This document provides information on vitamin A, including its:
- Occurrence in foods like fish liver, carrots, and green vegetables
- Deficiency causes night blindness and xerophthalmia if severe
- Role in vision through the visual cycle and rhodopsin regeneration
- Other roles in growth, reproduction, and epithelial cell maintenance
It also discusses the chemistry, isolation, constitution, and biosynthesis of vitamin A.
Chemistry, and biochemical role, rda, deficiency diseases of vitamin a for ugJasmineJuliet
Vitamins definition , Vitamin Classification table, Fat soluble vitamin A, Chemistry of Vitamin A, Biochemical role of vitamin A, Biochemical functions of vitamin A, RDA (Recommended dietary Allowance), Dietary sources of vitamin A, Deficiency diseases of vitamin A, Rhodopsin cycle.
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts for normal growth, maintenance and reproduction. Vitamin A is important for vision, growth, and epithelial cell maintenance. It can be found in animal foods like liver and plant foods like carrots. Too much vitamin A can cause toxicity. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and is synthesized from cholesterol when skin is exposed to sunlight. It helps maintain adequate calcium and phosphorus levels. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects cell components from oxidative damage. It exists as tocopherols with alpha-tocopherol being the most active form.
Small amounts of vitamins are required in the diet to promote growth, reproduction, and health. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are called the fat-soluble vitamins, because they are soluble in organic solvents and are absorbed and transported in a manner similar to that of fats.
Dr Shailesh Gupta( MLNMC) Fat soluble vitamins.pptSneha Manjul
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for human health but are needed in small amounts. Vitamin A is fat soluble and important for vision, gene regulation, skin health, and immune function. It is obtained from animal foods as retinol or from plant foods as beta-carotene. A deficiency can cause night blindness, skin lesions, susceptibility to infections, and even blindness.
1. Phytol is an acyclic diterpene alcohol that can be used as a precursor for synthetic vitamin E and K1. It is liberated from chlorophyll in plant materials and converted to phytanic acid in ruminant guts or pristane in shark livers.
2. Retinol, also known as vitamin A1, is a fat-soluble vitamin found in many foods. It is used to treat and prevent vitamin A deficiency and its complications. Retinol is converted in the body to retinal and retinoic acid to carry out its visual and non-visual functions.
3. Both phytol and retinol are discussed in terms of their structures, properties
The document discusses fat soluble vitamins including vitamins A, D, and E. It provides details on their chemistry, absorption, transport, storage, functions, deficiency symptoms, sources, and toxicity. The key points are:
- Fat soluble vitamins are required for vision, blood clotting, bone formation and cell membrane structure. Vitamins A and D act as steroid hormones. Deficiencies can cause night blindness, skeletal deformities, and hemorrhages.
- Vitamin A exists as retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. It is important for vision and gene regulation. Vitamin D exists as ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol and its active form calcitri
Chemistry, and biochemical role, rda, deficiency diseases of vitamin a for ugJasmineJuliet
Vitamins definition , Vitamin Classification table, Fat soluble vitamin A, Chemistry of Vitamin A, Biochemical role of vitamin A, Biochemical functions of vitamin A, RDA (Recommended dietary Allowance), Dietary sources of vitamin A, Deficiency diseases of vitamin A, Rhodopsin cycle.
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts for normal growth, maintenance and reproduction. Vitamin A is important for vision, growth, and epithelial cell maintenance. It can be found in animal foods like liver and plant foods like carrots. Too much vitamin A can cause toxicity. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and is synthesized from cholesterol when skin is exposed to sunlight. It helps maintain adequate calcium and phosphorus levels. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects cell components from oxidative damage. It exists as tocopherols with alpha-tocopherol being the most active form.
Small amounts of vitamins are required in the diet to promote growth, reproduction, and health. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are called the fat-soluble vitamins, because they are soluble in organic solvents and are absorbed and transported in a manner similar to that of fats.
Dr Shailesh Gupta( MLNMC) Fat soluble vitamins.pptSneha Manjul
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for human health but are needed in small amounts. Vitamin A is fat soluble and important for vision, gene regulation, skin health, and immune function. It is obtained from animal foods as retinol or from plant foods as beta-carotene. A deficiency can cause night blindness, skin lesions, susceptibility to infections, and even blindness.
1. Phytol is an acyclic diterpene alcohol that can be used as a precursor for synthetic vitamin E and K1. It is liberated from chlorophyll in plant materials and converted to phytanic acid in ruminant guts or pristane in shark livers.
2. Retinol, also known as vitamin A1, is a fat-soluble vitamin found in many foods. It is used to treat and prevent vitamin A deficiency and its complications. Retinol is converted in the body to retinal and retinoic acid to carry out its visual and non-visual functions.
3. Both phytol and retinol are discussed in terms of their structures, properties
The document discusses fat soluble vitamins including vitamins A, D, and E. It provides details on their chemistry, absorption, transport, storage, functions, deficiency symptoms, sources, and toxicity. The key points are:
- Fat soluble vitamins are required for vision, blood clotting, bone formation and cell membrane structure. Vitamins A and D act as steroid hormones. Deficiencies can cause night blindness, skeletal deformities, and hemorrhages.
- Vitamin A exists as retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. It is important for vision and gene regulation. Vitamin D exists as ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol and its active form calcitri
Shubham Sharma presented on vitamins A, C, and E. The presentation covered the chemistry, classification, physiological significance, deficiencies, and daily requirements of each vitamin. Vitamin A is fat-soluble and important for vision, immune function, and growth. Vitamin C is water-soluble and essential for collagen formation and acting as an antioxidant. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes and prevents lipid peroxidation.
Vitamins are substances that our body needs for proper grow and development.It is an essential nutrient that body cannot produce enough of and that's why it needs to get from food.
