Electricity generation, distribution and transmissionAshar143
COMSATS Institute of Information and Technology, Sahiwal
Department of Electrical Engineering
Prepared By: Umaiz Ahmad and Yasir Zulfiqar
CONTACT:
+92-321-7899091
+92-336-0006247
A complete slide to teach you about basics of electrical power transmission with a lot of images. Including basic definition, one-line diagram, economy, various types of conductors, towers, poles, insulators and problems regarding transmission system. It also includes questions and discussions to clear the concept. Whole slides is written in point form, so you can catch the main concept about transmission system easily
Electricity generation, distribution and transmissionAshar143
COMSATS Institute of Information and Technology, Sahiwal
Department of Electrical Engineering
Prepared By: Umaiz Ahmad and Yasir Zulfiqar
CONTACT:
+92-321-7899091
+92-336-0006247
A complete slide to teach you about basics of electrical power transmission with a lot of images. Including basic definition, one-line diagram, economy, various types of conductors, towers, poles, insulators and problems regarding transmission system. It also includes questions and discussions to clear the concept. Whole slides is written in point form, so you can catch the main concept about transmission system easily
Analysis and Modeling of Transformerless Photovoltaic Inverter SystemsIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
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This ppt is made for the subject Machine Design. Here the basic types, equipment, designs of substation is described with the preocess and calculation of designing a transformer also.
As power factor falls below unity the current
in the system increases with the following effects: I
2R power
loss increases in cables and windings leading to overheating
and consequent reduction in equipment life; cost incurred by
power company increases and efficiency as a whole suffers
because more of the input is absorbed in meeting losses.
Distribution losses cost the utilities a very big amount of profit
and reduce life of equipment. The system is considered as
efficient when the loss level is low. So, attempts at power loss
minimization in order to reduce electricity cost, and improve
the efficiency of distribution systems are continuously made.
This paper investigates the losses in a 34-bus distribution
system and how the installation of capacitors at some points in
the system can significantly reduce losses in circuits and cables,
ensure that the rated voltage is applied to motors, lamps, etc, to
obtain optimum performance, ensure maximum power output
of transformers is utilized and not used in making-up losses,
enables existing transformers to carry additional load without
overheating or the necessity of capital cost of new
transformers, and achieve the financial benefits which will
result from lower maximum demand charges
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In recent years the complexity of the grid systems has grown due to the increased
penetration of renewable energy and distributed generation sources. The increased complexity
requires new methods to quickly manage the changing sources and loads. This research focuses
on one of such technologies, called the SST. A SST uses power electronic devices to achieve
voltage conversion from one level to another. Several SST topologies have been proposed by
different research groups, without a clear idea on which is most suited for grid applications.To
ensure a proper choice of topology,a separate literature review is presented in this paper. The final
choice of topology is extremely modular. In this, conventional dc-dc converter of solid state transformer is replaced by SEPIC converter and the analysis is done using PMSG.
Here This is the different between Smart and digital Transformer.And the definition of Smart transformer that may helpful for Student for nice presentation.
This presentation includes all recent data of power plants in Pakistan, grid stations data, length of transmission lines and energy solution to present crisis
Analysis and Modeling of Transformerless Photovoltaic Inverter SystemsIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
Design of substation (with Transformer Design) SayanSarkar55
This ppt is made for the subject Machine Design. Here the basic types, equipment, designs of substation is described with the preocess and calculation of designing a transformer also.
As power factor falls below unity the current
in the system increases with the following effects: I
2R power
loss increases in cables and windings leading to overheating
and consequent reduction in equipment life; cost incurred by
power company increases and efficiency as a whole suffers
because more of the input is absorbed in meeting losses.
Distribution losses cost the utilities a very big amount of profit
and reduce life of equipment. The system is considered as
efficient when the loss level is low. So, attempts at power loss
minimization in order to reduce electricity cost, and improve
the efficiency of distribution systems are continuously made.
