In this paper we deal with the protector control that which we used to secure AODV routing protocol in Ad
Hoc networks. The considered system can be vulnerable to several attacks because of mobility and absence
of infrastructure. While the disturbance is assumed to be of the black hole type, we purpose a control
named "PC-AODV-BH" in order to neutralize the effects of malicious nodes. Such a protocol is obtained by
coupling hash functions, digital signatures and fidelity concept. An implementation under NS2 simulator
will be given to compare our proposed approach with SAODV protocol, basing on three performance
metrics and taking into account the number of black hole malicious nodes.
2-DOF BLOCK POLE PLACEMENT CONTROL APPLICATION TO:HAVE-DASH-IIBTT MISSILEZac Darcy
In a multivariable servomechanism design, it is required that the output vector tracks a certain reference
vector while satisfying some desired transient specifications, for this purpose a 2DOF control law
consisting of state feedback gain and feedforward scaling gain is proposed. The control law is designed
using block pole placement technique by assigning a set of desired Block poles in different canonical forms.
The resulting control is simulated for linearized model of the HAVE DASH II BTT missile; numerical
results are analyzed and compared in terms of transient response, gain magnitude, performance
robustness, stability robustness and tracking. The suitable structure for this case study is then selected.
Event triggered control design of linear networked systems with quantizationsISA Interchange
This paper is concerned with the control design problem of event-triggered networked systems with both state and control input quantizations. Firstly, an innovative delay system model is proposed that describes the network conditions, state and control input quantizations, and event-triggering mechanism in a unified framework. Secondly, based on this model, the criteria for the asymptotical stability analysis and control synthesis of event-triggered networked control systems are established in terms of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs). Simulation results are given to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Method of controlling access to intellectual switching nodes of telecommunica...ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
A simulation model of ieee 802.15.4 in om ne t++wissem hammouda
This document presents a simulation model of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard developed in OMNeT++. The model consists of PHY, MAC and traffic modules. The PHY module implements radio states, CCA and data rates according to the standard. The MAC module implements CSMA-CA, beaconing, data transmission modes and a simple energy model. The traffic module generates packets. The model supports star and cluster tree topologies and allows configuring parameters to evaluate IEEE 802.15.4 performance.
A New Approach to Improve the Efficiency of Distributed Scheduling in IEEE 80...IDES Editor
The recent standard for broadband wireless
access networks, IEEE 802.16, which resulted in the
development of metropolitan area wireless networks,
includes two network organization modes: Point to Multi
Point and Mesh. The mesh mode provides distributed
channel access operations of peering nodes and uses TDMA
technique for channel access modulation. According to
IEEE 802.16 MAC protocol, there are two scheduling
algorithms for assigning TDMA slots to each network node:
centralized and distributed. In distributed scheduling
algorithm, network nodes have to transmit scheduling
message in order to inform other nodes about their transfer
schedule. In this paper a new approach is proposed to
improve distributed scheduling efficiency in IEEE 802.16
mesh mode, with respect to network condition in every
transferring opportunity. For evaluating the proposed
algorithm efficiency, several extensive simulations are
performed in various network configurations and the most
important system parameters which affect the network
performance are analyzed.
Bayesian-Network-Based Algorithm Selection with High Level Representation Fee...ITIIIndustries
A real-world intelligent system consists of three basic modules: environment recognition, prediction (or estimation), and behavior planning. To obtain high quality results in these modules, high speed processing and real time adaptability on a case by case basis are required. In the environment recognition module many different algorithms and algorithm networks exist with varying performance. Thus, a mechanism that selects the best possible algorithm is required. To solve this problem we are using an algorithm selection approach to the problem of natural image understanding. This selection mechanism is based on machine learning; a bottom-up algorithm selection from real-world image features and a top-down algorithm selection using information obtained from a high level symbolic world description and algorithm suitability. The algorithm selection method iterates for each input image until the high-level description cannot be improved anymore. In this paper we present a method of iterative composition of the high level description. This step by step approach allows us to select the best result for each region of the image by evaluating all the intermediary representations and finally keep only the best one.
Fault detection based on novel fuzzy modelling csijjournal
The Fault detection which is based on fuzzy modeling is investigated. Takagi-Sugeno (TS) fuzzy model can
be derived by structure and parameter identification, where only the input-output data of the identified system are available. In the structure identification step, Gustafson-Kessel clustering algorithm (GKCA) is used to detect clusters of different geometrical shapes in the data set and to obtain the point-wise membership function of the premise. In the parameter identification step, Unscented Kalman filter (UKF) is
used to estimate the parameters of the premise’s membership function. In the consequence part, Kalman filter (KF) algorithm is applied as a linear regression to estimate parameters of the TS model using the input-output data set. Then, the obtained fuzzy model is used to detect the fault. Simulations are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the theoretical results.
An efficient vertical handoff mechanism for future mobile networkBasil John
This document proposes a novel fuzzy logic based vertical handoff decision algorithm for heterogeneous wireless networks. It introduces a speed-adaptive system discovery scheme to improve the update rate of candidate networks based on the mobile terminal's speed. It also includes a pre-handoff decision method to quickly filter candidate networks and reduce unnecessary handoffs. The key aspects of the proposed algorithm are: 1) It uses a speed-adaptive scheme to dynamically adjust the discovery of candidate networks. 2) It employs a pre-handoff decision method to filter networks and reduce ping-pong effects. 3) It applies fuzzy logic to evaluate multiple parameters like bandwidth, RSS, and cost to select the best network. Simulations show it outperforms traditional RSS-based
2-DOF BLOCK POLE PLACEMENT CONTROL APPLICATION TO:HAVE-DASH-IIBTT MISSILEZac Darcy
In a multivariable servomechanism design, it is required that the output vector tracks a certain reference
vector while satisfying some desired transient specifications, for this purpose a 2DOF control law
consisting of state feedback gain and feedforward scaling gain is proposed. The control law is designed
using block pole placement technique by assigning a set of desired Block poles in different canonical forms.
The resulting control is simulated for linearized model of the HAVE DASH II BTT missile; numerical
results are analyzed and compared in terms of transient response, gain magnitude, performance
robustness, stability robustness and tracking. The suitable structure for this case study is then selected.
Event triggered control design of linear networked systems with quantizationsISA Interchange
This paper is concerned with the control design problem of event-triggered networked systems with both state and control input quantizations. Firstly, an innovative delay system model is proposed that describes the network conditions, state and control input quantizations, and event-triggering mechanism in a unified framework. Secondly, based on this model, the criteria for the asymptotical stability analysis and control synthesis of event-triggered networked control systems are established in terms of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs). Simulation results are given to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Method of controlling access to intellectual switching nodes of telecommunica...ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
A simulation model of ieee 802.15.4 in om ne t++wissem hammouda
This document presents a simulation model of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard developed in OMNeT++. The model consists of PHY, MAC and traffic modules. The PHY module implements radio states, CCA and data rates according to the standard. The MAC module implements CSMA-CA, beaconing, data transmission modes and a simple energy model. The traffic module generates packets. The model supports star and cluster tree topologies and allows configuring parameters to evaluate IEEE 802.15.4 performance.
A New Approach to Improve the Efficiency of Distributed Scheduling in IEEE 80...IDES Editor
The recent standard for broadband wireless
access networks, IEEE 802.16, which resulted in the
development of metropolitan area wireless networks,
includes two network organization modes: Point to Multi
Point and Mesh. The mesh mode provides distributed
channel access operations of peering nodes and uses TDMA
technique for channel access modulation. According to
IEEE 802.16 MAC protocol, there are two scheduling
algorithms for assigning TDMA slots to each network node:
centralized and distributed. In distributed scheduling
algorithm, network nodes have to transmit scheduling
message in order to inform other nodes about their transfer
schedule. In this paper a new approach is proposed to
improve distributed scheduling efficiency in IEEE 802.16
mesh mode, with respect to network condition in every
transferring opportunity. For evaluating the proposed
algorithm efficiency, several extensive simulations are
performed in various network configurations and the most
important system parameters which affect the network
performance are analyzed.
Bayesian-Network-Based Algorithm Selection with High Level Representation Fee...ITIIIndustries
A real-world intelligent system consists of three basic modules: environment recognition, prediction (or estimation), and behavior planning. To obtain high quality results in these modules, high speed processing and real time adaptability on a case by case basis are required. In the environment recognition module many different algorithms and algorithm networks exist with varying performance. Thus, a mechanism that selects the best possible algorithm is required. To solve this problem we are using an algorithm selection approach to the problem of natural image understanding. This selection mechanism is based on machine learning; a bottom-up algorithm selection from real-world image features and a top-down algorithm selection using information obtained from a high level symbolic world description and algorithm suitability. The algorithm selection method iterates for each input image until the high-level description cannot be improved anymore. In this paper we present a method of iterative composition of the high level description. This step by step approach allows us to select the best result for each region of the image by evaluating all the intermediary representations and finally keep only the best one.