Vitamins are of 13 types and can be classified as Fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E & K ) and Water Soluble Vitamin (Vitamin-C & B-complex).
This document provides information on fat soluble vitamins A and E. It discusses the isolation and chemical structure of vitamin A, its role in vision through the generation of rhodopsin in rods and cones, and its role in gene expression. Deficiency can cause night blindness, dry eyes, skin lesions and blindness. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects membranes from free radical damage and its deficiency impacts fertility. The document details the absorption, transport, functions and deficiency symptoms of both vitamins.
Vitamins-Introduction, Water soluble and fat soluble vitamins.
Water soluble vitamins-B complex vitamins: thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folate (folic acid), vitamin B12, biotin and pantothenic acid-their source, structure, properties, metabolism, physiological significance, deficiency disease and human requirements.
Fat soluble vitamins: Fat soluble vitamins, Vitamin A, D, E and K and their their source, structure, properties, metabolism, physiological significance, deficiency disease and human requirements.
Vitamin A-Carotene in plants-α-carotenes, β-carotenes and γ-carotenes, 3 forms of vitamin A-Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic acid.
Vitamin D3-cholecalciferol,
Vitamin E -Tocopherol, Vitamin K-Phylloquinone or Anti hemorrhagic Vitamin or Coagulation Vitamin
Vitamin A, Digestion, absorption, transport, Functions and requirement and deficiency ad eye relate problems.
Vitamin C, Functions, requiremnts, deficiency
Vitamin E, defciency and eye
The document discusses various B vitamins, including their chemistry, food sources, roles in the body, and deficiency diseases. It provides information on vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5 (pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B7 (biotin), and B9 (folic acid). The key points made are that B vitamins serve as cofactors in many enzyme reactions involved in metabolism and must be obtained through the diet as humans cannot synthesize most of them. Deficiencies can result in diseases like beriberi, pellagra, and anemia.
Vitamins are essential organic compounds that serve as coenzymes in basic biochemical processes. For animals, vitamins must be obtained through food as they cannot synthesize them. Vitamin deficiencies can cause diseases like scurvy or rickets, while toxicities are rare. Vitamins have specific chemical structures required for their biological activity, and even small changes can eliminate their effects. Vitamins are involved in many important metabolic processes as components of coenzymes.
Contents:
Vitamins: Definition
Classification of vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K. Chemical nature, Dietary sources, Coenzyme forms, Biochemical functions, recommended dietary allowances and deficiency diseases of fat soluble vitamins.
Introduction, Classification of Vitamins, Fat –Soluble Vitamins-) Vitamin A ,Biochemical Function of Vitamin A, Deficiency of Vitamin A, Vitamin D ,Vitamin E, Deficiency and Role of Vit.E , Vitamin K, Water-Soluble Vitamins, Thiamine, ) Riboflavin , Nicotinic Acid, Pantothenic acid , Pyridoxine , Biotin, Deficiency of folic acid, Cyanocobalamin, structure and deficiency of co-enzyme B12 , Lipoic acid, Non B-Complex, Ascorbic acid , benifites of vit. C, CO-ENZYMES,
This document provides information on vitamins and co-enzymes. It discusses both fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins (B complex, C). Key points include: vitamins act as co-enzymes in metabolic reactions; fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver while water-soluble vitamins are not stored; deficiencies of various vitamins can cause diseases like rickets, osteomalacia, night blindness, and pellagra. The document also discusses vitamin functions, sources, structures, and roles in vision, bone health, antioxidant activity, and more.
Vitamin A exists in several forms including retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. It is fat soluble and derived from carotenoids in plants like beta-carotene which the body converts. Vitamin A supports vision, cell growth, epithelial integrity, and acts as an antioxidant. It plays a key role in rhodopsin which is needed for vision in dim light. Deficiency can cause night blindness and keratinization while excess intake can be toxic, causing bone pain and liver issues.
This document discusses fat soluble vitamins, including Vitamins A, D, E, and K. It provides details on the chemical structure, absorption, transport, functions, sources, and requirements of each vitamin. The key roles of Vitamin A are in vision and tissue growth/differentiation. Vitamin D helps absorb calcium and phosphate to support bone mineralization. Vitamins E and K act as antioxidants and are necessary for blood clotting, respectively. A diet containing foods like fish liver, eggs, green vegetables, and plant oils can provide adequate amounts of these essential fat soluble vitamins.
Vitamins are small organic molecules required in small amounts that are not synthesized by the body. They are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver while water-soluble vitamins are not stored, except for vitamin B12, and are excreted in urine. Vitamins function as coenzymes and are essential for growth, maintenance and reproduction, with deficiencies leading to diseases like beriberi, pellagra, or megaloblastic anemia.
Vitamins are organic compounds that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through diet. This document discusses several key vitamins:
- Vitamin A supports vision, cell differentiation, and reproduction. It exists in retinol form in animals and beta-carotene form in plants. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and bone mineralization. It is produced endogenously from sunlight or obtained through diet. Deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
- Vitamin K acts as a coenzyme in blood clotting by allowing the carboxylation of clotting factors. Def
It is a slide to teach students in universities about the basics of vitamin A, its benefits, metabolism, clinical indication, and also general information.
This document provides information about Akash Mahadev Iyer, who is an S2 M.Sc Biochemistry student at the University of Kerala in Kariyavattom. It then discusses vitamins in general and provides details on the 13 essential vitamins for humans, including fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and water-soluble B complex vitamins and vitamin C. For each vitamin, the document outlines their chemical structure, food sources, functions in the body, deficiency and toxicity symptoms, and recommended dietary allowances.