This paper investigates the losses in a 34-bus distribution
system and how the installation of capacitors at some points in
the system can significantly reduce losses in circuits and cables,
ensure that the rated voltage is applied to motors, lamps, etc, to
obtain optimum performance, ensure maximum power output
of transformers is utilized and not used in making-up losses,
enables existing transformers to carry additional load without
overheating or the necessity of capital cost of new
transformers, and achieve the financial benefits which will
result from lower maximum demand charges
basic electrical and electronics engg. components of LT switch gear, switch fuse unit, MCB, MCCB, ELCB, TYPES OF WIRES AND CABLES, ELECTRICAL EARTHING, TYPES OF BATTERIES,
MATLAB Simulink for single phase PWM inverter in an uninterrupted power supplyIJMER
Now a day’s Uninterrupted power supply is very necessary for industry, and domestic purpose.
This paper presents the design and implementation of UPS for using personal computer. Here solar
energy is used for charging the battery in sunny days and in absence of solar energy it will automatically
connect to main AC supply. Also MATLAB simulation work is done for PWM single phase inverter and
full bridge rectifier.. Here microcontroller is used for switching between solar plate and main AC supply
to Battery. By using this method we can save our electricity bill which is consumed in charging of battery
Distribution System Voltage Drop and Power Loss CalculationAmeen San
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Calculation
Comparison of Overhead Versus Underground System
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ANALYSIS OF SOLID STATE TRANSFORMER WITH PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOREditor IJMTER
In recent years the complexity of the grid systems has grown due to the increased
penetration of renewable energy and distributed generation sources. The increased complexity
requires new methods to quickly manage the changing sources and loads. This research focuses
on one of such technologies, called the SST. A SST uses power electronic devices to achieve
voltage conversion from one level to another. Several SST topologies have been proposed by
different research groups, without a clear idea on which is most suited for grid applications.To
ensure a proper choice of topology,a separate literature review is presented in this paper. The final
choice of topology is extremely modular. In this, conventional dc-dc converter of solid state transformer is replaced by SEPIC converter and the analysis is done using PMSG.
Here This is the different between Smart and digital Transformer.And the definition of Smart transformer that may helpful for Student for nice presentation.
This presentation includes all recent data of power plants in Pakistan, grid stations data, length of transmission lines and energy solution to present crisis
ABB's expertise in power transmission systems and electrical optimization,grid reliability and blackout prevention offer sustainable solutions to the challenges of today, and tomorrow. From Flexible Alternate Current Transmission systems that enhance the security, capactity and flexibility of power transmission networks to HVDC power superhighways , there are comparatively inexpensive and faster ways to provide more power and control in existing networks.
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Production and distribution of electricity
1. Production and Distribution of
Electricity
http://www.flickr.com/photos/31119160@N06/8007585111/
Vesa Linja-aho — Spring 2013
2. Technical details of the course
Classes:
Mon 14:00-16:45 @ ETYA1124 (Leppävaara)
Wed 14:00-15:45 @ G406 (Kallio)
Excursion: Ensto Group @ Porvoo, Tuesday 5 th
of February 2013 at 10:00-12:40
We must depart at about 8:30 and we’ll be back
at about 13:30, more information about
transportation will follow later.
The final exam is on Monday 25 th of February
Attending the class is not mandatory, but highly
recommended.
All course material will be shared through Tuubi
2
3. About me
Vesa Linja-aho, M. Sc. in electrical and electronics
engineering.
Professional background:
7 years at Aalto university (research and teaching)
1 year in Computerworld Finland magazine (editor)
3 years at Metropolia, senior lecturer in automotive
electronics.
firstname.lastname@metropolia.fi, +358404870869
My office is at Kalevankatu 43, Helsinki
3
5. Why…
is electric power usually generated in large
plants instead of local generators?
are high voltage levels used in power
transmission and distribution?
is alternating current used in power
transmission and distribution?
5
6. It is fairly easy to distribute electricity
with low losses
The distribution losses (from plant to end
user), for distances of couple of hundreds of
kilometers, are couple of percents (< 5 %).
There are certain advantages with large-scale
production of electricity
Emission control
Large electric machines have an efficiency
near 100 %.
6
7. Homework
Read the following article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Currents
We will discuss it on Monday
7
8. Homework
Read the following article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Currents
We will discuss it on Monday
8
9. War of Currents
Why was DC more common in the very early
power systems?
What inventions lead to the victory of AC?
Why was DC transmission inferior to AC
transmission?
How about the future? Does DC have any
advantages?