Fault detection based on novel fuzzy modelling csijjournal
The Fault detection which is based on fuzzy modeling is investigated. Takagi-Sugeno (TS) fuzzy model can
be derived by structure and parameter identification, where only the input-output data of the identified system are available. In the structure identification step, Gustafson-Kessel clustering algorithm (GKCA) is used to detect clusters of different geometrical shapes in the data set and to obtain the point-wise membership function of the premise. In the parameter identification step, Unscented Kalman filter (UKF) is
used to estimate the parameters of the premise’s membership function. In the consequence part, Kalman filter (KF) algorithm is applied as a linear regression to estimate parameters of the TS model using the input-output data set. Then, the obtained fuzzy model is used to detect the fault. Simulations are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the theoretical results.
An efficient vertical handoff mechanism for future mobile networkBasil John
This document proposes a novel fuzzy logic based vertical handoff decision algorithm for heterogeneous wireless networks. It introduces a speed-adaptive system discovery scheme to improve the update rate of candidate networks based on the mobile terminal's speed. It also includes a pre-handoff decision method to quickly filter candidate networks and reduce unnecessary handoffs. The key aspects of the proposed algorithm are: 1) It uses a speed-adaptive scheme to dynamically adjust the discovery of candidate networks. 2) It employs a pre-handoff decision method to filter networks and reduce ping-pong effects. 3) It applies fuzzy logic to evaluate multiple parameters like bandwidth, RSS, and cost to select the best network. Simulations show it outperforms traditional RSS-based
Although fuzzy systems demonstrate their ability to
solve different kinds of problems in various applications, there is an increasing interest on developing solid mathematical implementations suitable for control applications such as that used in fuzzy logic controllers (FLC). It is well known that, wide range of parameters is needed to be specified before the construction of a fuzzy system. To simplify in a systematic way the design and construction of a general fuzzy system, and without loss for generality a full parameterization process for a singleton type FLC is proposed in this paper. The resented methodology is very helpful in developing a universal computing algorithm for a standard fuzzy like PID controllers. An illustrative example shows the simplicity of applying the new paradigm.
EFFECTS OF MAC PARAMETERS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF IEEE 802.11 DCF IN NS-3ijwmn
This paper presents the design procedure of the NS-3 script for WLAN that is organized according to the
hierarchical manner of TCP/IP model. We configure all layers by using NS-3 model objects and set and
modify the values used by objects to investigate the effects of MAC parameters (access mechanism, CWmin,
CWmax and retry limit) on the performance metrics viz. packet delivery ratio, packet lost ratio, aggregated
throughput, and average delay. The simulation results show that RTS/CTS access mechanism outperforms
basic access mechanism in saturated state, whereas the MAC parameters have no significant impact on
network performance in non-saturated state. A higher value of CWmin improves the aggregated throughput
in expense of average delay. The tradeoff relationships among the performance metrics are also observed
in results for the optimal values of MAC parameters. Our design procedure represents a good guideline for
new NS-3 users to design and modify script and results greatly benefit the network design and
management.
This document summarizes a research paper that compares the performance of 23 different activation functions when used in the gates of LSTM networks for classification tasks. The paper trains LSTM networks with different activation functions on three datasets: IMDB, Movie Reviews, and MNIST. It finds that LSTM networks using the Elliott activation function and its modifications achieved the lowest average error on all three datasets, outperforming the commonly used sigmoid activation function. The paper provides the first extensive study and comparison of various activation functions in LSTM networks for classification.
Comparative study to realize an automatic speaker recognition system IJECEIAES
This document presents a comparative study between an adaptive orthogonal transform method and mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) for automatic speaker recognition. The adaptive orthogonal transform method uses an adaptive operator to extract informative features from input speech signals with minimum dimensions. Experimental results show the adaptive orthogonal transform method achieved 96.8% accuracy using Fourier transform and 98.1% accuracy using correlation, outperforming MFCCs which achieved 49.3% and 53.1% accuracy respectively. The proposed method successfully identified speakers with a recognition rate of 98.1% compared to 53.1% for MFCCs, demonstrating the efficiency of the adaptive orthogonal transform approach.
Efficient Forecasting of Exchange rates with Recurrent FLANNIOSR Journals
The document proposes a Functional Link Artificial Recurrent Neural Network (FLARNN) model for forecasting foreign exchange rates between currencies like the US dollar, Indian rupee, British pound, and Japanese yen. It compares the performance of the FLARNN model to existing neural network models like LMS and FLANN. The FLARNN uses functional expansion and recurrent connections to more accurately predict exchange rates up to 60 days in the future based on historical data. Experimental results show the FLARNN model consistently outperforms the other methods according to error convergence and Mean Average Percentage Error.
1. The document discusses using Markov chain models to simulate channel allocation in cognitive radio networks. It involves modeling the switching between channel states as a continuous-time Markov process.
2. The methodology involves choosing random subsets of the cognitive radio network that can select between two events. This forms a network with four possible states. A probability transition matrix is computed to model state transitions.
3. Related work on using hidden Markov models for spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks is reviewed. Most existing approaches model primary user channel occupancy as a discrete-time Markov chain, but some argue more advanced models may be needed to accurately capture statistics.
IRJET- Domestic Water Conservation by IoT (Smart Home)IRJET Journal
This document discusses singular system identification for a constrained rigid robot model. It begins by introducing constrained robot models and noting they can be considered singular systems. It then discusses the importance of singular system equivalency in identification, as an inappropriate equivalency can cause large errors. The document proposes using strong equivalency to transform the constrained robot model before identification. It applies recursive least squares identification to the strongly equivalent system. Simulation results show this approach improves identification error convergence and output tracking compared to previous techniques for constrained robot models.
Exploiting 2-Dimensional Source Correlation in Channel Decoding with Paramete...IJECEIAES
The document describes a proposed joint source-channel coding (JSCC) system that exploits 2-dimensional source correlation in channel decoding with parameter estimation. The system uses a modified Bahl-Cocke-Jelinek-Raviv (BCJR) algorithm at the decoder to exploit source correlation on rows and columns of a 2D source. A parameter estimation technique based on the Baum-Welch algorithm is used jointly with the decoder to estimate source correlation parameters at the receiver since these parameters are not always known in practice. Simulation results show that the proposed coding scheme that performs joint decoding and parameter estimation performs very close to an ideal 2D JSCC system with perfect knowledge of source correlation parameters.
This article summarizes a new technique for efficiently analyzing variability in electromagnetic systems. The technique combines model order reduction and polynomial chaos expansion. It first uses model order reduction to generate a set of reduced order models from the original large system equations, evaluated over different points in the stochastic parameter space. It then computes the polynomial chaos expansion of the reduced order models to generate a final reduced order model that can accurately perform stochastic computations and variability analysis in an efficient manner. The technique avoids calculating the polynomial chaos expansion of the original large system matrices.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document summarizes different approaches for unbalanced load flow analysis in microgrids and distribution networks. It discusses models for unbalanced distribution lines and loads, which are common in microgrid scenarios. Various commercial power flow software packages are assessed for their ability to model microgrids and perform unbalanced power flow analysis. Case studies are presented that illustrate results from using sequence component and phase frame methodologies. The key components in microgrids are described as generators, distribution lines, transformers and loads. Models for representing distribution lines and loads in both phase and sequence frames are provided.
K-nearest neighbor and naïve Bayes based diagnostic analytic of harmonic sour...journalBEEI
This paper proposes a comparison of machine learning (ML) algorithm known as the k-nearest neighbor (KNN) and naïve Bayes (NB) in identifying and diagnosing the harmonic sources in the power system. A single-point measurement is applied in this proposed method, and using the S-transform the measurement signals are analyzed and extracted into voltage and current parameters. The voltage and current features that estimated from time-frequency representation (TFR) of S-transform analysis are used as the input for MLs. Four significant cases of harmonic source location are considered, whereas harmonic voltage (HV) and harmonic current (HC) source type-load are used in the diagnosing process. To identify the best ML, the performance measurement of the proposed method including the accuracy, precision, specificity, sensitivity, and F-measure are calculated. The sufficiency of the proposed methodology is tested and verified on IEEE 4-bust test feeder and each ML algorithm is executed for 10 times due to prevent any overfitting result.
Real-time traffic sign detection and recognition using Raspberry Pi IJECEIAES
This document presents a real-time traffic sign detection and recognition system developed using a Raspberry Pi 3 processor. The system uses a Raspberry Pi camera to record real-time video and the TensorFlow machine learning algorithm to detect and identify traffic signs based on a dataset of 500 labeled images across 5 sign classes. The system's accuracy, delay, and reliability were evaluated during testbed implementation considering different environmental and sign conditions. Results showed the system achieved over 90% accuracy on average with a maximum detection delay of 3.44 seconds, demonstrating reliable performance even for broken, faded, or low-light signs. This real-time traffic sign recognition system developed with affordable hardware has potential to increase road safety.