The document discusses vitamins, including their classification, functions, sources, and deficiencies. It covers key details about vitamins A, D, E, K, B1, and B2. Specifically, it describes:
- Vitamins are organic compounds required as nutrients and cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities. They are classified as lipid-soluble or water-soluble.
- Vitamin A is important for vision, cell differentiation, and immune function. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphate levels and is synthesized from sunlight exposure. It supports bone and immune health.
- Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects cell membranes from free radical damage.
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for normal growth, health and biological functions. They are classified as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (C, B vitamins). Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed with fats and stored in tissues while water-soluble vitamins are not stored and must be continuously supplied. Each vitamin plays important roles as enzyme cofactors in critical biochemical reactions related to energy production, cell growth, immune function and more. The document provides details on the chemistry, sources, functions and requirements of several key vitamins.
Shubham Sharma presented on vitamins A, C, and E. The presentation covered the chemistry, classification, physiological significance, deficiencies, and daily requirements of each vitamin. Vitamin A is fat-soluble and important for vision, immune function, and growth. Vitamin C is water-soluble and essential for collagen formation and acting as an antioxidant. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes and prevents lipid peroxidation.
Vitamins are substances that our body needs for proper grow and development.It is an essential nutrient that body cannot produce enough of and that's why it needs to get from food.
Vitamins are of 13 types and can be classified as Fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E & K ) and Water Soluble Vitamin (Vitamin-C & B-complex).
This document provides information on fat soluble vitamins A and E. It discusses the isolation and chemical structure of vitamin A, its role in vision through the generation of rhodopsin in rods and cones, and its role in gene expression. Deficiency can cause night blindness, dry eyes, skin lesions and blindness. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects membranes from free radical damage and its deficiency impacts fertility. The document details the absorption, transport, functions and deficiency symptoms of both vitamins.
Vitamins-Introduction, Water soluble and fat soluble vitamins.
Water soluble vitamins-B complex vitamins: thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folate (folic acid), vitamin B12, biotin and pantothenic acid-their source, structure, properties, metabolism, physiological significance, deficiency disease and human requirements.
Fat soluble vitamins: Fat soluble vitamins, Vitamin A, D, E and K and their their source, structure, properties, metabolism, physiological significance, deficiency disease and human requirements.
Vitamin A-Carotene in plants-α-carotenes, β-carotenes and γ-carotenes, 3 forms of vitamin A-Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic acid.
Vitamin D3-cholecalciferol,
Vitamin E -Tocopherol, Vitamin K-Phylloquinone or Anti hemorrhagic Vitamin or Coagulation Vitamin
Vitamin A, Digestion, absorption, transport, Functions and requirement and deficiency ad eye relate problems.
Vitamin C, Functions, requiremnts, deficiency
Vitamin E, defciency and eye
The document discusses various B vitamins, including their chemistry, food sources, roles in the body, and deficiency diseases. It provides information on vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5 (pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B7 (biotin), and B9 (folic acid). The key points made are that B vitamins serve as cofactors in many enzyme reactions involved in metabolism and must be obtained through the diet as humans cannot synthesize most of them. Deficiencies can result in diseases like beriberi, pellagra, and anemia.
Vitamins are essential organic compounds that serve as coenzymes in basic biochemical processes. For animals, vitamins must be obtained through food as they cannot synthesize them. Vitamin deficiencies can cause diseases like scurvy or rickets, while toxicities are rare. Vitamins have specific chemical structures required for their biological activity, and even small changes can eliminate their effects. Vitamins are involved in many important metabolic processes as components of coenzymes.
Contents:
Vitamins: Definition
Classification of vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K. Chemical nature, Dietary sources, Coenzyme forms, Biochemical functions, recommended dietary allowances and deficiency diseases of fat soluble vitamins.
Introduction, Classification of Vitamins, Fat –Soluble Vitamins-) Vitamin A ,Biochemical Function of Vitamin A, Deficiency of Vitamin A, Vitamin D ,Vitamin E, Deficiency and Role of Vit.E , Vitamin K, Water-Soluble Vitamins, Thiamine, ) Riboflavin , Nicotinic Acid, Pantothenic acid , Pyridoxine , Biotin, Deficiency of folic acid, Cyanocobalamin, structure and deficiency of co-enzyme B12 , Lipoic acid, Non B-Complex, Ascorbic acid , benifites of vit. C, CO-ENZYMES,
This document provides information on vitamins and co-enzymes. It discusses both fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins (B complex, C). Key points include: vitamins act as co-enzymes in metabolic reactions; fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver while water-soluble vitamins are not stored; deficiencies of various vitamins can cause diseases like rickets, osteomalacia, night blindness, and pellagra. The document also discusses vitamin functions, sources, structures, and roles in vision, bone health, antioxidant activity, and more.
Vitamin A exists in several forms including retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. It is fat soluble and derived from carotenoids in plants like beta-carotene which the body converts. Vitamin A supports vision, cell growth, epithelial integrity, and acts as an antioxidant. It plays a key role in rhodopsin which is needed for vision in dim light. Deficiency can cause night blindness and keratinization while excess intake can be toxic, causing bone pain and liver issues.
This document discusses fat soluble vitamins, including Vitamins A, D, E, and K. It provides details on the chemical structure, absorption, transport, functions, sources, and requirements of each vitamin. The key roles of Vitamin A are in vision and tissue growth/differentiation. Vitamin D helps absorb calcium and phosphate to support bone mineralization. Vitamins E and K act as antioxidants and are necessary for blood clotting, respectively. A diet containing foods like fish liver, eggs, green vegetables, and plant oils can provide adequate amounts of these essential fat soluble vitamins.
Vitamins are small organic molecules required in small amounts that are not synthesized by the body. They are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver while water-soluble vitamins are not stored, except for vitamin B12, and are excreted in urine. Vitamins function as coenzymes and are essential for growth, maintenance and reproduction, with deficiencies leading to diseases like beriberi, pellagra, or megaloblastic anemia.