9
10. Three-phase system
http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin%28
2*pi*50*t%29%2C+sin%282*pi*50*t%2B2pi*
%281%2F3%29%29%2C+sin%282*pi*50*t%2B
2pi*%282%2F3%29%29
Smooth power flow
The currents cancel each other -> saves wiring
material.
Rotating magnetic field -> easy to design
electric machines.
10
11. AC
Pros
Easy to change the voltage level with
transformers.
Arcing will cease automatically (zero-point)
Cons
Ventricular fibrillation hazard
Losses via inductive and capacitive coupling
11
12. DC
Pros
Low losses with long distances
Modern electronic and electric appliances use
DC.
Many alternative power sources output DC
Easy to use with batteries
Cons
Changing the voltage level is not simple
This is changing with development of power
electronics.
Arcing hazard
Efficient electric generators produce AC by
nature.
12
13. Second coming of DC?
Using DC in buildings can result in 10-20 %
savings.
Solar panels, wind power, fuel cells, …
Greater capacity for power lines
Lower EMI.
13
14. The change is slow
The life cycle of the main components (cables
and transformers) is very long
For underground cables: 100 years
For transformers overhead power lines > 50
years.
14
16. How much power and how far?
110 kV: tens of megawatts for about 100 km.
20 kV: couple of megawatts for about 20-30
km.
16
17. The pricing
The cost of the transmission is typically 15-50
% of the total price of the electricity. (average
for consumers: 30 %).
17
18. What if I used a personal generator?
Cost of fuel?
Heat of Combustion?
Cost of equipment?
Efficiency?
18
19. Environmental aspects in distribution and
transmission of electricity
Landscape protection
Wood preservation agents
Transformer oil leaks
SF 6 in circuit breakers
Noise
19
20. Landscape protection
Where to put the power lines?
On open fields?
In the forest?
Next to roads?
Under ground?
20 kV:
uninsulated: 20 k€/km
coated: 26 k€/km
underground: 43-100 k€/km
20
21. Tricks for landscape protection
When crossing a road, hide the poles in the
forest.
In hilly landscape, locate the line so that it’s
silhouette is not against the sky.
By using coated wires, the line can be made
more compact and the wires can be
camouflaged.
21
22. Wood preservation agents
20 kV and 110 kV lines usually have wooden
poles (they are cheap).
Preservation agents raise the life cycle of the
poles from 10 years to over 50 years.
Chrome, copper and arsenic (CCA)
preservation agents are forbidden in new
constructions and they are handled as toxic
waste.
Creosote oil is toxic also, but it is currently the
best option
Experimental: Pine oil and other oils.
22
23. Transformer oil
Transformer oil is an insulator and coolant.
Large substation transformers have a leakage
pool under them, but small pole transformers
do not (and they can contain 30-300 liters of
oil).
Leakage to ground water is a large risk, but oil
leaks are very rare.
In areas with ground water, dry and resin-
insulated transformers can be used to
eliminate the risk.
23
24. SF 6 - Sulfur hexafluoride
Used as insulating agent in circuit breakers
very strong insulator
arc-suppressive
does not corrode switchgear
Very strong greenhouse gas
24
26. Noise
50 Hz / 60 Hz hum
High voltage switchgear
26
27. Electric and magnetic fields
Lot of research is done and AC electric power
lines have existed for 100 years.
The safety limits have a lot of overhead
Currently:
there is no scientific evidence on
harmfullness of low frequency fields (with
low intensity)
same concerns the cell phone radiation
27
28. How to increase efficiency?
Raise the voltage
Use an extra 1 kV step in distibution (for
distances of couple of kilometers).
28
29. Environmental aspects of Electricity
Production
Heat
CO 2
Particles
Accidents
Water usage
Nuclear waste
Mining and refining
Loss of land
…
29
30. Most significant sources in the world
Coal 41 %
Natural Gas 21 %
Hydroelectric 16 %
Nuclear 13 %
Oil 5 %
Other 3 %
30
32. Efficiency
Depends greatly on the fact is the extra heat
used for district heat or similar (cogeneration).
For simple coal or nuclear power plant, the
efficiency is about 33 %.
For combined cycle gas turbine plants, the
efficiency is over 50 %.
If the waste heat is used for district heating,
the total efficiency can be over 80 %.