Deep segmentation of the liver and the hepatic tumors from abdomen tomography...IJECEIAES
A pipelined framework is proposed for accurate, automated, simultaneous segmentation of the liver as well as the hepatic tumors from computed tomography (CT) images. The introduced framework composed of three pipelined levels. First, two different transfers deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) are applied to get high-level compact features of CT images. Second, a pixel-wise classifier is used to obtain two outputclassified maps for each CNN model. Finally, a fusion neural network (FNN) is used to integrate the two maps. Experimentations performed on the MICCAI’2017 database of the liver tumor segmentation (LITS) challenge, result in a dice similarity coefficient (DSC) of 93.5% for the segmentation of the liver and of 74.40% for the segmentation of the lesion, using a 5-fold cross-validation scheme. Comparative results with the state-of-the-art techniques on the same data show the competing performance of the proposed framework for simultaneous liver and tumor segmentation.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Six tables are presented with random numbers. A person chooses a number in their mind. The magician checks if the number exists across the six tables. To reveal the number, the titles of tables containing the number are added. For example, if the number is 8, it exists in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd tables. Adding the titles 1+2+3 reveals the number is 8.
A novel secure combination technique of steganography and cryptographyZac Darcy
A new technique proposed with the combination of cryptography and steganography enhanced with new
secure feature for generating a new security system. Cryptography and Steganography are two popular
ways for secure data transmission in which the former distorts a message so it cannot be understood and
another hides a message so it cannot be seen. In cryptography, this system is used advanced encryption
standard (AES) algorithm to encrypt secret message and then these are separated keys; one of which is
used to hide in cover image. In steganography, a part of encrypted message as a key is used to hide in
discrete cosine transform (DCT) of an image which is highly secured. This kind of system is to be
introduced in applications such as transferring secret data that can be authentication of various fields.
Although fuzzy systems demonstrate their ability to
solve different kinds of problems in various applications, there is an increasing interest on developing solid mathematical implementations suitable for control applications such as that used in fuzzy logic controllers (FLC). It is well known that, wide range of parameters is needed to be specified before the construction of a fuzzy system. To simplify in a systematic way the design and construction of a general fuzzy system, and without loss for generality a full parameterization process for a singleton type FLC is proposed in this paper. The resented methodology is very helpful in developing a universal computing algorithm for a standard fuzzy like PID controllers. An illustrative example shows the simplicity of applying the new paradigm.
EFFECTS OF MAC PARAMETERS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF IEEE 802.11 DCF IN NS-3ijwmn
This paper presents the design procedure of the NS-3 script for WLAN that is organized according to the
hierarchical manner of TCP/IP model. We configure all layers by using NS-3 model objects and set and
modify the values used by objects to investigate the effects of MAC parameters (access mechanism, CWmin,
CWmax and retry limit) on the performance metrics viz. packet delivery ratio, packet lost ratio, aggregated
throughput, and average delay. The simulation results show that RTS/CTS access mechanism outperforms
basic access mechanism in saturated state, whereas the MAC parameters have no significant impact on
network performance in non-saturated state. A higher value of CWmin improves the aggregated throughput
in expense of average delay. The tradeoff relationships among the performance metrics are also observed
in results for the optimal values of MAC parameters. Our design procedure represents a good guideline for
new NS-3 users to design and modify script and results greatly benefit the network design and
management.
This document summarizes a research paper that compares the performance of 23 different activation functions when used in the gates of LSTM networks for classification tasks. The paper trains LSTM networks with different activation functions on three datasets: IMDB, Movie Reviews, and MNIST. It finds that LSTM networks using the Elliott activation function and its modifications achieved the lowest average error on all three datasets, outperforming the commonly used sigmoid activation function. The paper provides the first extensive study and comparison of various activation functions in LSTM networks for classification.
Comparative study to realize an automatic speaker recognition system IJECEIAES
This document presents a comparative study between an adaptive orthogonal transform method and mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) for automatic speaker recognition. The adaptive orthogonal transform method uses an adaptive operator to extract informative features from input speech signals with minimum dimensions. Experimental results show the adaptive orthogonal transform method achieved 96.8% accuracy using Fourier transform and 98.1% accuracy using correlation, outperforming MFCCs which achieved 49.3% and 53.1% accuracy respectively. The proposed method successfully identified speakers with a recognition rate of 98.1% compared to 53.1% for MFCCs, demonstrating the efficiency of the adaptive orthogonal transform approach.
Efficient Forecasting of Exchange rates with Recurrent FLANNIOSR Journals
The document proposes a Functional Link Artificial Recurrent Neural Network (FLARNN) model for forecasting foreign exchange rates between currencies like the US dollar, Indian rupee, British pound, and Japanese yen. It compares the performance of the FLARNN model to existing neural network models like LMS and FLANN. The FLARNN uses functional expansion and recurrent connections to more accurately predict exchange rates up to 60 days in the future based on historical data. Experimental results show the FLARNN model consistently outperforms the other methods according to error convergence and Mean Average Percentage Error.
1. The document discusses using Markov chain models to simulate channel allocation in cognitive radio networks. It involves modeling the switching between channel states as a continuous-time Markov process.
2. The methodology involves choosing random subsets of the cognitive radio network that can select between two events. This forms a network with four possible states. A probability transition matrix is computed to model state transitions.
3. Related work on using hidden Markov models for spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks is reviewed. Most existing approaches model primary user channel occupancy as a discrete-time Markov chain, but some argue more advanced models may be needed to accurately capture statistics.
IRJET- Domestic Water Conservation by IoT (Smart Home)IRJET Journal
This document discusses singular system identification for a constrained rigid robot model. It begins by introducing constrained robot models and noting they can be considered singular systems. It then discusses the importance of singular system equivalency in identification, as an inappropriate equivalency can cause large errors. The document proposes using strong equivalency to transform the constrained robot model before identification. It applies recursive least squares identification to the strongly equivalent system. Simulation results show this approach improves identification error convergence and output tracking compared to previous techniques for constrained robot models.
Exploiting 2-Dimensional Source Correlation in Channel Decoding with Paramete...IJECEIAES
The document describes a proposed joint source-channel coding (JSCC) system that exploits 2-dimensional source correlation in channel decoding with parameter estimation. The system uses a modified Bahl-Cocke-Jelinek-Raviv (BCJR) algorithm at the decoder to exploit source correlation on rows and columns of a 2D source. A parameter estimation technique based on the Baum-Welch algorithm is used jointly with the decoder to estimate source correlation parameters at the receiver since these parameters are not always known in practice. Simulation results show that the proposed coding scheme that performs joint decoding and parameter estimation performs very close to an ideal 2D JSCC system with perfect knowledge of source correlation parameters.
This article summarizes a new technique for efficiently analyzing variability in electromagnetic systems. The technique combines model order reduction and polynomial chaos expansion. It first uses model order reduction to generate a set of reduced order models from the original large system equations, evaluated over different points in the stochastic parameter space. It then computes the polynomial chaos expansion of the reduced order models to generate a final reduced order model that can accurately perform stochastic computations and variability analysis in an efficient manner. The technique avoids calculating the polynomial chaos expansion of the original large system matrices.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document summarizes different approaches for unbalanced load flow analysis in microgrids and distribution networks. It discusses models for unbalanced distribution lines and loads, which are common in microgrid scenarios. Various commercial power flow software packages are assessed for their ability to model microgrids and perform unbalanced power flow analysis. Case studies are presented that illustrate results from using sequence component and phase frame methodologies. The key components in microgrids are described as generators, distribution lines, transformers and loads. Models for representing distribution lines and loads in both phase and sequence frames are provided.
K-nearest neighbor and naïve Bayes based diagnostic analytic of harmonic sour...journalBEEI
This paper proposes a comparison of machine learning (ML) algorithm known as the k-nearest neighbor (KNN) and naïve Bayes (NB) in identifying and diagnosing the harmonic sources in the power system. A single-point measurement is applied in this proposed method, and using the S-transform the measurement signals are analyzed and extracted into voltage and current parameters. The voltage and current features that estimated from time-frequency representation (TFR) of S-transform analysis are used as the input for MLs. Four significant cases of harmonic source location are considered, whereas harmonic voltage (HV) and harmonic current (HC) source type-load are used in the diagnosing process. To identify the best ML, the performance measurement of the proposed method including the accuracy, precision, specificity, sensitivity, and F-measure are calculated. The sufficiency of the proposed methodology is tested and verified on IEEE 4-bust test feeder and each ML algorithm is executed for 10 times due to prevent any overfitting result.