Vitamins are organic compounds that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through diet. This document discusses several key vitamins:
- Vitamin A supports vision, cell differentiation, and reproduction. It exists in retinol form in animals and beta-carotene form in plants. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and bone mineralization. It is produced endogenously from sunlight or obtained through diet. Deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
- Vitamin K acts as a coenzyme in blood clotting by allowing the carboxylation of clotting factors. Def
It is a slide to teach students in universities about the basics of vitamin A, its benefits, metabolism, clinical indication, and also general information.
This document provides information about Akash Mahadev Iyer, who is an S2 M.Sc Biochemistry student at the University of Kerala in Kariyavattom. It then discusses vitamins in general and provides details on the 13 essential vitamins for humans, including fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and water-soluble B complex vitamins and vitamin C. For each vitamin, the document outlines their chemical structure, food sources, functions in the body, deficiency and toxicity symptoms, and recommended dietary allowances.
The document discusses vitamins, including their classification, functions, sources, and deficiencies. It covers key details about vitamins A, D, E, K, B1, and B2. Specifically, it describes:
- Vitamins are organic compounds required as nutrients and cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities. They are classified as lipid-soluble or water-soluble.
- Vitamin A is important for vision, cell differentiation, and immune function. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphate levels and is synthesized from sunlight exposure. It supports bone and immune health.
- Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects cell membranes from free radical damage.
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for normal growth, health and biological functions. They are classified as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (C, B vitamins). Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed with fats and stored in tissues while water-soluble vitamins are not stored and must be continuously supplied. Each vitamin plays important roles as enzyme cofactors in critical biochemical reactions related to energy production, cell growth, immune function and more. The document provides details on the chemistry, sources, functions and requirements of several key vitamins.
Gene therapy involves inserting genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat disease. It can replace mutated genes, inactivate genes, introduce new genes, or cause cancer cells to kill themselves. Viral and non-viral vectors are used to deliver genes. Gene therapy has been applied to treat genetic disorders, cancer, heart disease, and more. Recent advances include using gene therapy to regenerate heart muscle cells, treat Sanfilippo syndrome and brain cancers, and combining cellular and gene therapies for breast cancer. RNA and DNA can be estimated using reactions that form colored complexes measured spectrophotometrically.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the change in weight of a sample as it is heated or cooled. It involves heating a sample in a controlled atmosphere and measuring its mass change over time or temperature. TGA provides information about physical and chemical changes that occur as the sample is heated, such as decomposition, oxidation, and vaporization. The results are displayed as a TGA curve, which plots mass or percentage mass change against temperature or time. TGA is useful for determining various characteristics of materials such as polymers, foods, and pharmaceuticals.
The document discusses two types of immunological assays: radioimmunoassay (RIA) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RIA uses radioactively labeled antigens or antibodies to detect and quantify antigens or antibodies. It relies on competitive binding and can detect very low concentrations. ELISA uses enzymes to detect antigen-antibody binding and comes in indirect, sandwich, and competitive formats. Both techniques are sensitive and specific methods to detect proteins, hormones, drugs and other molecules through antibody-antigen reactions.
The document summarizes the active constituents of several crude drugs used in indigenous medicine systems to treat diabetes, liver dysfunction, and tumors. It discusses the botanical names, parts used, key chemical constituents, and mechanisms of action of Gymnema sylvestre, Salacia reticulate, Pterocarpus marsupim, Swertia chirata, Trigonella foenum graccum, Phyllanthus niruri, and Curcuma longa. The active constituents discussed include gymnemic acid, mangiferin, kitanalol, salacinol, pteroside, masupin, swerchirin, swertiamarin, nirurin
This document summarizes a student's submission on the topic of recombinant DNA technology. It discusses various topics related to rDNA technology including DNA, genes, plasmids, how recombinant DNA is made using transformation and other methods, use of restriction enzymes and ligases, gene therapy applications, and recent advances in using gene therapy to treat brain cancer and developing breast cancer treatments. The submission provides an overview of the key concepts and techniques in recombinant DNA technology.
X-ray crystallography uses X-rays to determine the atomic structure of crystals. It works by firing X-rays at crystalline samples and analyzing the diffraction patterns. This allows researchers to visualize protein structures and identify unknown crystal structures. The key steps are obtaining a suitable crystal sample, exposing it to X-rays, and computationally analyzing the diffraction data to produce an atomic model of the crystal structure. Common applications include determining molecular structures, characterizing polymers, and assessing the crystallinity and degradation of materials.
This document discusses signal transduction and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). It begins with an overview of general principles of signal transduction, including extracellular signaling molecules, cell surface receptors, intracellular signal transduction proteins, and cellular responses. It then focuses on GPCRs, describing their structure, mechanism of activating G proteins, and examples of specific GPCRs such as rhodopsin and epinephrine receptors. Rhodopsin signaling in vision and epinephrine signaling pathways are discussed in detail.
The document discusses various aspects of pharmacokinetics including drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. It explains that pharmacokinetics involves four main processes: absorption of drugs from their site of administration into circulation, distribution of drugs from blood to tissues, metabolism of drugs by the liver and other organs, and excretion of drugs and their metabolites from the body. It also discusses factors that influence these pharmacokinetic processes such as drug and biological properties.
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Kat...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
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PRESENTATION ON VITAMINS (1).pptx
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MET FACULTY OF
PHARMACY
P R E S E N TAT I O N O N C H E M I S T RY A N D P H Y S I O L O G I C A L S I G N I F I C A N C E
O F V I TA M I N
S U B M I T T E D B Y S U B M I T T E D T O
A N S H I K A B H AT N A G A R D r. M A N D E E P G U P TA
M . P H A R M A F I R S T S E M I S T E R A S S O C I AT E P R O F.
