Production technology for higher production in papaya, cultivation of papaya, hybrid papaya propagation in an open field, how to papaya cultivation in India, high production growing papaya, different varieties of papaya ,red lady papaya,Pusa delicious, pusa nanha,co-1,pusa gaint,sex forms,
importance of production of cashew. it includes about botany, all varities. cotains all cimatic and soil requirement of the crop. also contais different methods of propogation, cultivation ascpects and processig aspects.
importance of production of cashew. it includes about botany, all varities. cotains all cimatic and soil requirement of the crop. also contais different methods of propogation, cultivation ascpects and processig aspects.
The detail cultivation practices of Banana fruit crop.
HORT-243 Production technology of fruit crops and plantation crops.
Here, within this ppt the detail cultivation of banana fruit crop is included.
The detail cultivation practices of Mango fruit crop.
HORT-243 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR FRUITS AND PLANTATION CROPS.
Prepared by Miss. Raksha Anil Hingankar.
PAPAYA – SOIL, CLIMATE, WATER AND NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT, PAPAIN EXTRACTION, USES,
PESTS AND DISEASES MANAGEMENT
Sharad Bisen
courtesy: open Source Study Material
The detail cultivation practices of Banana fruit crop.
HORT-243 Production technology of fruit crops and plantation crops.
Here, within this ppt the detail cultivation of banana fruit crop is included.
The detail cultivation practices of Mango fruit crop.
HORT-243 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR FRUITS AND PLANTATION CROPS.
Prepared by Miss. Raksha Anil Hingankar.
PAPAYA – SOIL, CLIMATE, WATER AND NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT, PAPAIN EXTRACTION, USES,
PESTS AND DISEASES MANAGEMENT
Sharad Bisen
courtesy: open Source Study Material
Origin, Distribution, Botanical description, Cytogenetics, Genetic resources, Climate and soil, Propagation, Manures and fertilizers, Irrigation, Interculture, Use of PGR, Plant protection, Harvesting, Yield and Storage of Sponge gourd
All about production technology of Papaya (Climate, soil, varieties, propagation, planting & spacing, nutrient management, irrigation and fertigation, training and pruning, intercultural operations, papain extraction, harvesting and yield, major diseases, major pests, major disorders)
Pea is an important vegetable in India; the crop is generally cultivated for its green pods. It is highly nutritive and is rich in protein. It is used as a vegetable or in soup, canned frozen or dehydrate. It is cooked as a vegetable along or with potatoes. Split grains of pea are widely used for dal. Pea straw is a nutritious fodder.
Brooding and rearing manegement are study of birth to adulteration procedure generally 1 week to 20 week life cycle of Bird, brooder house, broiler, grower,layer, light all the process are step by step
Agro climatic zone of India by ICAR 05-Nov-2022.pdfRavi Yadav
Agro climatic zones of India divided by 15 zone on the basis of water surplus,water deficit and cropping systems, how to create graph, average annual rainfall,pass through river, State, soil , growth period, through map
Effect of Nitrogen, phosphorus, and Potassium on growth and yield of Potato, experiment results on potatoes, cost of cultivation on potatoes, thesis work on potato
Compacted Soil, Reduced air permeability.
• Reduced water infiltration.
• Restricted plant root growth.
• Restricted accessibility of nutrients due to the increase in bulk density and reduced soil pore size.
• Dry topsoil.
• Reduced soil pore size.
• Decreased oxygen diffusion causing anaerobic conditions in the soil.
• Increased soil water saturation.
• Increased denitrification processes in the soil which leads to increased N2O emission, decreased
available nitrogen in the soil, and reduced efficiency of nitrogen usage by crops which further lead
to an increase of fertilizer use.
• Reduced soil aeration.
• Reduced microbial biomass.
• Reduced number of macrofauna like Earthworm due to the reduction of large pores.
