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Prinecomi lectureppt ch06
- 1. The Efficiency of Marketsand the Costs of Taxation6
- 2. Previously • A priceceiling is a legal maximum price. • A price floor is a legal minimum price. • If binding, these price controls don’t allow the market to reach equilibrium. • Shortages or surpluses will be the result.
- 3. Big Questions 1. Whatare consumer surplus and producer surplus? 2. When is a market efficient? 3. Why do taxes create deadweight loss?
- 4. Practice What YouKnow— Dutch Auction • Dutch auction (video) –Auction where the only bidder (the first bidder) is the winner. –Prices start high, and fall. –The first one to bid at the current price wins.
- 5. Practice What YouKnow— Dutch Auction • Dutch auction (in class) –Let’s auction off this bundle of goods. –What would you pay? –Remember that the first person to bid wins the auction, but the prices go from high to low!
- 6. Consumer and Producer Surplus •Welfare economics –The study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being • Recall that markets create value. –Economic welfare is composed of two measures of market value: • Consumer surplus • Producer surplus
- 7. Consumer Surplus • Intuitionof willingness to pay? • If the actual price of the textbook is $151, which buyer(s) will purchase the book?
- 8. Consumer Surplus • Consumersurplus – Difference between willingness to pay for a good and the price actually paid to get the good • At price = $151 – Only Beanie buys the book. • He gets $49 worth of consumer surplus. – Why don’t Mitch and Frank buy the book?
- 9. Using Demand toIllustrate Consumer Surplus
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- 12. Producer Surplus • Willingnessto sell determined by: – Direct costs – Opportunity costs • Question: – If the market price of tutoring is $25, which sellers will choose to tutor? Seller Willingness to sell tutoring services Beanie $30 / hour Mitch $20 / hour Frank $10 / hour
- 13. Producer Surplus • Producersurplus – Difference between willingness to sell a good and the price actually received for that good • At price = $25 – Mitch and Frank decide to tutor. • Frank gets $15 worth of producer surplus per hour. • Mitch gets $5 worth of producer surplus per hour. – Why doesn’t Beanie tutor? Seller Willingness to sell tutoring services Beanie $30 / hour Mitch $20 / hour Frank $10 / hour
- 14. Using Supply toIllustrate Producer Surplus
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- 17. Economics in JustGo With It • This clip illustrates willingness to buy, willingness to sell, consumer surplus, and producer surplus.
- 18. Consumer and Producer Surplus •Consumer surplus graphically: – The height of the demand curve is our maximum willingness to pay for that unit of the good. – Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, for all units purchased. • Important concept: – You can only get consumer surplus on units that you actually buy! – CS is NOT the entire area under the demand curve.
- 19. Consumer and Producer Surplus •Producer surplus graphically: – The height of the supply curve is the firm’s lowest price it is willing to accept to sell that unit of the good. – Producer surplus is the area above the supply curve and below the price, for all units sold. • Important concept: – The firm can only get producer surplus on units that it actually sells! – PS is NOT the entire area above the supply curve.
- 20. Market Efficiency • Totalsurplus (or social welfare) measures the overall welfare of the society. – Total surplus = CS + PS • In free markets with voluntary trade: – Consumers buy until their willingness to pay is equal to the market price. – Suppliers sell until their willingness to sell is equal to the market price. • Efficiency – Occurs when total surplus is maximized in a market
- 21. CS and PSfor a Gallon of Milk
- 22. The Efficiency EquityDebate • In free markets, both parties of self-interested individuals will benefit from trade. • Benefits might not be equal. Is that a problem? • Efficiency asks: – Are the gains from trade maximized? Is economic welfare maximized? • Equity asks: – Are the benefits divided fairly?
- 23. Economics in The EllenDegeneres Show • This clip illustrates the concept of re-gifting. • Gifts can sometimes result in inefficiency. A person may receive a $100 gift that he would have only been willing to pay $60 for. This is a $40 loss! • Thus, he gives the gift to someone else.
