person
retrieves the learned information
-Both these processes happen explicitly
-Memories retrieved automatically is known as
implicit recall
Relearning: A measure of memory to assess the
amount of time saved when learning the same
material again e.g. studying for final exam
21. Retrieval
Level of Processing Theory: emphasizes the
degree to which new material is mentally
analyzed.
-the greater the intensity of its initial processing,
the more likely we are to remember it.
Flashbulb Memories: Memories of specific,
important or surprising emotionally significant
event that are recalled easily and with vivid
imagery. E.g. involvement in a car accident or
meeting one’s roommate for the first time or
graduation ceremony etc.
22. Theories of Forgetting
Information that has been apparently lost, despite being
encoded and stored in the long term memory
Why memory is not stored?
Encoding failure
Memory decay theory
Wishful forgetting
Cue dependent forgetting
Interference theory
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
26. Procedures to Check Learning
Recall
Recognition
Done through practice of mock exams
Quizzes before exams
Relearning: A measurement of
memory that assesses the amount of
time saved when learning the
material again
27. Ebbinghaus Experiment
To understand formation, retention and other
processes involved in memory designed a
nonsense syllables experiment
Rapidly read aloud, eight times over, the
following list.
JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX, SUJ, XIR, DAX, LEQ, VUM,
PID, KEL, WAV, TUV, ZOF, GEK, HIW
The more time he spent on a list on day 1 the
less time it required him to relearn the list on
day 2
Greater the rehearsal greater the retention
28. The Spacing Effect and Serial Position Effect
Ebbinghaus also found that those who learn
quickly also forget quickly
We retain information better when our
rehearsal is distributed over time, a
phenomenon called the spacing effect.
More than 300 studies reveal the benefits of
timed practice.
Massed practice or cramming can produce
speedy short term results and feelings of
confidence, but distributed learning causes
better long term recall.
29. The Spacing Effect and Serial Position Effect
Massed practice or cramming can produce
speedy short term results and feelings of
confidence, but distributed learning causes
better long term recall.
Also, after studying long enough to master
material, further study becomes inefficient.
Reviewing the material helps in further
retention.
The serial position effect is our tendency to
recall best, the last and first items in a list
(Regency & Primacy effect respectively)
30. Assignment
Discuss memory dysfunctions: Common
afflictions of forgetting.
How memory can be improved:
Common tips and tricks.
Share personal reflections: Which
method you think is more easy to use
Editor's Notes
Retention: to keep something, continued possession
Sensory memory is a very brief memory that allows people to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased or stop happening. It is often thought of as the first stage of memory that involves registering a tremendous amount of information about the environment, but only for a very brief period.
Short term memory is also known as working memory. It holds only a few items (research shows a range of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20 seconds. However, items can be moved from short-term memory to long-term memory via processes like rehearsal. An example of rehearsal is when someone gives you a phone number verbally and you say it to yourself repeatedly until you can write it down. If someone interrupts your rehearsal by asking a question, you can easily forget the number, since it is only being held in your short-term memory. It has three key aspects,
1. limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time)
2. limited duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage of time)
3. encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds).
Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds; long-term memory encompasses everything from what we learned in first grade to our old addresses to what we wore to work yesterday. Long-term memory has an incredibly vast storage capacity, and some memories can last from the time they are created until we die.
Working memory is a short-term memory system that allows us to store and process limited amounts of information. According to Multiple systems model, Declarative (or explicit) memory includes working memory, semantic memory, episodic memory. Nondeclarative (or implicit) memory priming conditioning motor/procedural memory. Working memory lasts anywhere from 2 to 18 seconds. Working memory is used for mental calculations, such as figuring a tip; retaining information briefly, such as when dialing a phone number; and processing incoming information, such as when listening to a newscast. It also allows us to temporarily process information we have previously learned in a class and access it to learn and associate new information.
Classical conditioning is a memory for associations formed between two stimuli. An example of classical conditioning is Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs: Just before presenting a dog with food, the researcher rang a bell. Soon, the animal learned the bell indicated food was imminent and would salivate at the sound of the bell. Humans can also become conditioned to the sound of a ring tone consistently paired with a specific caller.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html
The Memory Process-Stages of Memory:
Encoding (or registration): the process of receiving, processing, and combining information. Encoding allows information from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process.
Storage: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information. Storage is the second memory stage or process in which we maintain information over periods of time.
Retrieval (or recall, or recognition): the calling back of stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity. The third process is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information.
The levels-of-processing framework posits that information is processed differently depending upon the instructions and the task and can vary from relatively shallow processing to relatively deep processing. The best retention occurs when processing is elaborative (deep).
1. Shallow processing or maintenance rehearsal focuses on the physical features of an item rather than its meaning. 2. Examples of physical features include color, length, font, or sound of an item. 3. Shallow processing can involve the simple repetition of items. 4. For example, we see pennies every day, but may have difficulty recalling the information on the front or back of a penny. 5. Simply repeating an item over and over again for a test will not commit that item to memory for a long period of time.
2. Deep processing or elaborative rehearsal focuses on the meaning of an item and involves forming associations between old and new information, with an effort on making elaborate connections with existing knowledge. 2. Examples include processing that focuses on the pleasantness of an item, the definition of an item, and the item’s relationship to other items. 3. When learning new vocabulary, it is best to associate the new item, a vocabulary word, with something you already know well.
Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory involving how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. Riding a bike, tying your shoes, and cooking an omelet are all examples of procedural memories. You use procedural memory for these actions:
Writing with a pen
Typing on a keyboard
Playing basketball
Playing piano
Swimming
Walking
Episodic memory is a long-term memory system that stores information about specific events or episodes related to one’s own life. Episodic memory is used to recall past events, such as a movie you saw last week, the dinner you ate last night, the name of the book your friend recommended, or a birthday party you attended.
Semantic Memory Semantic memory is a long-term memory system that stores general knowledge. Examples of what semantic memory stores are vocabulary or facts such as 2+2 = 4 and Michigan is a state in the United States. Ankara is a capital of turkey etc. etc.
Procedural memory is the memory for the process involved in completing a task (e.g., motor memory) after the task is well learned and has become automatic. Examples include playing the piano, typing, hitting a tennis ball.
Non - declarative memory or implicit memory is a memory system that influences our current perceptions and behavior without our knowledge, awareness, or intention. Non - declarative memory is not used intentionally and involves no effort. It is assessed with an implicit memory test in which the individual is unaware she or he is taking a memory test. Examples of non - declarative memory include riding a bike, driving a stick-shift car, using the same verbal patterns as friends (e.g., saying “like” repeatedly).
Declarative or explicit memories, on the other hand, are things that you intentionally remember and that require conscious effort to bring into memory., this type of memory involves things such as remembering information for a test, that you have a dentist appointment and your home address.
Remembering the physical process of how to do something (like drive a car) is a procedural memory while remembering the route you have to take to get somewhere is a declarative memory.
Retrieval is the process of getting (“retrieving”) information out of memory storage.
“Flashbulb memory” is a term used to refer to the recollection of extremely significant personal or historical events. B. These events are fairly rare and are typically accompanied by great emotion, such as with the terrorist attack on the twin towers on 9/11.
Interference Theory, explains when some information blocks or disrupts the recall of other information, is believed to be a primary source of forgetting. There are two types of interference: retroactive and proactive.
1. Retroactive interference occurs when new information blocks or disrupts retrieval of older information. For example, if you are trying to recall an old, obsolete password to an account but can only remember your current password, you are experiencing retroactive interference.
2. Proactive interference occurs when old, previously learned memories intrude with the recall of newer memories. For example, imagine your favorite pizza place moves across town and changes phone numbers. If you drive to the old location or call the old phone number, you are experiencing proactive interference.
In short, Proactive interference occurs when past memories hold back an individual from retaining new memories. Retroactive interference occurs when new memories hold back an individual from retaining old memories
Proactive interference refers to the interference effect of previously learned materials on the acquisition and retrieval of newer materials. An example of proactive interference in everyday life would be a difficulty in remembering a friend's new phone number after having previously learned the old number.
Timing of practice
Massed practice occurs when an individual attempts to learn material all in one setting, with practice crammed into one or two long sessions. 2. Massed practice is not as effective as spaced or distributed practice for long-term retention.
2. Spaced practice, also referred to as distributed practice, involves repeated practice of multiple sessions that are spaced out in time. Spaced practice is far more effective for long-term retention.
Serial position effect is the effect an item’s position on a list has on how well it is recalled. For example, when participants are given a long list of items to remember in an immediate memory task, they tend to remember best the items listed first on the list (primacy effect) and the items listed last on the list (recency effect).
The primacy effect is the concept that the first items in a list receive a great deal of rehearsal, and are, thus, more likely to be transferred into long-term memory. The primacy effect is diminished when list items are presented at a fast rate. The primacy effect is not affected by a distractor task (a task not related to the task currently taking place) presented after the list is presented.
2. The recency effect is the concept that people tend to report the last items of a list first while those items are still in their working memory. The recency effect is not affected by the rate of speed a list is presented. The recency effect can be eliminated if a distractor task is presented immediately after the list is presented and before recall is required.
The recency effect is only present when assessed immediately after the task, while the primacy effect tends to be strongest when assessed later.
Timing of practice
Massed practice occurs when an individual attempts to learn material all in one setting, with practice crammed into one or two long sessions. 2. Massed practice is not as effective as spaced or distributed practice for long-term retention.
2. Spaced practice, also referred to as distributed practice, involves repeated practice of multiple sessions that are spaced out in time. Spaced practice is far more effective for long-term retention.
Serial position effect is the effect an item’s position on a list has on how well it is recalled. For example, when participants are given a long list of items to remember in an immediate memory task, they tend to remember best the items listed first on the list (primacy effect) and the items listed last on the list (recency effect).
The primacy effect is the concept that the first items in a list receive a great deal of rehearsal, and are, thus, more likely to be transferred into long-term memory. The primacy effect is diminished when list items are presented at a fast rate. The primacy effect is not affected by a distractor task (a task not related to the task currently taking place) presented after the list is presented.
2. The recency effect is the concept that people tend to report the last items of a list first while those items are still in their working memory. The recency effect is not affected by the rate of speed a list is presented. The recency effect can be eliminated if a distractor task is presented immediately after the list is presented and before recall is required.
The recency effect is only present when assessed immediately after the task, while the primacy effect tends to be strongest when assessed later.