32
33. Environmental aspects of Electricity
Production
Heat
CO 2
Particles
Accidents
Water usage
Nuclear waste
Mining and refining
Loss of land
…
33
34. Most significant sources in the world
Coal 41 %
Natural Gas 21 %
Hydroelectric 16 %
Nuclear 13 %
Oil 5 %
Other 3 %
34
36. Efficiency
Depends greatly on the fact is the extra heat
used for district heat or similar (cogeneration).
For simple coal or nuclear power plant, the
efficiency is about 33 %.
For combined cycle gas turbine plants, the
efficiency is over 50 %.
If the waste heat is used for district heating,
the total efficiency can be over 80 %.
36
37. Examples of power output
Average electric power in world: 2,3 TW
Average electric power in Finland: 10 GW
Hoover Dam (1936): 2 GW
Three Gorges Dam (2008): 22,5 GW
Petäjäskoski (Finland’s largest HPP): 182 MW
Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP: 8,2 GW
Olkiluoto NPP 1,2 GW
Additional 1,6 GW in construction
Inkoo CPP: 1 GW
37
38. Fossil fuel power generation
Basic idea: burn something, generate steam for
turbine.
Efficiency: 33-48 %
38
46. Turbogenerators
Large electric generators can achieve over 99 %
efficiency , if cooled with hydrogen.
Why hydrogen?
Low density
High specific heat and thermal conductivity
Rotating speed: typically 3000 or 1500 rpm
Output voltage typically 2-30 kV and output
power up to 2 GW.
46
47. Elements of the transmission and
distribution system
Substations
Transformers
Protective equipment
Transmission and distribution lines
47
48. Transmission and distribution voltage
400 kV
220 kV
110 kV
(45 kV)
20 kV
(10 kV)
(1 kV)
400 V (230 V between neutral and phase)
48
49. Other voltage levels in Finland
25 kV (railway overhead lines)
750 VDC (subway)
600 VDC (tram overhead lines)
Estlink HVDC: 150 kV
Fenno-Skan 1: HVDC: 400 kV
Fenno-Skan 2: HVDC: 500 kV
Damaged by ship anchor Feb 2012
Estimated damage to electricity consumers: 80 M€
49
51. Insulators
The length of the insulator is about 1 m / 100
kV
110 kV: 6-8 insulator disks
220 kV: 10-12 insulator disks
400 kV: 18-21 insulator disks
20 kV lines have usually small pin insulators,
or couple of disks.
Near the insulator, there are vibration
suppression plates on the wire
Insulators may have a thin conductive coating,
for de-icing the insulators.
Arcing horns protect the insulator from
significant over voltage
51
52. Voltage drop in distribution
In cities: 2-3 %
In rural areas: 5 %
According to SFS-EN 50160, the voltage can
vary +6 %/-10 % (207-244 V).
52
53. Reliability
90 % of blackouts are caused by middle voltage
network failures. Under 10 % are from low-
voltage network. High-voltage network
failures are very infrequent.
Automatic fast reconnect typically solve 75 %
of the failures. Delayed reconnect will solve 15
% of the failures and the remaining 10 %
require repair work.
53
54. Electric safety in Finland
Electric work is regulated
Typical: degree from vocational school + 1
year of experience.
Electric safety course every 5 years.
In the company, a nominated head of electric
work, who has
a degree (vocational, bachelor or master)
0.5-2 years of electric work experience
passed the electric safety examination
54
55. Three classes of electric qualification
EQ 1 (general).
EQ 2 (low-voltage).
EQ 3 (low-voltage repair).
55
56. Electric deaths in Finland (moving average)
non-professionals
professionals
56
57. Electric deaths in Finland
2012
Electric shock from railway wire
2011
Electric shock from railway wire
2010
Young electrician died when measuring a
newly built transmission line.
A person died from a shock from self-
repaired extension cord.
Electric shock from railway wire.
A detail: last time a small child has died in
electric accident was in year 1996.
57
58. Most common causes for electric accidents
Plain stupidity (railway wires)
Self-made dangerous connections (protect
earth misconnected).
Professionals do not follow the safety
regulations
Typical one: after disconnecting the voltage,
the electrician does not verify that the
installation is really dead.