- 24. Taxation, Welfare, and DeadweightLoss • Why do we pay taxes? – Pay for public goods, police, roads, schools, etc. • Types of taxes – Income, payroll, corporate, sales, excise, estate • Excise tax – A tax on a specific good; alcohol, tobacco, gasoline, for example • Tax incidence – Refers to the party (consumers or producers) who bears the tax burden
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- 27. End Result • Ifa tax is levied on a business: – The firm will attempt to raise prices to pass some of the burden to consumers. • If a tax is levied on consumers: – Some of the burden is passed to producers since the market price falls. • Incidence – Whether the tax is levied on the producer or consumer, the end incidence result is the same!
- 28. Deadweight Loss • Onthe previous graphs, the tax had a price and quantity effect. – Prices increased. – Quantity traded decreased. • Deadweight loss: – A cost to society in the form of less economic welfare resulting from the tax. – Caused by the decrease in the amount of trade that is occurring.
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- 30. Tax and DeadweightLoss with Inelastic Demand • Tax incidence is the same no matter who the tax is levied on. – Elasticity of demand and supply can change tax incidence, though. • Why would the government want to tax a good with very inelastic demand? – No substitutes (ensures steady tax revenue) – Amount of purchases will not change much (or not change at all if perfectly inelastic demand) • This means little or no deadweight loss!
- 31. Tax and DeadweightLoss with Perfectly Inelastic Demand
- 32. Tax and DeadweightLoss with Somewhat Elastic Demand
- 33. Tax and DeadweightLoss with Perfectly Elastic Demand
- 34. Balancing Deadweight Loss andTax Revenues • Must ask: What is the purpose of tax? – Gain tax revenues? – Decrease production or consumption of good (perhaps to reduce negative externalities)? • Ireland, 2002 – 15 cent tax on plastic bags – Purpose was to curb litter, encourage recycling – Plastic bag use fell by 90%.
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- 36. Excise Tax Summary 1.The total welfare is the same, whether a tax is levied on the consumer or the producer. 2. A tax on a good with inelastic demand or supply generates the maximum amount of revenue. 3. The deadweight loss of a tax is larger when demand and supply are more elastic. 4. The incidence of a tax is determined by the relative balance between the elasticity of supply and the elasticity of demand.
- 37. Smoking Tax vs.Smoking Ban • Why would we ever tax a good if it reduces efficiency in the market by creating deadweight loss? • Two possible reasons to tax a good: – Raise tax revenues to fund a public service – Decrease production/consumption of that good • How could we decrease smoking most effectively? – Public smoking bans – High cigarette taxes?
- 38. Smoking Tax vs.Smoking Ban • Public smoking bans: – Cigarette prices remain the same. – Substitute of “smoking at home” available – Unintended consequence of more children exposed to secondhand smoke • Cigarette taxes – Taxes would have to be very high (inelastic demand). – High enough taxes would decrease smoking everywhere and generate large tax revenues.
- 39. Deadweight Loss andTax Revenue
- 40. Deadweight Loss andTax Revenue
- 41. Deadweight Loss andTax Revenue
- 42. Deadweight Loss andTax Revenue
- 43. Balancing DWL andTax Revenues • Intuition: – If tax rates are too low or too high, revenue will be low. – There is an optimal tax rate to be found. • Later in the course: – The Laffer curve will be discussed. – This is the parabolic relationship between tax rates and tax revenue.
- 44. Conclusion • Consumer andproducer surplus can be used to examine any economic activity. • Unregulated markets create the largest possible total surplus. • Taxation is not a costless endeavor. The taxation of specific goods and services gives rise to deadweight loss, which results in the reduction of economic activity. • Society must balance the need for tax revenues, the programs those revenues fund, and trade- offs this creates in the market.
- 45. Summary • Total surplus(social welfare) is the combined benefits that all members of society enjoy from undertaking an activity. – Total surplus = CS + PS • Markets maximize consumer and producer surplus, provide goods and services to buyers who value them most, and reward sellers who can produce goods and services at the lowest cost. – As a result, markets create the largest amount of social welfare possible.
- 46. Summary • Whenever anallocation of resources maximizes total surplus, the result is said to be efficient. • “Equity” refers to the fairness of the distribution of the benefits among the members of a society. –Efficiency does not imply equity.
- 47. Summary • Deadweight lossis the cost to society created by tax inefficiencies. • The amount of revenue a tax generates is maximized when the good that is taxed is inelastic. • The Laffer curve provides a limit on the expansion of taxation. – Tax revenues peek at moderate rates, where the trade-off from higher taxes is exactly offset by the loss of economic activity.