• Reduced crop yield,Causes,Management
Characteristics of Soil Eroded due to water,Characteristics of Soil Eroded due to wind,Causes- Rain and rainwater runoff,Recreational Activities, Mining,farming ,Management:-
Crop rotation,Terraces,No-till planting
The following slide describes Promotion Mix of Marketing Mix which is the Market Promotion consisting of Promotion strategy and its elements such as Personal selling, Sale promotion, Advertising, Publicity, Public relations, etc and it's meaning, merits and demerits. course - Agricultural Marketing, Trade and Prices of Agricultural Economics Department
new technique of guava production on different varieties in hindiRavi Yadav
introduction, guava production in a different state, different varieties characteristics with pictures, production, management, to development for seed propagation, nursery development in the greenhouse, grafting method in the Hindi language
introduction,meaning,definition, classification of seed dormancy,factors causing dormancy of seed , methods to overcome seed dormancy , dormancy due ti growth
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...
Production Technology for Papaya
1.
2. Papaya is an important fruit of the tropics and
sub-tropics and deserves greater attention due to
its high nutritive value and production
potentiality. The areas and production of papaya
have increased sharply in the last few decades
owing to its wide range of adaptability, increased
demand of fruit and papain and also for high
economic returns per unit area. It is one of the
few fruit crops that flowers and fruits throughout
the year giving early and steady economic returns.
3. Importance
The ripe fresh fruit of papaya is delicious and
used as a table fruit. Fruits are used in preparation
of jam, syrup etc. Green fruits are diuretic and
mildly laxative and are used as vegetables.
Papain, prepared from dried latex of immature
fruits, is a proteolytic enzyme similar in action to
pepsin used for manufacture of drugs, meat
tenderizing, manufacture of chewing gum and in
leather industry.
The fruit is a rich source of carbohydrates,
minerals (Ca, P, Fe), vitamins (carotene, thiamine,
riboflavin) and ascorbic acid.
4. Area and Production
India is the largest producer of papaya in the
world (Chadha, 1992). The area and production
of papaya have increased from 16,050 ha and
2.5 lakh tons in 1965 to 70,100 ha and 17.67
lakh tons in 2001-2002. In India, it is cultivated
mainly in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka,
Gujrat, Jharkhand, Kerala Maharashtra, Orissa
and West Bengal. The productivity is higher in
Andhra Pradesh (115.3 t/ha.) followed by
Karnataka (46.5 t/ha).
5. The fruit, which was hither cultivated as an
intercrop or in a homestead garden, has
emerged as a commercial fruit owing its
demand for domestic requirement, export
potential and processing uses. The area under
papaya has shown commendable increase in
the state of U.P. in the past few years.
6. Area, Production and Productivity of Papaya in India
States Area
(000ha.)
Production
(000tonnes)
Productivity
(t / ha.)
Andhra Pradesh 2.9 334.3 115.3
Assam 7.5 109.3 14.6
Gujarat 4.0 154.5 38.6
Jharkhand 4.3 44.5 10.3
Karnataka 6.3 293.1 46.5
Kerala 13.2 59.7 4.5
Maharashtra 5.7 171.0 30.0
Orissa 10.7 219.7 20.5
West Bengal 6.7 220.5 32.9
Others 8.8 160.5 18.2
Total 70.1 1767.1 25.2
7. This is a gynodioecious line with medium tall plants and
has heavy yield (58-61 kg per plant) and good quality (10-12
oBrix). Fruiting starts at the height of 70-80 cm from ground
level within 260 – 270 days after planting. The fruits are
medium sized (1.5 to 2.0 kg) with orange flesh, having
excellent flavour.
Pusa Delicious
8. A gynodioecious line, suitable for papain production and is
comparable to CO2 for papain yield. The fruits are medium
sized, round in shape and have better keeping quality.
Pusa Majesty
9. It is a dioecious variety with dwarf plant and
medium sized (1.0 – 2.0 kg) oval fruits. The plants start
bearing from 25 – 30 cm above ground level. The
variety is very suitable for high density planting.
Pusa Dwarf
10. It is an ultra dwarf variety and suitable for cultivation in
kitchen garden, pot and even on the roof of the house. It can
produce fruits up to 3 years.
Pusa Nanha
11. It is a dioecious variety selected from ‘Ranchi’ during 1972.
The plants are dwarf and fruits are round with flattened base.