Real-time traffic sign detection and recognition using Raspberry Pi IJECEIAES
This document presents a real-time traffic sign detection and recognition system developed using a Raspberry Pi 3 processor. The system uses a Raspberry Pi camera to record real-time video and the TensorFlow machine learning algorithm to detect and identify traffic signs based on a dataset of 500 labeled images across 5 sign classes. The system's accuracy, delay, and reliability were evaluated during testbed implementation considering different environmental and sign conditions. Results showed the system achieved over 90% accuracy on average with a maximum detection delay of 3.44 seconds, demonstrating reliable performance even for broken, faded, or low-light signs. This real-time traffic sign recognition system developed with affordable hardware has potential to increase road safety.
Deep segmentation of the liver and the hepatic tumors from abdomen tomography...IJECEIAES
A pipelined framework is proposed for accurate, automated, simultaneous segmentation of the liver as well as the hepatic tumors from computed tomography (CT) images. The introduced framework composed of three pipelined levels. First, two different transfers deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) are applied to get high-level compact features of CT images. Second, a pixel-wise classifier is used to obtain two outputclassified maps for each CNN model. Finally, a fusion neural network (FNN) is used to integrate the two maps. Experimentations performed on the MICCAI’2017 database of the liver tumor segmentation (LITS) challenge, result in a dice similarity coefficient (DSC) of 93.5% for the segmentation of the liver and of 74.40% for the segmentation of the lesion, using a 5-fold cross-validation scheme. Comparative results with the state-of-the-art techniques on the same data show the competing performance of the proposed framework for simultaneous liver and tumor segmentation.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Six tables are presented with random numbers. A person chooses a number in their mind. The magician checks if the number exists across the six tables. To reveal the number, the titles of tables containing the number are added. For example, if the number is 8, it exists in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd tables. Adding the titles 1+2+3 reveals the number is 8.
A novel secure combination technique of steganography and cryptographyZac Darcy
A new technique proposed with the combination of cryptography and steganography enhanced with new
secure feature for generating a new security system. Cryptography and Steganography are two popular
ways for secure data transmission in which the former distorts a message so it cannot be understood and
another hides a message so it cannot be seen. In cryptography, this system is used advanced encryption
standard (AES) algorithm to encrypt secret message and then these are separated keys; one of which is
used to hide in cover image. In steganography, a part of encrypted message as a key is used to hide in
discrete cosine transform (DCT) of an image which is highly secured. This kind of system is to be
introduced in applications such as transferring secret data that can be authentication of various fields.
India Travel Packages | Trip to India | Explore India | India World TravelIndia World Travel
Namaste! We specialize in operating various tour packages to India. One Day India Tour Packages, Group India Tour Packages. We cover North to South of India with hassle free tours for tourist to India.
This short message expresses appreciation and gratitude for the recipient. It tells them that they light up others' lives like stars and make people feel important and smile. While there are no proper words to thank them, someone thinks they are fine for the time they spend sharing things. It encourages passing the message along to at least four friends and hopes they have a great day.
I NRK-dramaserien "Kampen for tilværelsen" utforsker manusforfatter Jan Olaf Johannessen hvor galt det kan gå når livet blir for lett. Les intervjuet i DN Magasinet.
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Vehicle to vehicle communication can give us better results by avoiding the major problems in road like collision of vehicles, better route selection in case of traffic congestion, fuel consumption, suitable selection of parking place etc. This paper presents a protocol to avoid the collision of vehicles. High mobility and fast topology changes are the characteristics of Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs). To establish the real world environment for VANETs, network simulator NS2 is used. Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocol is used to avoid the collision of transmitted data. The Simulation is done using the proposed Vehicular Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (VAODV) routing protocol, which is a modification of Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol. The proposed VAODV protocol is continuously checks the distance, speed of each vehicle and if it finds that the distance between vehicles is continuously decreasing then in this case it will send a warning textual message to those vehicles that are in accidental situation. Based on this textual information these vehicles will take particular action like vehicle may choose new route if it exists or it may slow down its own speed or it may stop moving by pressing brake. The experimental results are used to find out the performance of VAODV protocol. The performance of VAODV protocol is analyzed with different parameters like end to end delay, throughput, packet delivery ratio, normalized routing load etc.
Collision Avoidance Protocol for Inter Vehicular CommunicationEditor IJCATR
This document presents a collision avoidance protocol for vehicle-to-vehicle communication using inter-vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs). The protocol continuously monitors the distance and speed of vehicles and sends a warning message if the distance between vehicles is decreasing and could lead to an accident. It simulates four scenarios of vehicle movement and collision situations using the NS2 network simulator. Performance is analyzed based on metrics like end-to-end delay, throughput, packet delivery ratio, and normalized routing load. The results show that the protocol can effectively detect potential collisions and warn vehicles in time for drivers to react and take evasive actions.
A SYMMETRIC TOKEN ROUTING FOR SECURED COMMUNICATION OF MANET cscpconf
The communication should be much secured in Mobile Adhoc Networks in the
protective environment such as Military atmosphere and in a disaster relief. Due to the attackers,
Mobile Adhoc Networks resulting in denial of Service attacks modify packets, Error packets,
Missing Packets, Theft of Nodes, etc. To overcome this problem, We propose a new Symmetric
Token Routing Protocol (STRP) for mobile ad hoc networks provides much security against
MANET. The proposed protocol distributed a secured shared symmetric token for each node to
provide security against hackers and attackers. Simulation results shows the better delivery against
the existing protocol in MANET.
Evaluating feasibility of using wireless sensor networks in a coffee crop thr...IJCNCJournal
A Wireless Sensor Networks is a network formed with sensors that have characteristics to sensor an area to
extract a specific metric, depending of the application.
We would like to analyse the feasibility to use sensors in a coffee crop.In this work we are evaluating routing protocolsusing real dimensions and characteristics of a coffee crop. We evaluate, through simulation, AODV, DSDV and AOMDV and two variants known in this work as AODVMOD and AOMDVMOD with 802.15.4 MAC Protocol
.For this comparison, we defined three performance metrics: Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), End-to-End Delay
and Average Energy Consumption. Simulation results show that AOMDVMOD overall, outperforms others
routing protocols evaluated, showing that is possible to use WSN in a real coffee crop environment.
A novel defence scheme against selfish Node attack in manetijcsa
This document proposes a new intrusion detection system (IDS) algorithm to defend against selfish node attacks in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). Selfish nodes flood the network with false information and drop packets from other nodes. The proposed IDS identifies selfish node behavior and blocks their activities. Simulation results show the IDS enhances network performance from negligible to 92% and prevents infection from attacks. The IDS is integrated with the AODV routing protocol to detect and eliminate selfish nodes within its transmission range.
AODVMO: A Security Routing Protocol using One-Time Password Authentication Me...IJCNCJournal
Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocols is one of the most popular reactive protocol used for Mobile Ad hoc Network and is a target of many Denial-of-Service attack types. In this article, we propose a solution for Initialization and Providing the OTP based on Mobile Agent (IPOM). We also propose a Security Routing Protocol using One-Time Password Authentication Mechanism based on Mobile Agent (AODVMO) by extending the original AODV protocol and integrating IPOM solution. Analysis results confirm that AODVMO can prevent almost current routing protocol attack types, such as Blackhole / Sinkhole, Grayhole, Whirlwind, and Wormhole types. Using NS2, we evaluate the packet overhead for providing OTP, the security performance on random waypoint network topology under Blackhole attacks and the effect of security mechanism to the original protocol. Simulation results show that the proposed solution works well, the performance of AODVMO is good under Blackhole attacks, and slightly reduced when integrating the security mechanism in scenarios without attacks.
AODVMO: A SECURITY ROUTING PROTOCOL USING ONE-TIME PASSWORD AUTHENTICATION ME...IJCNCJournal
Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocols is one of the most popular reactive protocol
used for Mobile Ad hoc Network and is a target of many Denial-of-Service attack types. In this article, we
propose a solution for Initialization and Providing the OTP based on Mobile Agent (IPOM). We also
propose a Security Routing Protocol using One-Time Password Authentication Mechanism based on Mobile
Agent (AODVMO) by extending the original AODV protocol and integrating IPOM solution. Analysis
results confirm that AODVMO can prevent almost current routing protocol attack types, such as Blackhole /
Sinkhole, Grayhole, Whirlwind, and Wormhole types. Using NS2, we evaluate the packet overhead for
providing OTP, the security performance on random waypoint network topology under Blackhole attacks
and the effect of security mechanism to the original protocol. Simulation results show that the proposed
solution works well, the performance of AODVMO is good under Blackhole attacks, and slightly reduced
when integrating the security mechanism in scenarios without attacks.
This document analyzes the performance of three routing protocols - AODV, OLSR, and ZRP - under a blackhole security attack in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET). It defines the blackhole attack and describes how each protocol functions. Simulations are run in OPNET with 40 nodes using various performance metrics like network load, end-to-end delay, and packet delivery ratio. The results show that while all protocols are negatively impacted by blackhole nodes, AODV maintains the most consistent performance under attack compared to OLSR and ZRP.