- 48. Practice What YouKnow The height of the demand curve at any quantity can be thought of as the ___________. a. willingness to buy b. willingness to sell c. consumer surplus d. producer surplus
- 49. Practice What YouKnow The difference between the price the good was sold at and the minimum price the firm would have accepted for the good is called a. willingness to sell. b. product markup. c. producer surplus. d. price-cost margin.
- 50. Practice What YouKnow Deadweight loss can be thought of as surplus that is transferred from producers or consumers and given to __________. a. the government b. competitors in other markets c. taxpayers d. nobody
- 51. Practice What YouKnow If the government wants to create tax revenues without generating any deadweight loss, what type of good should they tax? a. a good with a perfectly elastic demand b. a good with a relatively elastic demand c. a good with a perfectly inelastic demand d. a good with a relatively inelastic demand
- 52. Practice What YouKnow According to the Laffer curve, increasing tax rates a. will always increase tax revenue. b. could increase or decrease tax revenue. c. will always decrease tax revenue. d. will never change tax revenues.
Editor's Notes
- #4 Lecture notes: Unregulated Market: no government interference Deadweight loss (DWL): can be used as a rough measure of economic inefficiency. If DWL exists, the market is inefficient, and all possible gains from trade are NOT being captured.
- #5 Lecture tip: The clip mentioned on the slide can be found in the Interactive Instructor’s Guide. Access the direct link by clicking the icon in the PowerPoint above.
- #6 Lecture tip: Bring a small bundle of goods to class, and keep the receipt! Examples: Milk and donut holes Soda and PopTarts Soda and chips Burger and fries (if possible) Start by listing a high price, and then list smaller and smaller prices until someone says YES! That person is the winner, and must pay the price. There is only one bidder. Then, show the receipt to the student and class. Chances are, they paid MORE than you did. The instructor got producer surplus. However, the student may have been willing to pay more than he actually did, so the student probably got consumer surplus!!
- #7 Lecture notes: Although “welfare” may sometimes have a negative connotation, think of “economic welfare” as a measure of how well off or how efficient the market is. Higher economic welfare means more gains from trade are being realized.
- #8 Lecture notes: Here we have 3 buyers and their willingness to pay for an economics textbook. Willingness to pay (WTP) is pretty self-explanatory. How much are you willing to pay (at most) for a good or service? Different people have different demands, so WTP is different for different people. Some people have more money, or may really enjoy the good, so they are willing to pay more. Other people have less money, or don’t like the good as much, so their WTP is less. If the price is $151, only Beanie will buy the book.
- #9 Lecture notes: Beanie is WILLING to pay $200 for the book, so having the price be ONLY $151 is a good deal for him. He purchases the book, and spends $49 LESS than what he was WILLING to spend! This difference is called consumer surplus. Mitch and Frank’s WTP is less than the $151 price, so they do not purchase the book. If they did, they would experience negative consumer surplus. Trade is voluntary, and Mitch and Frank do not want to voluntarily engage in trade that makes them worse off.
- #10 Image: Animated Figure 6.1 The demand curve has a downward step for each additional textbook purchase. Lecture notes: At any price above $200, none of the students wants to purchase a textbook. This relationship can be seen on the x-axis where the quantity demanded is 0. At any price between $150 and $200, Beanie is the only buyer, so the quantity demanded is 1. At prices between $100 and $150, Beanie and Mitch are each willing to buy the textbook, so the quantity demanded is 2. Finally, if the price is $100 or less, all three students are willing to pay to buy the textbook, so the quantity demanded is 3. As the price falls the quantity demanded increases.
- #11 Image: Animated Figure 6.2A Lecture notes: Great explanation from text: Where the price is $175, only Beanie decides to buy. Since his willingness to pay is $200, he is better off by $25; this is his consumer surplus. The green-shaded square under the demand curve and above the price represents the benefit Beanie receives from purchasing a textbook at a price of $175.
- #12 Image: Animated Figure 6.2B Lecture notes: Great explanation from text: When the price is lowered to $125, Mitch also decides to buy a textbook. The total quantity demanded is now 2 textbooks. Mitch’s willingness to pay is $150, so his consumer surplus, represented by the pink-shaded square, is $25. However, since Beanie’s willingness to pay is $200, his consumer surplus rises from $25 to $75. So a textbook price of $125 raises the total consumer surplus to $100. In other words, lower prices create more consumer surplus in the market.