Fruiting starts 60 cm from ground level. The fruit weight varies
from 1.0 to 1.5 kg with a TSS of 10 – 12 oBrix. Fruits have
yellow flesh with no papain odour and hence suitable as a
good table variety.
CO-1
12. It is a dioecious type developed from pure line from local
type during 1979. Fruit weight varies from 1.25 to 1.5 kg and
has good papain yield (4-6 g per fruit). Fruits are large in size
with less cavity, yellow flesh and 11 – 12 oBrix TSS. This
variety can produce 250 – 300 kg papain per hectare.
CO-2
13. It is a hybrid between CO-2 (female parent) and Sunrise
Solo (male parent). It is a gynodioecious type released during
1983 as a table variety. The fruits are medium in size, yellow
to orange flesh with a TSS of 12 – 13 oBrix. The average fruit
weight is 0.5 to 0.8 kg with 90 – 120 fruits/ plant/ year. The
fruits are pyriform in shape.
CO-3
14. This is a hybrid of CO-1 X Washington. Fruit flesh is thick
and yellow. The plant has attractive purple colouration in all
the parts. It is a dioecious type. The mean fruit weight varies
from 1.0 to 1.5 kg with a TSS of 12 oBrix. The tree gives 80 to
90 fruits over a period of two years.
CO-4
15. It is a selection from Washington during 1985 and isolated
for its high papain production, which has high proteolytic
activity and high protein (72%). It produces 14- 15 g dry
papain/ fruit. It gives 75 – 80 fruit/ tree in two years with an
average weight of 1.5 kg with a TSS of 12 – 13 oBrix.
CO-5
16. This variety is a gynodioecious type and the hybrid was
developed during 1997. It produces 100 – 110 fruits/ tree with
1.0 to 1.5 kg average fruit weight. The fruits are oblong,
attractive, firm red fleshed with a TSS of 12 – 13 oBrix.
CO-7
17. CO-6
It is a selection from variety ‘Giant’ during 1986. The
variety is dioecious, dwarf and suitable for table and papain
purpose. The yield is 80-90 fruit/ tree in two years with
average fruit weight 1.5 to 2.0 kg and TSS of 12 – 13 oBrix.
Pusa Giant
Plants are vigorous, sturdy and tolerant to strong wind. It
is a dioecious cultivar with big sized (2.5 – 3.0 kg) fruits,
suitable for canning industry.
18. Sex Forms
Papaya is a polygamous plant and has many sex
forms. There are three basic sex types – staminate or
male, hermaphrodite and pistillate or female. Of these,
only female is stable whereas flowers of hermaphrodite
and male vary in sex expression under different
environmental conditions. Storey (1958) classified
papaya flowers into eight categories (i) staminate,
(ii) teratological staminate, (iii) reduced elongata,
(iv) elongata, (v) carpelloid elongata, (vi) pentandria,
(vii) carpelloid pentandria and (viii) pistillate.
19. Staminate flower is produced by male plant whereas
teratological staminate flower is produced by sex reversing
male. Type (iii) to (vii) are normally produced by
hermaphrodite plants and type (viii) is produced by female
plant. Since sex expression of male and hermaphrodite
plants varies depending on environmental conditions, male
plants can produce all 8 types of flowers during sex
reversal, while hermaphrodite plants can produce all types
except (i) and (ii). Female plant produces only pistillate
type but, in very rare cases produces bisexual flowers.
Generally, the change of sex of male plant is towards
hermaphrodite and female and neither hermaphrodite
plants produce male flower nor female plants produce
hermaphrodite and male flowers.
20. Anthesis and stigma receptivity
Stigma receptivity in all the species was maximum on
the day of anthesis (Subramanyam and Iyer, 1986).
Inflorescence of Washington papaya emerged 45-48 days
after transplanting (Khuspe and Ugale, 1977).
The period of anthesis depends upon sex forms and is
at peak from 6-9 a.m. anther dehiscence completes
within 18-36 hours before flowers open and stigma
become receptive a day before the flowers open,
remaining receptive for 6 days.