( P H A R M A C E U T I C A L C H E M I S T RY
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INTRODUCTION OF VITAMIN
• The term vitamin refers to an essential dietary factor that is required by an
organism in small amount and whose absence results in deficiency diseases.
• Vitamins are essential because the organism cannot synthesize these
compounds, which is necessary for life.
• Plants and morst micro organism can synthesize these compounds essential
for normal cellular functioning but which have to be supplied in the diet in small
amounts and required for the growth health and well being.
• The deficiency of vitamins causes specific diseases like xerophthalmia,
beriberi, scurvy, rickets etc. However these deficiency diseases can be cured
and prevented by administration of the vitamin rich diet.
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CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMIN
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CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF VITAMIN A
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• OCCURRENCE: Vitamin A1 is a fat soluble vitamin which occurs free and as esters in
fats , in fish livers and in blood, other sources are carrots, green vegetables, sweet
potatoes, salad in which it is present in the form of carotenes which in vivo are
converted into vitamin A.
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• Vitamin A deficiency:
• Night blindness (nyctalopia) is one of the earliest symptoms of vitamin A
deficiency. The individuals have difficulty to is increased. Prolonged deficiency
irreversibly damages a in dim light since the dark adaptation time see number of
visual cells.
• Severe deficiency of vitamin A leads to xerophthalmia. xerophthalmia. This is
characterized and cornea and keratinization of epithelial cells. In certain areas
of by dryness in conjunctiva conjunctiva, white triangular plaques
• Effect of growth: Within A deficiency results in growth retardation due to
impairment in skeletal formation.
• Effect on reproduction: The reproductive system is adversely affected in vitamin
A deficiency Degeneration of germinal epithelium leads to sterility in males.
Termination of pregnancy due to feal death is observed.
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• Hypervitaminosis A
• Excessive consumption of vitamin A leads to toxicity. The symptoms of
hypervitaminosis A include dermatitis (drying and redness of skin), enlargement
of liver, skeletal decalcification, tenderness of long bones, loss of weight,
irritability, loss of hair, joint pains etc. The subjects have constant headache due
to raised intracranial pressure which resembles the symptoms of brain tumor.
Ingestion of high quantities of vitamin A by pregnant women is associated with
the risk of congenital malformations in the developing fetus.
• Properties
• When the vitamin A was isolated originally, it was a yellow oil. But later on it was
as a crystalline solid, M.P. 63 - 64°C It is optically inactive and sensitive to light
and air but is extant to heat. It is destroyed by UV light.
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ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN A
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• 20-25 % Solution of Antimony trichloride in chloroform Added to Solution of Vitamin A in chloroform
Blue colour observed only for 10 sec.
Result express in terms of cod liver oil units
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ISOLATION OF VITAMIN A
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1) Fractional Crystallisation:
Unsaponified portion Dissolved in Methyl alcohol
Chilled at -73° C
When Sterols Crystallise out, Vitamin A obtained by Fractional Distillation in Vacuum
2) Chromatographic adsorption Method:
Unsaponified portion Adsorb on Alumina Followed by Adsorption on calcium Hydroxide
Gives Purest Vitamin A but it suffers losses due to its destruction which occurs due to
arrangement of double bond and its slight oxidation
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CONSTITUTION OF VITAMIN A
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1) Molecular formula: C20H30O
2) Presence of primacy Alcoholic group:
vitamin A, forms an ester with p-nitrobenzoic acid (this ester is not crystallisable), it follows
that vitamin A, contains a hydroxyl group. Moreover, the oxidation of vitamin A, yields an
aldehyde indicating that the hydroxyl group is primary alcoholic one.
3)Presence of five double bonds. When catalytically reduced in the presence of platinum or
aluminium amalgam, vitamin A, reacts with 5 moles of hydrogen forming perhydroretinol
(C20H40O)
4)Presence of B-ionone nucleus. Ozonolysis of vitamin A, yields geronic acid per molecule of the
vitamin. Since the same acid is also obtained by the ozonolysis of the known compounds, ẞ-
ionone and B-carotene, it means that there must be one ẞ-ionone nucleus present in the
vitamin A, because ẞ-ionone also gives geronic acid on oxidation.
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SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN A (POMMER' S SECOND SYNTHESIS)
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF VITAMIN A
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• Vitamin A is necessary for a variety of functions such as vision, proper growth
and differentiation, reproduction and maintenance of epithelial cells. In recent
years, each form of vitamin A has been assigned specific functions.
• Vitamin A and vision : The biochemical function of vitamin A in the process of
vision was first elucidated by George Wald . The events occur in a cyclic
process known as Rhodopsin cycle or wald's visual cycle .
• Rods and cones: The retina of the eye possesses two type of cell- rods and
cones
• Rods are involved in dim light vision whereas cones are responsible for bright
light and colour vision.
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WALD’S VISUAL CYCLE
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• Rhodopsin (mol. wt. 35,000) is a conjugated protein present in rods. It contains
11-cis retinal and the protein opsin. The aldehyde group (of retinal) is linked to
e-amino group of lysine (of opsin).
• The primary event in visual cycle, on exposure to light ,is the isomerization of
11-cis-retinal to all trans retinal. This leads to a conformational change in opsin
which is responsible for the generation of nerve impulse. The all-trans-retinal is
immediately isomerized by retinal isomerase (of retinal epithelium) .
• However, this combines with opsin to regenerate rhodopsin and complete the
visual cycle . However, the conversion of all trans-retinal to 11-cis retinal is
incomplete. Therefore, most of the all-trans-retinal is transported to the liver and
converted to all-trans retinol by alcohol dehydrogenase. The all-frans-retinol
undergoes isomerization to 11-cis retinol which is then oxidized to 11-cis retinal
to participate in the visual cycle.