Performance measurement of MANET routing protocols under Blackhole security a...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Review on security issues of AODV routing protocol for MANETsIOSR Journals
This document discusses security issues with the Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol used in mobile ad hoc networks. AODV is vulnerable to attacks where malicious nodes manipulate routing information like sequence numbers and hop counts. The document reviews these vulnerabilities and proposes securing AODV through symmetric encryption of routing control packets between nodes to prevent modification by unauthorized nodes. It suggests approaches for key exchange without a central authority and describes securing the route discovery and maintenance processes in AODV to authenticate routing updates and detect malicious nodes.
Mobile Ad-hoc Network is group of wireless mobile device with restricted broadcast range and no use of base Infrastructure. The secure routing model helps for reduced honest elicitation and free riding problem. The term honest elicitation means it forward high recommendation for malicious node in order to avoid itself. It means the high recommendation for colludingmalicious node. When operating in hostile or suspicious setting, MANETs require privacy and ,communication security in routing protocol. In this paper we present the type of attacks and operation on network layer with routing protocol technique i.e. based on an on-demand locationbased anonymous MANET routing protocol called SMRT (secure MANET routing technique ,with trust model) that achieves security and privacy against insider and outsider adversaries.
This document surveys different types of black hole attacks in wireless mobile ad hoc networks and various detection schemes that have been proposed. It discusses single black hole attacks, where a single malicious node drops packets to disrupt routing, and collaborative black hole attacks, where multiple nodes work together. The document analyzes and compares detection schemes for single black hole attacks in terms of the routing protocol used, detection method, results reported, and limitations. It finds that while many schemes can effectively detect a single attacker, they often fail against collaborative black hole attacks.
COMPARING THREE PROTOCOLS OF DODV, DSR, DSDV FOR VANET NETWORKpijans
An ad hoc network is a network created by wireless hosts that can be mobile. This means that no infrastructure such as a central station, router, roaming, or anything else used by other networks to help network structure or anything else that other networks use to help Network structure, is not used. Rather, they are just a few wireless nodes connecting to non neighboring nodes with the help of the neighboring nodes. Wireless ad hoc mobile network (MANET) and Wireless ad hoc inter-car network (VANET), are among wireless networks which have the most effective parameters in the ability of this type of networksto transfer multimedia from source to destination. In this research, we examine the challenges and solutions presented in DODV, DSR, and DSDV protocols.
COMPARING THREE PROTOCOLS OF DODV, DSR, DSDV FOR VANET NETWORKpijans
An ad hoc network is a network created by wireless hosts that can be mobile. This means that no
infrastructure such as a central station, router, roaming, or anything else used by other networks to help
network structure or anything else that other networks use to help Network structure, is not used. Rather,
they are just a few wireless nodes connecting to non-neighboring nodes with the help of the neighboring
nodes. Wireless ad hoc mobile network (MANET) and Wireless ad hoc inter-car network (VANET), are
among wireless networks which have the most effective parameters in the ability of this type of networksto
transfer multimedia from source to destination. In this research, we examine the challenges and solutions
presented in DODV, DSR, and DSDV protocols
Secure Data Communications in Mobile Ad-Hoc NetworksIRJET Journal
The document discusses secure data communication protocols for mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs). It proposes two protocols: Secure Message Transfer (SMT) and Secure Single-Path Protocol (SSP). SMT transmits data over multiple paths simultaneously using redundancy to ensure delivery even if some paths fail. SSP has lower overhead by using a single path but provides reliability comparable to SMT. The protocols provide end-to-end security without trusting intermediate nodes and can maintain reliable low-latency communication even when many nodes disrupt data transfers maliciously or unintentionally. Evaluation shows SMT delivers over 93% of messages without retransmission, even with 50% of nodes failing, and over 98% with limited retransmissions if
The document proposes a modification to the AODV routing protocol for VANETs (vehicular ad hoc networks) by introducing a stack in the route request header. The modified protocol, called sAODV, pushes node IPs to a stack instead of discarding packets if a node receives a duplicate packet. This allows an alternative path to be used if the primary path breaks. Simulation results show sAODV has higher throughput than AODV at low vehicle densities due to lower packet loss, but AODV performs better at higher densities where packet loss is already low. The modification adds complexity but improves path availability in VANET routing.
Black Hole Detection in AODV Using Hexagonal Encryption in Manet’sIJMER
In MANETs (mobile ad hoc network), security is common problem and lack of issues in
MANET network. When comparing to wired network, MANETs are harmed to security attacks due to the
scarcity of a trusted centralized enforce authority and limited resources. This paper proposed a technique
to avoid Blackhole node behaviour in AODV (Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector) using Hexagonal
Encryption inNS2. Hexagonal Encryption has been chosen for low cost and high computation speed up.
Compared to existing blackhole detection technique, this proposed technique obtains better result by
stimulating in NS2.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Evaluation The Performance of MAODV and AODV Protocols In VANETs ModelsCSCJournals
This paper to study, analyse the performance of multicast technology using the MAODV (Multicast On-demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol) in the VANETs (Vehicle Ad-Hoc Networks), this protocol using widely in MANETs (Mobile Ad-Hoc Network). The wireless nodes in the wireless vehicle networks are the same wireless devices, which are integrated with a sensor and designed specifically for the design of safety, privacy and security applications. Researchers are interested in developing and enhancing the number of service quality parameters (packets received, delay, productivity, node power consumption, etc.). The aim of this paper is to introduce and optimize VANETS multi-cast transmission technology to reduce delay, increase throughput and reduce packet loss. Although, presents an analytical study of the Enhanced Protocol (MAODV) Protocol (AODV) and compares it to AODV performance in VANETs.
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9
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PROTECTOR CONTROL PC-AODV-BH IN THE AD HOC NETWORKS
1. International Journal of Information Technology, Modeling and Computing (IJITMC) Vol. 4, No.2, May 2016
DOI: 10.5121/ijitmc.2016.4201 1
PROTECTOR CONTROL PC-AODV-BH IN THE
AD HOC NETWORKS
S. Boujaada1
, Y. Qaraai1
, S. Agoujil1
and M. Hajar2
E3MI1
and ROI2
teams,Computer Science1
and Mathematics2
,
Departments Faculty of Sciences and Technologies, B.P. 509 Boutalamine 52000
Errachidia, Morocco.
ABSTRACT
In this paper we deal with the protector control that which we used to secure AODV routing protocol in Ad
Hoc networks. The considered system can be vulnerable to several attacks because of mobility and absence
of infrastructure. While the disturbance is assumed to be of the black hole type, we purpose a control
named "PC-AODV-BH" in order to neutralize the effects of malicious nodes. Such a protocol is obtained by
coupling hash functions, digital signatures and fidelity concept. An implementation under NS2 simulator
will be given to compare our proposed approach with SAODV protocol, basing on three performance
metrics and taking into account the number of black hole malicious nodes.
KEYWORDS
Ad Hoc, Black hole, Security, Fidelity, Protector control, NS2 simulator.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the wired networks, the computers are connected by broadcast cables and they are
characterized by their powers in terms of capacity for treatment and storage. Moreover, such
networks offer a stable band-width, a good and inexpensive quality [11]. In the early 90’s the
consequent evolution carried in the wireless networks made the interest of the mobile
computing grow. The latter offers a flexible mechanism of communication enters the users
and an access to all services available in a typical environment (fixed) through an independent
network of the physical location (geographic) and user mobility [11].
The most usual wireless networks deployed today are based on fixed infrastructures: sites
accommodating the base stations in the case of the cellular networks or cables for wired
infrastructure. A connectivity between the various elements in the network is organized and
centralized [11].
The Ad Hoc are wireless networks capable to be organized without infrastructure previously
defined. For example from one device to another without any infrastructure [7]. Each node
in the network is equipped with a radio interface and it is free to join, leave and move
independently. As a result, the network topology changes rapidly. To meet the need, the
network may change rapidly and spontaneously and configures in an autonomous way
according to the existing connections between nodes. In the Ad Hoc networks, node should
have the capability to function in the same time routers and terminals. Moreover, the
communication between nodes is ensured dynamically[9].
2. International Journal of Information Technology, Modeling and Computing (IJITMC) Vol. 4, No.2, May 2016
2
When the Ad Hoc nodes communicate, it is interesting to define a good strategy for
transferring data by taking into account at any time the characteristics of the network such as
the dynamic topology, number of links, band-width, and network resources [10]. Moreover,
the method adopted must offer the best routing of data. The routing protocol in a mobile Ad Hoc
network can be categorized into two classes: proactive (definition of the routes in advance) and
reactive (it is with the request that the route will be defined) [9].