21. Flower Bud Development Studies
The experiment on flower bud development studies
in papaya cv. Pusa Delicious at this institute indicated
that the length of un-open female and hermaphrodite
flowers i.e. 2.9 cm and 4.1 cm, respectively were
recorded. The hermaphrodite ovary is estimated to
initiate at a flower length of 6.1mm while the female
ovary initiates at a flower length of 3.4 mm. The
observation on flower initiation to fruit set were also
recorded. The results show that the average time i.e.
20 days were taken by the female flowers and 32 days
by hermaphrodite flowers.
22. Production Technology
Papaya is normally propagated by seeds. To ensure
the genetic purity, seeds should be procured only from
reliable sources. About, 500 g seeds will be required for
planting one hectare.
Raising of Seedlings
The seedling can be raised by two ways:
(i) The seedling can be raised in nursery beds measuring
3 meter long, 1 meter wide and 10 cm high or in
polythene bags. The seeds should be sown one cm
23. deep in rows 10 cm apart and covered with fine compost or
leaf mould. Light watering with watering can in the
morning hours should be done. The nursery bed may be
covered with polythene sheet or paddy straw or dry straw
mulch to protect the nursery from adverse weather
conditions.
(ii) The seedling are raised in polythene bags of size not
less than 10X20 cm. The polybags are filled to the brim
with a pot mixture made of 2 parts of sand and 1 part each
of soil and well decomposed farm yard manure. To control
nematodes at the nursery stage, application of neem cake
at 100g/ bag is recommended. Nematodes can also be
easily controlled by the application of Carbofuran 3G @
3 g/ polybag at nursery stage.
24. Seedling Protection against Damping Off
(i) Tender seedlings should be protected against heavy
rainfall. The most serious disease in the nursery is
‘damping off’. Treating the seed with 0.1% Monosan
(phenyl mercury acetate) before sowing is the best
preventive measure against this disease. Also the nursery
bed should be treated with 10% formaldehyde solution
before sowing. If this disease appears in the nursery,
Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) should be sprayed. Dusting of
5% BHC powder should be done for protection against
insect pests.
25. Transfer of Seedlings
When the seedlings are growing densely, they can
be transferred to next nursery bed or polythene bags to
avoid overcrowding and further check of growth of the
seedlings. Generally, the seedlings become ready to
transplant in about two months when it is 15-25 cm
high.
26. Planting Season
The season of planting has a great influence on the
growth and fruiting. Seedling planted during the
monsoon, grow taller and bear fruits at higher level on
trunk than those planted in other seasons (Madhava Rao,
1974), thereby increasing the cost of production. In
Deccan, planting in the cold weather induces the fruiting
at the lower height of the trunk. Viruses play havoc in
papaya cultivation. Since, there is no effective control
measure, only alternative left is to avoid the infestation
by checking the vector population during the active
growth stage of plant.
27. The experiment on planting season of papaya cv.
Pusa Delicious was conducted at this institute, the
results shows that among the different months of
planting cv. Pusa Delicious was found to produce
highest yield (58 kg/plant) with better fruit quality i.e.
heavier mean fruit weight (1.68 kg), maximum TSS
(11.2 oBrix), vitamin C (74 mg/100g) and total
carotenoid content (1152 µg/100g) when planted in
September.
28. Plant Spacing
The plant density in papaya plays a vital role in
productivity per unit area. Similar to other fruit crops,
yield per unit area of papaya fruits can also be increased
by increasing plant density. The planting distance in
papaya varies from variety to variety. The experiments
on this aspect conducted at this institute show that
planting of papaya variety Pusa Delicious at 2.0m X 1.8m
spacing produced maximum yield, better light
interception and fruit quality.
29. In case of dioecious varieties of papaya, three
seedlings should be planted in each pit in a
triangular fashion followed by light irrigation. Only
one seedling may be planted with pure
gynodioecious varieties.
30. Aftercare
Proper care should be taken to save the planted
seedlings in the field especially against the insect pests
and heavy rainfall in the beginning. In the frost prone
areas these should be protected with thatches. Some
extra seedlings should also be reserved in the nursery for
gap filling.