- #13 Lecture notes: Here we have three sellers and their willingness to sell their tutoring services. Willingness to sell is analogous to the consumer’s WTP. In this case, though, we ask what is the LEAST amount the producer would accept for his goods or services? More on willingness to sell: The cost of producing an item is NOT the only cost to consider in making the decision of whether or not to produce it. Producers also have opportunity costs. Beanie, Mitch, and Frank each have a unique willingness to sell because they have different opportunity costs. Beanie owns his own business, so for him, time spent tutoring is time that he could have been making money elsewhere. Mitch is a business student who might otherwise be studying to get better grades. Frank is neither a businessman nor a serious student, so the $10 he can earn in an hour of tutoring is not taking the place of earning an even better rate working at his own business or getting better grades from studying more. So at the price of $25 then . . . Mitch and Frank will tutor. We will see their producer surplus (PS) next.
- #14 Lecture notes: Beanie doesn’t tutor because he would only be willing to tutor if he received at least $30 per hour. $25 per hour is not enough of an incentive for him to tutor.
- #15 Image: Animated Figure 6.3 Lecture notes: The supply curve has an upward step for each additional tutor that supplies his services in the market. From the text: At any price less than $10, no one wants to tutor. At prices between $10 and $19 an hour, Frank is the only tutor, so the quantity supplied is 1. Between $20 and $29 an hour, Frank and Mitch are willing to tutor, so the quantity supplied rises to 2. Finally, if the price is $30 or more, all three friends are willing to tutor, so the quantity supplied is 3. As the price they receive for tutoring rises, the quantity supplied increases.
- #16 Image: Animated Figure 6.4A From the text: The price of an hour of tutoring is $15. At that price, only Frank decides to tutor. Since Frank would be willing to tutor even if the price were as low as $10/hr., Frank is $5 better off tutoring. Frank’s producer surplus is represented by the pink-shaded area between the supply curve and the price of $15. Since Beanie and Frank do not tutor when the price is $15, they do not receive any producer surplus.
- #17 Image: Animated Figure 6.4B From the text: The price for tutoring is $25/hr. At this price, Mitch also decides to tutor. Mitch’s willingness to tutor is $20 so when the price is $25/hr., his producer surplus is $5, represented by the blue-shaded area. Since Frank’s willingness to tutor is $10, at $25/hr. his producer surplus has risen to $15. By looking at the shaded boxes on the right, we see that an increase in the rates for tutoring raises the combined producer surplus.
- #18 Economics in the Media Lecture tip: The clip mentioned on the slide can be found in the Interactive Instructor’s Guide. Access the direct link by clicking the icon in the PowerPoint above.
- #19 “Beyond the Book Slide”
- #20 “Beyond the Book Slide”
- #21 Lecture notes: Once again, you may want to point out that even though “welfare” often has a negative connotation, “economic welfare” is a sign of how well off or how efficient our economy is at capturing gains from trade. An increase in economic welfare is a good thing. In a free and competitive market, the market price will be the equilibrium price.
- #22 Image: Animated Figure 6.5 Lecture notes: You can only get CS on units that you as a consumer actually purchase. A producer can only get PS on units that he actually sells. Graph notes Consumer surplus: Alice is willing to pay $7 for milk, but the price is $4. The difference between the price she is willing to pay, represented by point A, and the price she actually pays, represented by E, is $3 in consumer surplus. Betty is willing to pay $5 for milk, but the price is $4. Therefore, she receives $1 in consumer surplus, indicated by the blue arrow that shows the distance from $4 to $5. In fact, all consumers who are willing to pay more than $4 are better off when they purchase the milk at $4. We can show this total area of consumer surplus on the graph as the blue-shaded triangle bordered by the demand curve, the y-axis, and the equilibrium price. At every point in this area, consumers who are willing to pay more than the equilibrium price for milk will be better off. Producer surplus: The Contented Cow is willing to sell milk for $2.50 a gallon, represented by point C. Since the equilibrium price is $4.00, the business makes $1.50 in producer surplus. This is indicated by the red arrow that shows the distance from $4.00 to $2.50. If we think of the supply curve as representing the costs of many different sellers, we can calculate the total producer surplus as the red shaded triangle bordered by the supply curve, the y-axis, and the equilibrium price. Overall welfare: The shaded-blue triangle (consumer surplus) and the shaded-red triangle (producer surplus) describe the increase in total surplus, or social welfare, created by the production and exchange of the good at the equilibrium price. At the equilibrium quantity of 6 million gallons of milk, output and consumption reach the largest possible combination of producer and consumer surplus. In the region of the graph beyond 6 million units, buyers and sellers would experience a loss. When an allocation of resources maximizes total surplus, the result is said to be efficient. Efficiency occurs at point E when the market is in equilibrium. At any other non-equilibrium price, less trading will occur, and less surplus will be gained.