58
59. Electric network in buildings
Small buildings: 400 V / 230 V
Larger buildings: own 20 kV transformer
Industry: 110 kV input
59
60. Approximating the peak power: one way
One way:
Lighting: 10 W/m 2
Appliances: 6 kW for < 75 m 2, 7,5 kW for >
75 m 2
+ power of sauna
The other way:
Like the first, but appliances: 6 kW + 20
W/m 2
With electric heating:
the total maximum power heating power of
the radiators, 3 kW for appliances
60
61. Structure of the network
All wall sockets are grounded (since 1997).
Three-wire system
Wiring color system:
Black (or brown or purple or white) = live
Blue = neutral
Yellow-green: protect earth
61
64. Basic protection
The ”traditional” wall socket and plug.
For new buildings, illegal since 1997.
The appliances can be used.
Problem: single insulation fault can make the
chassis live.
64
65. Protect earth
The chassis of the equipment is grounded
If the PE wire is intact, there is no way the
chassis would hold a dangerous voltage.
Ground fault will blow the fuse
65
66. Safety insulation (Class II)
All devices to be sold in EU are either Class I
or Class II devices (or Class III with extra low
voltage).
In Class II, no single fault can make the
chassis live.
66
67. RCD
residual-current device (RCD) = residual-
current circuit breaker (RCCB) = ground fault
condition interrupter (GFCI), ground fault
interrupter (GFI) or an appliance leakage
current interrupter (ALCI)
Monitors the current difference between live
and neutral connectors.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/9/91/Fi-rele2.gif
Mandatory in new installations (with certain
exceptions)
67
69. Benefits of centralized production
Economics of scale
Higher efficiency
Low-loss transmission
Reliability
Environment (plants away from cities)
69
70. Why distributed production?
Less pollution
Better total efficiency
More diverse energy source distribution
Easier placement of power plants
Back up generation
Generation during power peaks
Price level of power generators has decreased
and will decrease
70
72. Less pollution
”Free” fuel (hydroelectric, wind)
Production near the end user less
transmission losses.
Easier cogeneration
72
73. Economic benefits
Lower threshold for entering the market
Modularity and easy expandability
Faster construction
Lower capital costs
73
74. Support from the state
Subvention for production
Tax relief
Product development aid
Obligation for network company to buy the
electricity in fixed price.
74
75. Examples
Small wind farm
Small CHP for greenhouses
Fuel cell, solar, combustion engine or
microturbine plant
75
76. Challenges
The network sees a generator as a negative
load.
The voltage at the end of the line will rise ->
less losses.
Sizing of the wire can usually not be altered.
Very high power output can cause problem
with overvoltage.
The protection equipment should be aware of
the generation.
76
77. Group work
Article: Rural Electrification in Developing
Countries. From book Lakervi, Partanen:
Sähkönjakelutekniikka. 3. ed. 2008. Otatieto.
Pp. 286—295.
77
78. Rural electrification (in developing
countries)
Form three groups and each group will take
one topic:
Social aspects in rural electrification
Economical aspects in rural electrification
Technical aspects in rural electrification
Read from the article (about 20 minutes): intro
+ one of the chapters (area data, economical
issues or technologies applied)
It is great if your add aspects from your home
country, was it industrialized or developing
country. Write down your findings.
After this, one will stay at the group and the
others will go to next table.
78
79. Rural electrification in developing
countries
About 4 billion people have access to
electricity (of 7 billion people).
Social impact.
Economic impact.
Environmental impact.
79
80. Conditions vary considerably
Some relatively poor countries have high
percentage in rural electrification (Costa Rica,
Tunisia).
80
81. Area data
Small houses + lamps = 100-200 W / person
Refridgerators & TV:s = 400-500 W / person
Electric heating of small houses = 1000-1500
W / person.
If cooking is included = practically same as in
industrialized countries.
81
82. Solutions
Hydroelectric power, if available, is the best
solution (almost zero maintenance).
Diesel unit a popular choice.
82
83. Challenges
Governmental intervention accelerate the
electrification process.
In turn, governmental intervention may include
corruption.
For sustainable distribution systems, a long-
term financial balance is necessary.
A well-functioning supply of electricity
promotes social stability.
83
84. Challenges
The wealthy demand high reliability and
voltage stability.
The poor demand low tariffs and fast
progression of electrification.
84
85. Smart Grid
Grid + modern automation technology + ICT =
smart grid.