Intercropping
In the beginning sufficient space is available
therefore, a leguminous crop can be taken. In north and
eastern parts of India where planting is done in October-
November, a number of crops like onion, maize, potato,
cauliflower, cabbage, spinach etc. are taken in the first
rabi season.
31. Weeding and Hoeing
The weeds grow luxuriantly in the papaya orchard
and exhaust most of the nutrients applied to it. In the
beginning they also compete for light, air, water and
nutrients, which results in poor fruit production.
Therefore, weeding should be done as and when
required specially around the plant.
Deep hoeing is recommended in the first year to
discourage the weed growth. In no case hoeing should
be done in rainy season or after fruit set as papaya is a
shallow rooted crop.
32. Sex Expression and Removal of Unwanted Plants
It is necessary to keep 5 per cent male plants in the
orchard for good pollination where dioecious variety is
cultivated. As soon as the plants flower, the extra male
plants should be uprooted. The hermaphrodite plants
produce good quality fruit, which should not be confused
with male plants while removing them from orchard.
While removing other plants i.e. female or
hermaphrodite only weaker, diseased and dense plants
should be uprooted.
33. Topdressing / Fertilizer Application
Apart from the organic manures given in the pits i.e.
compost – 20 kg, neem cake – 1 kg and bone meal or
fish-meal – 1 kg, topdressing of chemical fertilizers is also
required as papaya is a heavy feeder. The following dose
of fertilizers per fruiting plant has been standardized after
experimentation.
Nitrogen : 250g
Phosphorus : 250g
Potassium : 500g
The above chemical fertilizers should be applied in five
split doses at two-month interval except December and
January months under north Indian conditions.
34. Irrigation
Irrigation in papaya is empirical and not based on
soil plant water relationship. It depends upon the soil
and climatic conditions of the specific region. In north
Indian condition of the country papaya requires
irrigation at 5-7 days interval during summer and 15
days interval in winter. The results of experiment
conducted at this institute shows that the basin method
of irrigation is more efficient as compared to other
methods.
35. Drainage
Papaya plants are very much susceptible to water
logging. Even 24 hours stagnation of water may kill the
well-established orchard. Therefore, it is essential to
make few furrows or trenches for quick and complete
drainage of water during rainy season.
Productive Life
The profitable productive life of papaya is two and a
half years under north Indian condition provided the
crop is well managed.
36. Harvesting and Packing
A good crop may fail if harvesting of fruits is not done
properly due to perishable nature of fruits. The fruits should
be left on the tree until they fully mature, but picked before
it begins to get soft, it is difficult to protect it from birds and
to market it without spoilage. On ripening some varieties
turn to yellow but some of them even remain green. When
the latex ceases to be milky and become watery, the fruit
may be considered suitable for harvesting.
While picking the fruits from the tree, care must be
taken to see that the fruit is not scratched and is free from
any blemishes. Since papaya fruits are easily perishable,
care should be taken to wrap individual fruit in paper before
packing in wooden/ plastic crates surrounded by soft
cushioning material like saw dust or straw.
37. Yield
The fruit yield of papaya varies widely according to
varieties, soil, climate and management of orchard. On
an average yield i.e. 50 to 55 kg per plant can be
obtained for a period of two and a half year crop cycle.
38. Extraction of Papain
Papaya yields papain which is a milky latex. It oozes
out from green fruits when lanced and it contains a
protein–hydrolyzing enzyme (Protease or proteolytic
enzyme). For extraction of papain, the milky latex is
tapped from 70-90 days (from fruit set) mature fruits. It
is collected in the morning up to 10 a.m. on the selected
fruits. Four longitudinal incisions are given using a razor
blade attached to a bamboo splinter. The depth of cut
should be 2-3 mm with cuts running down the length of
the fruit about 3 cm apart. The tapping is repeated four
times on the same fruit at an interval of four days. The
latex is collected in aluminium trays and is shade dried.