- #23 Lecture notes: Equity = fairness. If one party did not benefit (or lost surplus) from a potential trade, that trade would not occur rationally. Why the picture of a pie? Efficiency is only concerned with whether or not the pie gets eaten. If the entire pie is eaten, efficiency is satisfied, even if one person ate the whole thing. Equity is more concerned with who got the biggest share of the pie. One person eating the entire pie may be efficient, but it is not equitable if other people could have eaten some as well.
- #24 Economics in the Media Lecture tip: The clip mentioned on the slide can be found in the Interactive Instructor’s Guide. Access the direct link by clicking the icon in the PowerPoint above.
- #25 Lecture notes: Taxes provide benefits, and exemplify the idea that there is no free lunch. Taxes pay for many services we use daily for “free,” but don’t think about. Excise taxes on alcohol and tobacco are sometimes called sin taxes. Consumption of these goods can sometimes have negative externalities, so a tax may reduce consumption and help correct the externality. Excise taxes, such as cigarette, alcohol, and gasoline taxes, account for less than 4% of all tax revenues. But because we can isolate changes in taxes on one item at a time, they provide a good way for us to understand the overall effect of a tax. With regard to tax incidence, we’ll see that sometimes consumers pay most of the tax burden. Other times, producers pay most of the tax.
- #26 Image: Animated Figure 6.6 Lecture notes: Consider a $1 tax placed on milk purchases. Each time a consumer buys a gallon of milk, the cash register adds $1 in tax. Because of the tax, the price of milk goes up and the demand curve shifts down. Why does the demand curve shift? Consumers know that they must pay the purchase price and also the tax. The extra cost makes them less likely to buy milk at every price, which causes the entire demand curve to shift down. The intersection of the new demand curve with the existing supply curve creates a new equilibrium price of $3.50—$0.50 lower than the original equilibrium price of $4.00. But even though the price is lower, consumers are still worse off. Since they must also pay the $1.00 tax, the total price rises to $4.50 per gallon. Therefore, despite the rise in price, the seller nets only $3.50. A similar logic applies to the consumer. Since the new equilibrium price after the tax is $0.50 higher, the consumer shares the $1.00/gallon tax incidence equally with the seller. End result: The consumer pays $0.50 more and the seller nets $0.50 less. The tax also affects the amount sold in the market. Since the new equilibrium price after the tax is higher, consumers of milk reduce the quantity demanded from 1000 gallons to 750 gallons. As a result, the market for milk is smaller than it was before the tax was placed on the good. Actual tax revenue collected by government: Tax revenue = (tax amount) (number of units taxed) Tax revenue = $1.00 750 Tax revenue = $750
- #27 Image: Animated Figure 6.7 Lecture notes: What happens when a tax of $1/gallon is placed on milk suppliers First, look at the shift in the supply curve. Why does it shift? The $1/gallon tax on milk lowers the profits that dairy farmers expect to make, which causes them to produce less milk at every price level. We can also think of the entire supply curve as shifting up in response to the tax that milk producers must pay to the government. The intersection of the new supply curve with the existing demand curve creates a new equilibrium price of $4.50—$0.50 higher than the original equilibrium price of $4.00. This occurs because the seller is able to pass some of the tax increase along to the buyer in the form of a higher price. However, the seller is still worse off. After the tax, the new equilibrium price is $4.50, but $1.00 must be paid as tax to the government. End result: The producer receives $0.50 less and the buyer pays $0.50 more. This is the same end result as the previous graph when the tax was paid by the producers! The tax on milk purchases also affects the amount sold in the market. Since the after-tax equilibrium price is lower, producers of milk reduce the quantity that they sell to 750 gallons. Therefore, the market for milk is smaller than it was before the tax was placed on the good. Actual tax revenue collected by government: Tax revenue = (tax amount) (number of units taxed) Tax revenue = $1.00 750 Tax revenue = $750
- #29 Lecture notes: Recall that even though prices went up, the producer still is worse off since it had to pay part of the tax. DWL is the result of the decreased number of transactions. When the price is anything but the equilibrium price (such as with a tax or price control), the number of trades will decrease. Think of DWL as the following: Graphically, DWL is an area that COULD HAVE been somebody’s surplus (producer and/or consumer) at a different price and quantity, but at the current situation, belongs to nobody. Tax revenue collected by the government is NOT DWL! The taxes belong to the government. DWL belongs to nobody; recall that you can only get surplus on units that are actually traded! We aren’t trading those units anymore!