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• Bleaching of rhodopsin: when exposed to light, the colour of rhodopsin changes
from red to yellow , process known as bleaching. Bleaching occurs in a few
milliseconds and many unstable intermediates are formed during this process.
Rhodopsin- Prelumirhodopsin- Lumirhodopsin → Metarhodopsin I-
Metarhodopsin II-Opsin + All-trans retinal
• Colour vision
• Cones are specialized in bright and colour vision. Visual cycle comparable to
that present in rods is also seen in cones. The colour vision is governed by
colour sensitive pigments-porphyropsin (red), Iodopsin (green) and cyanopsin
(blue). All these pigments are retinal-opsin complexes. When bright light Strikes
the retina, one or more of these pigments are bleached, depending on the
particular colour of light.
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VISUAL CASCADE AND cGMP
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CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
VITAMIN B COMPLEX
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• This is not one vitamin but a group of water soluble vitamins which are found in
yeast, liver, rice polishings, etc. This group of vitamins includes (i) thiamine (ii)
riboflavin , (iii) pantothenic acid, (iv) nicotinic acid , (v) pyridoxine , (vi) folic acid
(vii) biotin, (viii) cyanocobalamin Other compounds which have definitely been
isolated from the vitamin B complex are
• (i) p-aminobenzoic acid(a growth factor for bacteria), (ii) myoinositol (a growth
factor in animals), (iii) choline, (iv) carnitine (oxidation of fatty acids in certain
insects) and lipoic acid (a growth factor for some micro-organisms).
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VITAMIN B1 (THIAMINE)
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• Introduction. Thiamine contains a pyrimidine ring and a thiazole ring held by a
methylene bridge. Thiamine is the only natural compound with thiazole ring. The
alcohol (OH) group of thiamine is esterified with phosphate (2 moles) to form
the coenzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP or cocarboxylase). The
pyrophosphate moiety is donated by ATP and the reaction is catalysed by the
enzyme thiamine pyrophosphate transferase.
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• Occurrence. It is a water soluble vitamin which occurs abundantly in the outer
coats of the seeds of many plants including the cereal grains like rice, wheat,
etc. In small quantity, it is also found in some animal organs, viz, liver and
kidney. It also occurs in yeast, milk ground nuts, eggs, all green vegetables,
roots, fruits, and dairy products (except butter). In animal tissues and in yeast it
occurs primarily coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate or cocarboxylase.
• Deficiency symptoms. The deficiency of vitamin B, results in a condition called
beriberi. Beriberi is mostly seen in populations consuming exclusively polished
rice as staple food. The early symptoms of thiamine deficiency are loss of
appetite (anorexia), weakness, constipation, nausea, mental depression,
peripheral neuropathy, irritability etc. Numbness in the legs complaints of 'pins
and needles sensations are reported.
• In adults, two types of beriberi, namely wet beriberi and dry beriberi occur.
Infantile beriberi that differs from adult beriberi is also seen.
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• .
(a) Dry beriberi: This takes place in the case of lesser deficiency of thiamine.
In this type of disease, there occurs muscular weakness and loss of weight,
neuritis, pain in the arms and legs and decrease in blood pressure. The
person suffering from dry beriberi responds rapidly to thiamine administration.
(b) Wet beriberi: This takes place in the case of severe deficiency of thiamine.
In this case, the entire nervous system is affected and results in a types of
paralysis, leading to edema and impaired cardiac function.
The symptoms of beriberi are often mixed in which case it is referred to as
mixed beriberi
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ISOLATION OF THIAMINE
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• Vitamin B1 rich material Agitated Acidulated water pH 4.5
Vitamin B1 goes into
the aqueous solution
The solution shaken with fuller’s earth allows to adsorb vit.B1 on Fullers
earth
Eluted with Quinine sulphate releases Vit. B1 and Excess of Quinine is ppt by
Barium hydroxide and Vit.B1 is convert into silver salt by AgNo3 solution.
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CONSTITUTION OF THIAMINE
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• Molecular formula: C12H18Cl2N4OS
• Decomposition product : When hemihydrate of thiamine is treated with a sodium
sulphite solution saturated with sulphur dioxide at room temperature, thiamine
undergoes decomposition quantitatively into two compounds, say, (A) and (B),
containing thiazole ring and pyrimidine ring respectively as follows:
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CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUND A
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• Molecular formula: C6H9NOS
• Presence of tertiary nitrogen atom: Compound A shows basic properties but
does not react with Nitrous acid, it reveals that the nitrogen is in tertiary state.
• Presence of primary Alcoholic group: When compound A is treated with HCl ,
a hydroxy group is replaced by a chlorine atom to yield a chloro-derivative of
compound A. The UV spectrum of the chloro-compound has been found to be
same as that of parent compound A indicates the hydroxy group is a primary
alcoholic group.
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CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUND B
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• Molecular formula: C6H9N3O3S
• Presence of Sulphonic acid:
Compound B Pressure at 200°C Sulphuric acid
Presence of Amino group:
Compound B + Nitrous Acid -N2 gas Shows that it contains one or more
amino group then further analysis of compound B reveals it contain only one
amino group.
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SYNTHESIS OF THIAMINE
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF THIAMINE
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• In animal tissues and yeast, it occurs primarily as the coenzyme
thiamin pyrophosphate or cocarboxylase.