39. The dried latex is then powdered and packed in
polythene bags. Before drying, potassium meta-bi-
sulphite (KMS) 0.05% is added to the latex for better
colour and keeping quality. The latex can also be dried
in oven at a temperature of 45-500 C. The average
yield of papain is about 200-350 kg per hectare of
plantation up to two and a half year of age. Yield of
papain is generally low in dry weather, however during
monsoon (July–September) better yield can be
obtained. It can be stored in good condition for a
period of six months by packing in airtight containers.
The varieties suitable for papain extraction are CO2,
CO5, CO6 and Pusa Majesty.
40. Disease and Pest Management
Viruses
Three distinct types of viruses i.e. mosaic/ PRV, leaf
curl and distortion ring spot are found to severely
damage the papaya crop. Since, there is no effective
control measure, only alternative left i.e. to avoid the
infestation by checking the vector population (aphid)
during the active growth stage of plant and use of
insecticides for control of vectors.
41. Stem and Root Rot
On infection, the stem and roots start rotting
and the plants ultimately falls down. As soon as
stem rotting is noticed, the infected portion should
be scrapped and cleaned and then treated with
Bordeaux paste (5:5:20). Incorporation of one kg
lime and 100 g copper sulphate in the pits is an
effective measure to prevent the crop against root
rot.
42. Anthracnose
The southerly and westerly exposed areas of the plant
and fruits are affected due to hot sun. The affected parts of
the fruit show yellow patch, which slowly softens, turns
brown and extends to half portion of the fruit. Later on
black spots and pinkish pustules appear on the enlarged
affected area. The trunk and stem also get scorched on the
side exposed to the sun. Since the disease is associated
with the exposure to the scorching sun, therefore, the
control measures include close planting, judicious irrigation
and covering fruits with gunny bags. Precautionary spray of
Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 at the rate of 0.25% can be
given to control this malady.
43. Bud and Fruit Stalk Rot
This fungal disease affects the dropping of flower
buds and newly born fruits. The pathogen causes the
rot of the stalk and as a result the flowers and new
fruits drop. Spray of Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) or
Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 at the rate of 0.2 to
0.25% can be given to control this disease in the
beginning.
44. Fruit Rot
Fruit rot fungus causes the fruits to rot. The control of
the disease lies in spray of Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50)
and providing good drainage.
Red Spider Mite
Red spider mite attacks the leaf and the fruit. In
severe cases the new leaf becomes distorted, which is
often confused with the virus. This can be controlled by
dusting with sulphur dust or spraying of 0.1 % Kelthane.
45. Nematodes
The reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis) is a
serious pest of papaya. This results in stunted plants and
reduced fruit production. In severe cases the leaves
become yellow, dry and fall down. The nematode may be
detected on well-washed root as a tiny grain of sand like
body attached to its surface. The soil application of
ethylene dibromide at the rate of 3 quintals per hectare
can control this problem effectively. To control nematodes
at the nursery stage, application of neem cake at 100g/
bag is recommended. Nematodes can also be easily
controlled by the application of Carbofuran 3G @ 3 g/
polybag at nursery stage.
46. Seed Production
Non-availability of sufficient quantity of pure seed has been a
major constraint in commercial production of papaya. In open
pollination, production of pure seed is not possible because of
its high isolation distance requirements. The papaya growers
should pay adequate attention for need to maintain the genetic
purity of seeds. The pure seed should either be produced under
controlled condition or in isolation. Under controlled condition,
sib mating should be followed. In this process the flowers of
female plant should be crossed with the pollen of male flower of
the same dioecious variety. Under isolation condition, a single
variety should be grown at a distance of 400 to 1000 m
depending on local conditions and the activity of vectors. If the
suitable isolation distance is not available, seed production may
be done inside any tall growing orchard like mango, litchi,
cashew, sapota and ber. These tall fruit trees act as a physical
barrier against contamination by foreign pollen.
47. Papaya Products
Considering the importance of papaya it can be
utilized in different ways viz. petha, papaya jam, papaya
jelly, papaya kheer, papaya halwa, papaya burfee,
papaya rayata, papaya pickle, papaya squash and
papaya nectar. Thus the surplus produce can be
preserved and brought to daily use.