- #30 Image: Animated Figure 6.8 Lecture notes: The graph is the same as before, but the only difference is the added yellow triangle, which represents DWL. Area of a triangle = ½ (base of triangle) (height of triangle) DWL in this case is $125. The amount purchased to decline from 1000 to 750 gallons, a reduction of 250 gallons sold in the market. The yellow triangle represents the deadweight loss caused by the tax. The rise in price causes the loss of some consumers, who would have paid between $4.00 and $4.50. Likewise, the reduction in the price the seller receives means that producers who once sold a gallon of milk between $3.50 and $4.00 will no longer be willing to do so. The combined reductions in consumer and producer surplus equal the deadweight loss produced by a $1 tax on milk.
- #31 Lecture notes: Generally, we’ll see that the more inelastic (insensitive) market participant pays most of the tax. If consumers are inelastic, the producers will be able to pass the entire tax onto the consumers in the form of a price increase. With regard to a perfectly inelastic demand, a tax will create zero deadweight loss. This means market efficiency doesn’t change as a result of the tax. Picture: Cigarettes have a very inelastic demand!
- #32 Image: Animated Figure 6.9 Lecture notes: The left graph shows the market before the tax. The blue rectangle represents consumer surplus and the red triangle represents the producer surplus. The right graph shows a tax is levied on the seller. The supply curve shifts from Sb to Sa. The shift in supply causes the equilibrium to move from Eb to Ea and the price to rise from Pb to Pa. We know that when demand is perfectly inelastic, a price increase does not alter how much consumers purchase. Thus, the quantity demanded remains constant at Q even after the government collects tax revenue equal to the green-shaded area. On the right graph, there is no DWL area! This means that the total surplus, or social welfare, is equal in both graphs. On the right, the green area is subtracted entirely from the blue rectangle, which indicates that the surplus is redistributed from consumers to the government. But overall, society enjoys the same total surplus. From this we see that when demand is perfectly inelastic, the incidence, or the burden of taxation, is borne entirely by the consumer.
- #33 Image: Animated Figure 6.10 Lecture notes: Assume that demand and supply are “equally” elastic here. Left graph: Before the tax, price is equal to the equilibrium price, and the market is efficient with no DWL. Right graph: After the tax, the area of price movement (from Pb to Pa) is smaller than the area on the previous perfectly inelastic figure. In this case, the graph is drawn with elasticities such that the consumers absorb half of the tax. Because demand is sensitive to price, suppliers must absorb the other half of the tax, from Pb to Pc, themselves, and net Pc, which is less than what they received when the good was not taxed. In addition, the total tax revenue generated (the green-shaded area) is smaller in this figure compared to the previous perfectly inelastic demand, because as the price of the good rises, some consumers no longer buy it and quantity demanded falls from Qb to Qa. (The government is getting less tax revenue because less units are being taxed compared to the previous graph.) The yellow triangle (DWL) is a further indication of the decreased number of trades. Less transactions causes DWL, and gains from trade are not maximized. After the tax, this market is no longer economically efficient. You can see that the areas of surplus and tax revenue on the right are not as big as the surplus areas on the left. Once again, DWL belongs to nobody.