•
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• Thiamine pyrophosphate participates as a coenzyme in a-keto acid
dehydrogenases, pyruvic decarboxylase transketolase and phosphoketolase, an
enzyme concerned with the metabolism of pentoses in certain bacteria. For
example
• D-Xylulose-5-P + P1 Phosphoketolase Acetyl-P + Glyceraldehyde-P
• Cocarboxylase
• It should be noted that yeasts can decarboxylate pyruvic acid because they
contain thiamine pyrophosphate (cocarboxylase) and the apoenzyme
(decarboxylase). Animal cells contain thiamine pyrophosphate when the thiamine
supply is adequate, but they lack the apoenzyme, the decarboxylase. That is why
decarboxylation in these cells is carried out as an oxidative decarboxylation.
•
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VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
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Introduction. Since vitamin B2, is chemically related to the yellow water-soluble
pigments known flavins and it was also isolated from milk, it is also known as
lactoflavin.
• Riboflavin contains 6, 7-dimethyl isoalloxazine (a heterocyclic 3 ring structure)
attached to D-ribitol by a nitrogen atom. Ribitol is an open chain form of sugar
ribose with the aldehyde group (CHO) reduced to alcohol (CH2OH)
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• Occurrence. Vitamin B2 is widely distributed in plants and animals. It is present
in yeast, vegetables. milk, egg white, liver, kidney, meat, etc. The primary
source of vitamin B2 is plant material, although commercial production by
yeasts and certain micro-organisms is practised The vitamin B2 occurs in
nature almost exclusively as a constituent of the two flavin prosthetic groups,
flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
• Deficiency Disease. The symptoms of vitamin B2 deficiency are difficult to
observe in man. Signs such as a dark red tongue, dermatitis, and cheilosis
similar to those of niacin deficiency have been observed. Its deficiency in
human system also reduces growth and causes general weakness.
• Intake of large doses of riboflavin (5-10 mg/day) in humans does not result in
any toxic symptoms.
• Properties. Vitamin B2 is a bright yellow powder which decomposes at -280°C.
It is soluble in water and in ethanol but is insoluble in chloroform and other
organic solvents.
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ISOLATION OF RIBOFLAVIN
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• Material rich in vitamin B2 Agitated Conc. HCl followed by filtration
Filtrate contain Vit. B2
Vit. B2 from filtrate adsorb on Fuller’s earth, treated with water and loses HCl
After this Vit. B2 is eluted by basic solvents like Pyridine-methanol-water
mixture, Ammonia etc. Vit.B2 is ppt from elute as sparingly soluble Thallium
salt.
Separation of riboflavin and riboflavin 5’-Phosphoric acid from Flavin
combined with protein is achieved by dialysis in cellophane tubes at 3°C fir 1
hour.
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CONSTITUTION OF RIBOFLAVIN
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• Molecular formula: C17H20N4O6
• Presence of 4 –OH group:
Silver salt of riboflavin Acetylated tetra-acetylated derivative indicate 4 –
OH group
Oxidation:
Riboflavin Oxidised with lead tetra acetate Formaldehyde
indicate
A primary hydroxyl group is present in an a-position to
a secondary hydroxyl group
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• Nature of Nitrogen atom: Riboflavin does not react with nitrous acid ,
this shows that is does not contain free primary amino group.
however alkaline hydrolysis of riboflavin yield urea indicating that it
contain –NH-CO-NH- group.
• Alkaline solution of riboflavin Irradiated Lumilactoflavin (Yield
new compound)
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SYNTHESIS OF RIBOFLAVIN
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF VITAMIN B2
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VITAMIN B12 (CYNOCOBALAMINE)
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• Introduction. Vitamin B12 is the first natural product which contains cobalt.
Vitamin B12 is also own as anti-pernicious anaemia vitamin It is a unique
vitamin, synthesized by only microorganisms and not by animals and plants. It
was the last vitamin to be discovered .
• The structure of vitamin B12 consists of a corrin ring with a central cobalt atom.
The corrin ring is most similar to the tetrapyrrole ring structure found overline in
other porphyrin compounds eg. heme (with Fe) md chlorophyll (with Mg).
• Occurrence: Vitamin B12 is not present in plant kingdom but is found in all
animal tissues especially the liver of ox, sheep, horse, pig, fish, etc. It is also
present in cow dung and urine. It is also synthesised certain micro-organisms
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• Deficiency Disease. It is essential growth factor for many micro-organisms. Its
deficiency in man causes pernicious anaemia which is followed by degradation
of spinal cord. This disease does not arise the to the absence of vitamin B12 in
diet but due to the lack of secretion in stomach called intrinsic factor which is
essential for the assimilation of vitamin B12 The same symptoms also appear in
the case of folic and deficiency. Thus, patients respond to either of the two
vitamins. However, B12 is considered to be more beneficial than folic acid.
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ISOLATION OF VITAMIN B12
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• Isolation is divided into three different steps as follows:
• Preparation of liver extract. After mincing, the liver is boiled with water to
coagulate proteins which are removed by filtration. The filtrate is then made to
treat with different mixtures of water and alcohol repeatedly to precipitate
various impurities. After filtration, the filtrate is made to adsorb on charcoal at a
specific pH. The impurities remain on charcoal whereas the filtrate containing
vitamin B12 passes down. This process is repeated with this filtrate many times
to get partially purified liver extract
• Purification of liver extract. The extract obtained from step (a) is further
purified by employing adsorption and partition chromatography. In the former
case, the extract in water is adsorbed on alumina whereas in the latter case
silica is used as an adsorbent and n-butanol as a solvent.
• Crystallisation. From the purified liver extract obtained from step (b), vitamin
B12 is crystallised by employing different crystallisation procedures
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CONSTITUTION OF VITAMIN B12
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• The structure now accepted requires a formula of C63H84N14PCO14
corresponding to a molecular weight of 1355
• The UV absorption spectrum of an aqueous solution of vitamin B12 exhibits
three maxima at 278, 361 and 550 nm with extinction coefficients of 115, 207
and 63 respectively. The UV spectrum remains unchanged by changing the pH
of the aqueous solution.