Smart grid is a bunch of technologies to make
grid more reliable, efficient and flexible.
85
87. Problems with traditional grids
How to cope with demand peaks?
Use peaking generators.
Black out certain areas.
Suffer from low power quality.
Reliability in crisis situations:
Power distribution is pretty sensitive to
terrorist attacks.
Reading the electricity meters costs
manpower.
87
88. Solutions
Here already: smart metering.
Dynamic demand management: for large
customers.
Real-time electricity pricing: in power peak,
raise the price in real time until the demand
sags.
88
90. Efficiency
Many high-power equipment work with duty
cycle (they run with full power or are off).
Example: many air conditioning units.
Making these equipment demand-aware can
reduce the peak power requirement without
impact to the end user.
Another example: a popular tv-show begins.
Demand-aware tv sets would have small delay
for powering on and they operate with reduced
brightness, so that the power plants have time
to increase their output.
90
92. Sustainability
Large amounts of renewable energy need
sophisticated network automation.
For example, solar power output changes
suddenly.
92
93. Charging electric vehicles
When electric vehicles become more general,
they will impact the sizing of the grid.
During demand peaks, it is reasonable to pause
the charging.
93
94. Concerns and challenges
Privacy: who can access your electricity usage
data?
Complex tariff system – easy to unfairly trick
the customers.
Remote shutdown of electric supply.
RF emissions (although not scientifically
confirmed, people are afraid of them).
Cyberterrorism
Relatively high cost of investment
94
95. Asset management in electricity
distribution
Grid development
Grid maintenance
Grid operation
95
96. Grid development process
Based on the network strategy (environment,
basic principles, present state, main measures
for development)
96
97. The current state of the network
Voltage drop
Voltage elasticity (= how much does the
voltage drop when adding more power demand
to certain point).
Loading of the wires
Power losses
Short circuit / earth fault currents
Cost of power interruptions
97
98. Investment planning and prioritization
If the yearly growth of the load is small, the
driving factor for reconstruction is the useful
life of the network components.
The most important goal is to keep the grid to
qualify the requirements of legislation.
The task is a complex optimization process.
98
99. Grid maintenance
Fixing maintenance
Preventive maintenace
TBM = time based maintenance
CBM = condition based maintenance
RBM = reliability based maintenance
99
101. Reliability based maintenance
According to safety standards, overhead power
lines must be inspected every 5 years.
The inspection data is used to decide when to,
for example, renew the pylons.
101
102. Examples of routine maintenance
Clearance of the right-of-way of the power
lines.
Monitoring the oil temp of transformers
Thermal imaging
102
103. Grid operation
Grid operation = maintaining the short-term
power quality, safety, customert service quality
and economy.
The operation is lead from control room
…which can be the operator’s laptop .
The head of operation has very strict liability
of the electric and work safety.
103
104. Main functions of grid operation
Follow-up and control of the grid state.
Planning the operation procedures of the grid
Fault management
Practical arrangements for maintenance of the
grid components
104
105. Monitoring the grid
High voltage and middle voltage network is
highly automated.
The low voltage network is not. The only way
the operator gets the information of the fault,
is usually customer report.
The situation is changing, thanks to AMR
systems.
105
106. High voltage, middle voltage, low voltage
In terms of electric safety:
High voltage = HV: > 1000 VAC, > 1500 VDC
Low voltage = LV: > 50 VAC, > 120 VDC
Extra low voltage: ELV: < 50 VAC, < 120 VDC
In terms of electricity distribution:
Middle voltage: 1…45 kV
106
107. SCADA
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition:
Logging the events
Control of the state of the switches in grid.
Remote control
Distant reading
Reporting
SCADA = high reliability information system
for operating the grid
107
108. Communications
Radio link
Optical fiber (sometimes with 110 kV shield
wires).
DLC (Distribution Line Carrier):
20 kV, 3-5 kHz carrier. Will pass the
distribution transformers.
Typical application: day/night tariff control.
In low-voltage network, a carrier of 150-200
kHz is used.
108
109. Power quality (SFS-EN 50160)
Frequency (+/- 1 %)
Voltage (+10 %, - 15 %)
Fast transients
Voltage dips
Transient overvoltage (1,5 kV, 6 kV)
Short blackouts (< 3 min)
Long blackouts
Harmonics
109