- #34 Image: Animated Figure 6.11 Lecture notes: In this graph, demand is perfectly elastic (horizontal demand). Left graph: The price is equal to the height of the demand function. There is no consumer surplus, but there is producer surplus due to the upward-sloping supply function. There is no DWL. Right graph: In this market, consumers are so price-sensitive that they are unwilling to accept any price increase. Because sellers are unable to raise the equilibrium price, they bear the entire incidence of the tax. This has two effects. First, producers are less willing to sell the product at all prices. This shifts the supply curve from Sb to Sa. Since consumer demand is highly elastic, consumers pay the same price as before. Second, they are also worse off because less is produced and sold, in the movement from Qb to Qa. The result is that there is also more deadweight loss. Therefore, the total surplus, or efficiency of the market, is much smaller than before the tax. Comparing the green-shaded areas of three figures and you see that the size of the tax revenue is also noticeably smaller in the market with highly elastic demand. Policy implication: Tax goods with inelastic demand! This leads to higher tax revenues and less (or no) deadweight loss.
- #36 Image: Animated Figure 6.12 Lecture notes: A $3 per pound tax is placed on mushroom suppliers. This drives the equilibrium price up from E1 ($7) to E2 ($8). Notice that the price only rises by $1. This means that the consumer picks up $1 of the $3 tax and the seller must pay the remaining $2. Therefore, most of the incidence is borne by the seller. Finally, neither the demand curve nor the supply curve is relatively inelastic, so the amount of deadweight loss (DWL) is large.
- #37 Lecture notes: Policy implication derived from points 2 and 3: If you want to place an excise tax on a good, place the tax on a good with a very inelastic demand or supply! This will decrease DWL and increase tax revenues. This is true if we assume the purpose of the tax is to raise revenue without hurting market efficiency. If we tax a good because we want less of that good produced or consumed, such a tax will only be successful if the good is elastic in demand or supply.
- #38 “Beyond the Book Slide” The two reasons shown are not mutually exclusive. Maybe we figure we can do both! Suppose the reason for wanting to decrease smoking is because of the negative externality of secondhand smoke.
- #39 “Beyond the Book Slide” Public smoking bans may merely shift the location of where people smoke. People may smoke more at home, which does not change the amount they smoke, and it may shift the secondhand smoke to children instead of other bar patrons. In addition, some view outright bans as a strong infringement on personal economic freedoms. Cigarette taxes have been increasing over many years, yet people continue to smoke, and tax revenues are large. This suggests an inelastic demand for cigarettes, and that we are still on the upward-sloping part of the Laffer curve. (The Laffer curve is discussed later in this chapter). However, those revenues can be used for a number of publicly funded services, and more people will stop smoking in the long run after demand becomes more elastic. In addition, libertarian economists would like this option better than an outright ban, since it would still give individual bar/restaurant owners the choice to allow smoking or not in their establishments.
- #40 Image: Animated Figure 6.13a Lecture notes: Here is the basic supply and demand model. We’re assuming relatively equal elasticities for supply and demand, so that the tax burden will be roughly equal among both parties. In the first picture shown here, there is no tax. Thus, overall welfare (CS + PS) is maximized, and there is no deadweight loss. The price and quantity are determined by the equilibrium point. The next four pictures will show different tax amounts (levied on the producer), ranging from small to very large. The effects of tax revenue and deadweight loss are examined.
- #41 Image: Animated Figure 6.13b
- #42 Image: Animated Figure 6.13c
- #43 Image: Animated Figure 6.13d
- #44 Lecture notes: Thus, for the Laffer curve, we will graph tax revenues on the vertical axis, and the tax rate on the horizontal. The intuition was already partially shown in the previous set of five graphs. The Laffer curve will be a parabola.
- #49 Clicker Question Correct answer: A Willingness to buy (or willingness to pay) is the height of the demand curve. CS = (height of demand) – (price actually paid)
- #50 Clicker Question Correct answer: C
- #51 Clicker Question Correct answer: D Deadweight loss belongs to nobody, because it arises when we trade less units. You can only get surplus on units you trade!
- #52 Clicker Question Correct answer: C Perfectly inelastic means the demand curve is vertical. A tax will not reduce the quantity purchased at all. CS will decrease as some of it goes to the government for taxes, but no DWL is created.
- #53 Clicker Question Correct answer: B It depends on what your CURRENT tax rate is. The Laffer curve is a parabola.