The concern of the security in the routing operations represents a principal challenge in the design
of the routing protocols. Indeed, due to lack of such infrastructure or assumption of central
administration, in contrast the traditional security solutions are not adapted to cope with the
features of the Ad Hoc networks. Several vulnerabilities exist in these networks: manufacturing,
modification, selfish or malicious nodes, usurpation of identity or suppression of the traffic in the
network, the black hole attack [20], the worm hole attack [13], and so on.
Each node in the network contributes to the good performance in the routing; in contrast each
element represents a point of vulnerability. In particular, if no mechanism is set up to make it
possible for each node to determine the good performance and to check the coherence of the
routing data, the node accepts the information of routing coming from any other node in the
network. That is an attacker can send messages containing incorrect information on the network,
in order to conduct a malicious action.
For this reason, the traditional mechanisms of security and the protocols are not directly
applicable and require a suitable securing in the Ad hoc networks. Several researches explored a
variety of mechanisms to answer the problems of data security, and a certain number of secure
routing protocols have been suggested in order to prevent different types of attacks (TAODV,
ARAN and SAODV [19, 21, 22]).
In this work, which is part of the Ad Hoc networks, the routing is assumed to be provided by
using reactive routing protocol AODV. In this case, we talk about a system in the autonomous
case. When the system is subject to a disturbance, as the case of the black hole type, it may be
that it prevents the good routing performance because of the presence of the malicious nodes.
Thus, we are interested with the problem of controlling the data routed through AODV in the
presence of such a disturbance. This is the protector control of AODV protocol facing the black
hole attack: PC-AODV-BH. This control is achieved by a coupling of the security mechanisms
(digital signatures, hash functions) with the concept of fidelity associated with the nodes in the
considered network.
The principle of protector control consists (Qaraai et al. [16]), in the case of AODV protocol, to
develop and implement algorithms making it possible to return the disturbed system in its
autonomous state, while trying to neutralize the effects of black hole attacks. Hence, the
terminology of the resulting protocol PC-AODV-BH.
The organization of this paper is as follows: In section 2 we give an overview of the AODV
routing protocol and the black hole attack. After dealing with the history of some protocols
introduced to secure AODV protocol, we give a detailed approach followed by the proposed
algorithms in the third section. The last section will be devoted to the simulation tests by
considering some metrics, while varying the number of black hole attacks. A comparison of PC-
AODV-BH and SAODV protocols will be made to test the effectiveness of introduced control.
3. International Journal of Information Technology, Modeling and Computing (IJITMC) Vol. 4, No.2, May 2016
3
2. ROUTING AND ATTACKS
This section provides a brief recall on the reactive AODV routing protocol and also a preview of
the black hole attacks. In other words, it’s about the principal elements defining respectively the
autonomous and the disturbed systems.
2.1 AODV PROTOCOL
The AODV was developed by Charles E. Perkins and Elizabeth M. Royer [14]. It is a reactive
protocol based on the principle of distance vector. This protocol uses two mechanisms named
route discovery and route maintenance. Besides the routing node by node, it builds the roads by
using a cycle of requests called route request and route reply (RREQ and RREP) [4]. It uses
destination sequence numbers to ensure the fresh routes and guarantees loop freedom. In the Ad
Hoc networks, the route changes frequently because of the mobility of nodes, as a result, the
routes maintained by certain nodes, become invalid. The sequence numbers make it possible to
use the fresh routes. In AODV, the route table is used to store routing information. Additionally,
node maintains a list of precursor nodes to route through them to reach the destination. A source
node broadcasts a route request (RREQ) packet on the network each time the route to the
destination is not available or the previously entered route is inactivated.
Each middle node that receives the RREQ checks its own routing table, if it is the destination, it
sends backs an RREP (Route Reply) packet. If not, it relays the RREQ packet by broadcasting it
to its neighbors. In the absence of response RREP, this process repeated until destination node or
intermediate node that has a fresh enough route toward destination node receives RREQ, and in
this way, it creates RREP message, and inversely sends along the reverse route established at
intermediate nodes during the route discovery process to source node. The number of the RREQ
message steps increases by passing through each node. Nodes sending RREP updates the
sequence number for the source node in its own route tables. The source receives a RREP when
the sequence number of RREQ is smaller than the sequence number of its routing table, or the
same sequence number with a smaller hop count, the newer RREQ is removed. If there are two
routes toward receiving destination, then the node selects the route with maximum sequence
number or if sequence numbers are the same, the message with minimum number of steps is
selected [23]. Sequence number acts as a time stamp. By using sequence numbers, nodes can
recognize those that sent and transferred information, and which node is newer than the others
[24]. The intermediate nodes and the source node store the next hop information. The routing
table entry contains the following information:
Destination node, Destination sequence number, Next hop, Number of hops, Hop Count, Active
neighbours for the route, and expiration timer.
Figure2.1: AODV route discovery process
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From the figure 2.1, the source node S broadcast the RREQ to reachable neighbors A, B and
C to find the best possible route to the destination node D. After receiving the RREQ, node
A, B and C either:
• Send out the RREP message to the source node if it is the destination or it is an
intermediate node with a fresh enough route to the destination with a higher sequence
number or equal to the RREQ message,
• Update the routing table and broadcasting the RREQ until the destination node or
intermediate node with fresh enough route.
The destination node D receiving the RREQ message from node A and forwards the RREP
message to this node. Node A sends the RREP message to node S and updates its routing
table. Source node S also update the routing table for the new route to the destination node D
using the AODV recvReply() function. The explanation of normal recvReply() mechanism is
described as follows:
Algorithm 1 Algorithm of AODV recvReply() function
RecvReply (Packet P)
If (P.dst no entry in Routing Table RT) Then
Add entry of P.dst to RT
End
Select dst_seqno from RT
If (P.dst_seqno>RT.dst_seqno or P.dst_seqno=RT.dst_seqno and P.hops < RT.hops) Then
Update RT entry with P
Send data packets to the route in RT
Else If (routing is UP for P) Then
Forward packet P
Else discards P
End End If
End
2.2 BLACK HOLE ATTACK
Routing protocols are having a variety of attacks. In which a malicious node sends forged RREP
packet to inform the nodes of that it has the shortest path to the node whose packets it wants to
intercept, we talk about black hole attack [20]. In other words, a malicious node uses the routing
protocol (such as AODV) to promote false information of having shortest path to the destination
node or to the packet it wants to intercept, then black hole will have the accessibility in replying
to the route request and creates a reply where an extremely short route is advertised. If the
malicious reply reaches node before the reply from the actual node, a forged route created. When
the attacker inserts itself between the communicating nodes, it is able to drag the packets towards
them [3]. And when the source receives these false RREP, it starts transmitting the data packets to
the black hole node instead of transmitting them to the destination.
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Figure2.2: Routing discovery in AODV with black hole attack
For example in the figure 2.2, the source node (node 1) broadcasts a route request packet RREQ
to its neighbours to find a route to the destination node (node 3). It is assumed that routing table
of the intermediate node 2 has a route to the destination node and node 5 is a malicious one in
the network. So the node 5 automatically sends a false RREP to (node 1) without checking the
routing table. The malicious RREP attained rapidly to the node 1 before the responses of other
nodes in the network. Now, node 1 accepts the shortest route through the node 5 and sends
application layer data to the node 3 via this node rejecting other RREP packets (in this case, a
RREP packet from node 2). The black hole node drops all data packets rather than forwarding
them to the destination, unfortunately, source node sends the data packets assuming that this data
would reach safely the destination node. The intention of implementing a black hole in the
network may be as simple as disrupting the normal network operation to as severe as man in the
middle attack or denial of service attack. The following code will be added in the AODV protocol
to generate the false answers by the black hole attacker: recvRequest(Packet*) function.
Algorithm 2 Extract of black hole algorithm
if
(rt && blackhole == 1) Then
assert (rq- > rq_dst == rt- > rt_dst);
sendReverse (rq- > rq_src); // IP Destination
rq- > rq_timestamp); // timestamp
rt- > pc_insert (rt0- > rt_nexthop);
rt0- > pc_insert(rt- > rt_nexthop);
Packet::free(p);
End If
3. AODV CONTROL
Security in Ad Hoc networks is an essential component, especially for those security-sensitive
applications. We analyze the security in Ad Hoc based on the following attributes: Integrity to
guarantee that the messages of routing exchanged between the entities were never corrupted.
Authentication to verify the identity of an entity or a node in the network and the non-repudiation
to verify that the sender and recipient are parties that they say have respectively sent or received
the message [17]. In the case of the AODV routing protocol, many solutions have been explored.
Our proposed approach will be developed basing on these solutions and using the concept of
fidelity levels.
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3.1RELATED WORKS
Security solutions are always been one of the most essential important issue in the Ad Hoc
network communication. Various methods have been developed to protect the network from
black hole with the AODV protocol. We will discuss several security solutions offered by
researchers for this kind of attack.
The ARIADNE protocol [8] offers a solution that provides authentication point-to-point of
routing messages using secret key hash functions (HMAC: Hash-based Message
Authentication Code). However, to ensure a secure authentication, ARIADNE is based on
TESLA [15] which is a protocol that ensures safe authentication during broadcasts. Each
node has a secret key that allows it to calculate a hash chain which is subsequently used as
follows: when it transmits a route request message, the node adds an HMAC calculated on the
entire message with the last hash still not used in the chain. If a route replayed to a particular
node, this one reveals the value used in the route request. When all nodes on the way perform
this operation, the path is authenticated. To function, ARIADNE requires that all nodes in the
network are synchronized (through use of TESLA) and that each one of them knows the last
value of the hash function of all others. This extension makes it possible to make safe the
protocol against the attacks by modification and manufacturing but is still vulnerable to
egoistic behavior.
Xiaoqi et al. [21] gave a TAODV (Trusted Ad Hoc on Demand Routing Protocol) to secure
AODV, it’s a routing protocol based on applying trust model to secure mobile Ad Hoc
network. TAODV has several salient features like: the trust and trust relationship among
nodes that can be represented, calculated and combined for efficient routing; a malicious
node will eventually be detected and denied to the network and the performance of the
system is improved by avoiding requesting and verifying certificates at every routing step.
Sanzgiri et al. [19] designed a secure AODV algorithm which called ARAN. In this protocol,
nodes use public key certificates to authenticate themselves to other nodes during the routing
process. ARAN relies on the use of authentication, non-repudiation and message integrity in
Ad Hoc networks by using a cryptographic certificate which is followed by a route
instantiation process that ensures end-to-end security services. The main disadvantage that
ARAN uses the trusted certification server and its requires every node to sign the message
before transmitting, which is very costly in terms of power and the size of the routing
messages increase at each hop.
Another example of protocol based on the reputation was presented by Buchegger and
Boudec [5]. CONFIDENT (Cooperation of Node Fairness in Dynamic Ad-hoc Network)
interacts with the misbehaving node in the network. The reputation system based
CONFIDANT scheme punishes the misbehaving nodes by the detection and the isolation
from the network, but if the nodes use limited transmission power this protocol cannot work
correctly in network.
Zapata have proposed the SAODV [22] as an extension of the AODV, that can be used to
protect the routing messages (RREQs, RREPs, and RERRs), based on public key
cryptography. SAODV use two security mechanisms: digital signatures and hash chains. The
first are used to authenticate RREQ and RREP messages and the second are used to
authenticate the hop count, the only changeable information in the packets. A hash chain is
formed by repeatedly applying a one way hash function to a seed. SAODV requires the
existence of suitable asymmetric crypto system, where each node has a pair signature key.
Furthermore, each node is capable to acquire and verify the association between the address
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and the public key of other nodes that participate in the Ad Hoc network. However, the use
of hash chains does not make it possible to prevent all the attacks on the number of hops.
Also, although the hash hop count prevents a prospective malicious node to announce shorter
routes that in reality, nothing prevents an attacker to increase arbitrarily the length of the
routes. Indeed, such a node can apply the hash function several consecutive times before
relaying a packet, and then the route appears longer than it is in reality [22]. Thus, SAODV
has disadvantages, nothing prevents a node from leaving a hop count unchanged or
increasing it arbitrarily. Malicious node can acquire routes by consistently declaring high hop
counts and it can impersonate another node while forwarding a fake RREP. In addition, in
the event that there are several attackers accomplices, an attack of type black hole can always
be launched and the number of hops can even be decremented on arrival, in a transparent
way for the other nodes. Hence, encryption solution approaches do not address packet
dropping by a black hole node.
A mechanism has been proposed by Vishnu K et al. [13], it is capable to detect and remove
the collaborative malicious nodes which introduce huge packet drop from network. A
purpose of Backbone network consists of group of strong nodes in terms of battery power
and these nodes can be allowed to allocate the RIP to the newly arrived nodes. Before
transmitting data packets, the source node asks the backbone network to allocate RIP
address. When the backbone network assigns the RIP address, the source node sends RREQ
to search for destination and also for allocated RIP. If the source node only receives the
RREP from the destination then network is safe, but if RREP comes from RIP then it implies
that adversary might be existed in the network. As a result, the source node sends a monitor
message to alert these neighborhoods. Then the neighbor nodes broadcast this alert message
through the whole network and it sends a reply message to the source node that there is black
hole node in the network.
3.2 PROPOSED APPROACH
3.2.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The vulnerability of an Ad Hoc may take place once the latter is the subject of an attack.
Malicious nodes can perform many types of attacks for the dysfunction of the network,
especially at the time of the routing between the mobile equipments. In our case, the routing
is supposed to be provided by the AODV protocol which is subject to a black hole attack.
The presence of this kind of attack degrades the performances in terms of security and
efficiency.
In order to improve the prevention of this protocol against the black hole attack, our
approach consists in a coupling of security mechanisms used in the SAODV protocol and the
concept of fidelity which is closely related to the nodes in the Ad Hoc network. The resulting
algorithm uses the cryptography with public key through the digital signatures and hash
functions, with the addition of a fidelity table where in every participating node will be
attributed a fidelity level that acts as a measure of trustworthiness of that node. With on this
basis, the PC-AODV-BH protocol is proposed to select and maintain the safer routes for the
routing data while neutralizing the effect of malicious nodes trying to cooperate with in the
network to disturb its operation. The contribution of PC-AODV-BH protocol to improve the
security of AODV is a simple idea considering the consistency of secure AODV protocol
(SAODV) in terms of cryptographic tools, but their connection with the fidelity of nodes has
opened other ways such as the comparison between the two protocols in terms of efficiency
facing the black hole disturbance.
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3.2.2 MECHANISMS OF SAODV PROTOCOL
In order to secure the AODV protocol, Zapata [22] conceived the SAODV protocol, a secure
variant based on digital signatures and hash functions.
The role of a hash chains is to keep the integrity of the hop count which is supposed to be
incremented at each hop. In such a way that enables the intermediate or the destination node
that receives the messages to verify that the hop count has not been decremented by a
malicious node [22]. This function is widely used in cryptography, in order to reduce the size
of data to be processed by the encryption function. Indeed, the main feature of a hash
function to produce a hash data is to say a condensate of these data. This digest has a fixed
size and which the value differs depending on the function. Among the usual functions, we
can cite (MD4, MD5, SHA-1 and SHA-2) [6].
When in their turn, digital signatures authenticate the non-mutable data in the RREQ and
RREP packets. That means that they sign everything but not the hop count of the AODV
messages and the Hash from the SAODV extension. The final destination node signs the
RREP generated by an intermediate, so that is the main problem in the application of the
digital signatures. To remedy this problem, SAODV has two types of signatures as the single
(SS) and double (DS) signature [22]. The SS is used to send a RREP request of the
destination and the DS is used for sending the route response from the intermediate nodes, if
it has enough new roads. Single signature is applicable in the route discovery mechanism
because it is difficult to have enough paths by intermediate nodes. If disturbances occurred
during the data transmission process, the source node resets the route discovery process.
Moreover, the time to generate the RREP be it from the destination or from the intermediate
nodes, and the signing processes are applicable and also the treatment steps of SAODV
applied by the intermediate and the destination nodes.
3.2.3 FIDELITY
In each node in the network, the fidelity is basically considered as an integer number or a
counter that is associated with it. This concept contributes to maintain the security of the
network while measuring what one calls the fidelity levels [12, 18]. In other words, when the
data packets are forwarded successfully, this counter is increased. According to the loyal
participation of nodes in the network, their fidelity levels are updated. After successful
reception of the packets by the destination node, this latter replies by sending an
acknowledgement packet to the source. Due to this acknowledgement the intermediate nodes
fidelity level will be incremented and the packet is exchanged. If no acknowledgement is
received by the source node within a timer event, the intermediate node level will be
decremented and also of the next hop of the intermediate node. The fidelity tables are
exchanged periodically between the participating nodes in the network.
In the arrival of positive ACK, the source node increment the fidelity levels of the
corresponding nodes and the fidelity values are exchanged (figure 3.1).
In the literature, there exist various definitions of this concept. In our work we characterize
the latter by the fidelity level of each intermediate node i. It is the degree of participation in
the network operations. In other words; it is through the reports of transfer and reception of
each node. Thus, the fidelity level φi of the node i is given by:
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Where MT (resp. MR) is the number of forward (resp. received) messages by the node i and [X]
indicate the integer part of the real X.
Whenever we observe that the fidelity level value of a particular node is greater than that of
another node then we can conclude that the one having the greater value is more durable than the
other from whose value is greater. Because of a node with greater value signify that it is an
experienced node in the network and it has exchanged packets most correctly than other. When
the level of a node drops to 0 [12], it implies there is no packets faithfully forwarding and the
node is considered to be a malicious node and it is eliminated from the network. When black hole
is detected it should to be declared to the other nodes in the network. This is accomplished by
sending alarm packets. When a node receives an alarm packet passed to the entire network, so
it can identify and eliminate the use of the black hole. Figure 3.2 shows the behavioral
process where the black holes working as a team have been eliminated from the whole network.
Figure3.1: Receiving acknowledgement and
broadcasting fidelity packets
Figure3.2: Black hole nodes elimination
3.2.3 PC-AODV-BH ALGORITHM
To summarize the followed procedures in our approach, we present below an extract of the
resulting algorithm. It is subdivided into three principal steps according to the specification of the
source, intermediate and destination nodes.
Algorithm 3 PC-AODV-BH Algorithm
Step1 (Source node): Diffusion of the RREQ packet.
1. The hash function generated ← 0
2. RREQ secure ← Original RREQ + hash chain protection + digital signature + protection
key of the node
Step2 (Intermediate node): Receiving RREQ Packets.
Int , φc
While (destination) Do
Receiving secure RREQ
If (INaddr == RREQ.DESTaddr) Then
Send the RREP RREP + Hash Chain protection + digital signature + protection key
EndIF
Calculate AVG_φ_LEVEL = φ_IN + φ_nexthop
If (φ_IN > φc
and φ_nexthop > φc
) Then
Send the data
EndIf
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Repeat until a maximum Time to live value.
End
Step3 (Destination node): Receiving the secure RREP packets.
Time = current time value+ timer value
While (current time value ≤ time) do
If (ACK is received) then
Increment φ_IN and φ_nexthop
Else decrement φ_IN et φ_nexthop
If (Fidelity level of a node = 0)) then
Remove the node from neighbour table and fidelity table.
An alarm packet is generated and diffused to all neighboring nodes concerning the malicious
node.
The source node forwards a secure and protected RREQ with a digital signature towards its
neighbours. As soon as the intermediate nodes receive it this request, if one of them is the
destination node, then it generates a uncast RREP encrypts and send back in the reverse
route. Else if the node is the intermediate one, the calculation of the fidelity level for each
node will start to select the best among them. A comparison between the average of fidelity
level of the node of the current level and that in the next hop with a threshold value noted φc
,
makes it possible to authorize or prevent the transfer of data. If the average value of the
fidelity level is higher than the φc
value, there will automatically be a sending of data
packets. On receiving the data packets by the destination node, this latter will send a positive
acknowledgement to the source, by which the intermediate node’s level will be
incremented. If within a specified time interval, if the source node doesn’t receive the
positive acknowledgement it will decrement the intermediate node’s level to identify the
cooperative black holes. In the case where the fidelity level drops to 0, it implies that there is
no packets faithfully forwarding and the node is considered to be a black hole node and it is
removed from the routing and fidelity tables and not only it is eliminated from the network.
4. SIMULATION
Context: To analyze the behavior of Ad Hoc routing protocols, for our simulations based on
NS2 simulator, we use a CBR (Constant Bit Rate) application. All the data packets CBR are
generated between nodes using a traffic generator which creates randomly CBR connections
that start at moments uniformly distributed between 0 and 60 seconds with a pause time
equal to 10 seconds. The size of data is 512 bytes. Mobility scenarios are generated using a
random way point model (RWP) by varying the mobile nodes moving in an area of 500m x
500m. The number of nodes is fixed in 35.
Table 1 – Simulation parameters
Parameter Value
Simulator NS2
Number of Nodes 35 nodes
Traffic Type Constant Bit Rate
CBR
Mobility Model
Random
Waypoint
Terrain area 500 m*500 m
Simulation Time 60 seconds
Packet Size 512 bytes
Routing Protocols AODV, SAODV,
PC-AODV-BH
Pause time 10 seconds
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In table 1 we summarize the simulation parameters of different protocols used in this work. In
order to evaluate the performance of concerned routing protocols, the following three metrics are
considered:
(i) End-to-End Delay: this is the average delay between the sending of data packets by the
source and the successfully receiving it by the destination.
(ii) Throughput: this is the amount of transmitted information by a communication
channel according to a given timeinterval.
(iii) Packet loss: this metric informs us about the amount between the generated and
received packets during the time of communication.
The variation of these three metrics is given according to time, and they are related to the
autonomous, disturbed and controlled cases of the AODV routing protocol state.
Autonomous system: From the table 1, the performance evaluation of the network according to
the three metric ones above, while using the routing protocol AODV, gave the following
results (figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3).
Figure4.1: End to end delay Figure4.2: Throughput of communication
Figure4.3: Packets loss
Figure4.4: End to end delay in the presence of Figure4.5: Throughput of communication in the
presence of attack the presence of attack
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Figure4.6: Packets loss in the presence of attack
Controlled system: When the network described in table 1 undergoes a disturbance of the type
1, 2 or 5 black holes, our objective is to be able to cancel their effects using SAODV and PC-
AODV- BH protocols, and then to compare the two controls applied in terms of effectiveness
of safety of AODV routing deal with such threats. Then, an implementation of the two
protocols enables us to obtain the figures 4.7 - 4.15.
Figure4.7: Comparison of the end to end delays Figure4.8: Comparison of the throughputs with
oneblack hole of communication with one black hole
Figure4.9: Comparison of the packets loss with one black hole
Figure4.10: Comparison of the end to end delays Figure4.11: Comparison of the throughputs
with two black holes of communication with two black holes
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Figure4.12: Comparison of the packets loss with two black holes
Figure4.13: Comparison of the end to end delays Figure4.14: Comparison of the throughputs
with five black holes of communication with five black holes
Figure4.15: Comparison of the packets loss with five black holes
Discussion results: The figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 represent respectively the variation of the end-
to-end delay, the throughput of communication and the quantity of packages lost in the
AODV routing according to the time. It is about a normal evolution of this protocol, because
what concerns us is the control of this protocol facing the black hole attacks.
In the presence of this kind of attack, the behavior of AODV is modified. Indeed, the figure
4.4 shows that the end-to-end delay is proportional to the number of black hole attacks over
the entire interval of time. As this metric is a major challenge which any Ad Hoc network
seeks to minimize, its increase based on malicious nodes is due to the cooperation of the
latter for the degradation of the receptions in the entire network.
In a similar way, the increase in the quantity of the packets loss (figure 4.6) is mainly the
result of the black hole attack which consists in falsifying the borrowed routes and the
cooperation of the attackers as well. The figure 4.5 shows the effect of black holes attacks on
the throughput of communication in the network.
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The observed decrease, compared to undisturbed AODV, is due to the fact that the bandwidth
is also shared by malicious nodes that cooperate and contribute to the transfer and the
reception of the data by emulating the source by erroneous information.
The objective of our approach is to be able to make the disturbed system, which is in other
words the Ad Hoc network in its autonomous state by using a protector control. From the 9
figures 4.7 - 4.15, we observe that the curves obtained by the implementation of SAODV and
PC-AODV-BH protocols are approximately close to those corresponding to the case of the
routing AODV in the autonomous case. In other words, these two protocols not only made it
possible to decrease the end to end delay and packets loss, but increased the throughput of
communication, as well that is caused by different malicious nodes and their cooperation. It
should be noted that, even if there is not a remarkable increase in the throughput, the two
protocols remain effective for the protection of the AODV protocol against black hole attack,
since malicious nodes share the channel or bandwidth with other nodes in the network.
That being, one notes that the two protocols of control are able to defend the AODV routing
in the three situations of attacks (1, 2 and 5 black holes), for the considered metric. Moreover,
the figures 4.7 - 4.15 show that our proposed protocol PC-AODV-BH is more efficient than the
SAODV protocol. That is a consequence of the use of the fidelity levels for choosing the safest
route taking into account at the same time the current level and that of the next hop.
5. CONCLUSION
In this work, we tackled a control problem of the AODV routing protocol in the presence of the
black hole attacks in the mobile Ad Hoc networks. The attackers can easily be deployed within
the network to disturb its operation. We suggested a realizable solution to control the AODV
protocol to this type of attack: it is the PC-AODV-BH protocol. This is a combination of public
key cryptography mechanisms and the concept of fidelity levels which are associated to each Ad
Hoc nodes. The implementation of the resulting algorithm, according to the throughput of
communication, packets loss and end to end delay, has shown that the proposed protocol made it
possible to answer the objective of this work. On the one hand, the PC-AODV-BH was able to
neutralize approximately the effects of cooperation black holes. Besides, it is considered as an
improvement of SAODV protocol owing to the fact that it treats at the same time the current level
of node and that of the next hop through the injection of the fidelity.
In the future, we plan to extend and develop the security mechanisms for other Ad Hoc routing
protocols performance simulation and also for the delay tolerant networks (DTN) as in the case
for example of the works being developed in [1, 2].
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