• The vitamin B12 is optically active and behaves as a polyacidic base; it forms a
hexaperchlorate.
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• Magnetic susceptibility measurements, which indicated the diamagnetic
character of the vitamin B12 resulted in the assignment of the trivalent state to
the cobalt atom. This was further confirmed by polarographic studies.
• Infrared studies revealted the presence of a replaceable cyanide group which is
tightly and co-ordinately bound to the cobalt atom.
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF VITAMIN B12
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• Vitamin B12, which has been found only in animals and microorganisms and
not in plants, occurs as part of a coenzyme known as coenzyme B12.
• The reducing system is complex in that it involves a NADH-flavoprotein-disulfide
(S-S) protein system.
• The reductant, NADH, transfers its electrons via a flavoprotein to the specific
disulfide (S-S) protein to form a dithiol (SH, SH) protein that converts vitamin 12
(Co^ 2+ ) to vitamin B12 (Col+). This reduced form then becomes the substrate
for the alkylation reaction with ATP.
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CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
VITAMIN C
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• Introduction. Vitamin C is more related to the monosaccharides than other
vitamins, Vitamin C is water soluble versatile vitamin. It plays an important role
in human health and disease. Vitamin C has become the most controversial
vitamin in recent years. This is because of the claims and counter-claims on the
use of vitamin C in mega doses to cure everything from common cold to cancer.
• Occurrence. Vitamin C is widely distributed in both plants and animals. In
plants, it is mainly found in citrous fruits like lemons, oranges, black carrots, etc.
It is also found in green vegetables like Cabbage. beans and tomatoes. In
animals, it occurs in tissues and various glands or organs (e.g., liver, adrenal
glands, thymus, corpus luteum, etc
• Deficiency Disease. The deficiency of vitamin C causes the disease scurvy (fe,
tendency to haemorrhage and structural changes in the cartilage, bone and
teeth) in infants and adults. In severe deficiency, There occurs swelling and
bleeding of gums and teeth become lose.
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CONSTITUTION OF VITAMIN C
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• Molecular formula. C6H3O6
• Presence of keto-enol system.
• (1) Ozonolysis of ascorbic acid takes place without producing fragments,
indicating that it contains one double bond.
• (ii) Ascorbic acid also acts as a strong reducing agent.
• (iii) With ferric chloride solution, ascorbic acid gives violet coloration, indicating
the presence of -OH group in it.
• (iv) With phenylhydrazine, ascorbic acid yields phenyl hydrazone, indicating that
it contains >C-0 group.
• (v) As ascorbic acid does not restore coloration of Schiff's reagent, it does not
contain aldehyde group.
• All the above facts suggest that a keto-enol system is present in ascorbic acid,
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• Presence of carboxyl group. Ascorbic acid forms monosodium and
monopotassium derivatives, indicating that it may contain -COOH
group. But ascorbic acid does not give effervescence of CO2 with
sodium bicarbonate solution. Therefore, it should not contain free
carboxyl group.
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ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C
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SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN C (HAWORTH AND HIRST SYNTHESIS)
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF VITAMIN C
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CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
VITAMIN E
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• Introduction. Vitamin E represents a group of eight compounds which are
collectively called tocopherols. The most biologically active compound is a-
tocopherol whereas ẞ-and y-tocopherols exhibit about half the activity of a-
compound
• Occurrence. It is widely distributed in nature in plant and animal tissues. This
vitamin occurs in wheat germ oil (which contains a-and B-tocopherols), cotton
seed oil (which contains y-tocopherols), soyabean oil (which contains 8-
tocopherol), palm oil and rice. In animals, it occurs mainly in the livers of horses
and cattles and in small amounts in the muscles of heart, kidney, placenta and
egg. There is some evidence that all a-tocopherol is localised in the
mitochondria
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• Deficiency Disease. Its deficiency in animals and man results in the following
diseases
• (i) It causes antisterility. Due to this antisterility factor, the vitamin E was called
tocopherol because word tokos (Greek) means childbirth and phero (Greek)
means to bear
• (ii) It causes increase in the number of leucocytes, i.e, WBC of the blood,
causing blood anaemia. (iii) It causes increased excretion of creative and
pentose sugar (ribose) in urine which is primarily due to degeneration of
muscles.
• (iii) It also increases concentration of RNA and DNA in the bone marrow
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ISOLATION OF VITAMIN E
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• Isolation. The oil obtained by pressing dried wheat germs is
saponified by treating it with 20 per cent alcoholic KOH in the
absence of oxygen. The saponified portion is rejected whereas the
unsaponified Portion is worked out which contains sterols and
vitamin E .The former is removed by precipitating with digitonin.
Now the remaining oil when subjected to distillation yields vitamin E
fraction at 200-300°C under 0.1 mm pressure. This method is not
economical due to loss of vitamins.
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CONSTITUTION OF TOCOPHEROL
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• Molecular formula. C29H50O2
• Nature of the one oxygen atom. One of the oxygen atoms is present as hydroxyl
group since tocopherol forms monoacetate, monoester and mono ether. Further
it was shown by an examination of the UV spectra of a-tocopherol and its
acetate that this hydroxyl group is phenolic in nature.
• Nature of the second oxygen atom. The second oxygen atom is found to be
present as cyclic ether.
• Thermal decomposition of a Tocopherol. When a-tocopherol is heated under
different conditions, Past different products are obtained.
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SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN E (Miller's Synthesis )
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF VITAMIN E
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• Tocopherol in vitro is a strong antioxidant activity.
• The biochemical activity of tocopherol is to protect sensitive mitochondrial
system from irreversible inhibition by lipid peroxidase.
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CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF NIACIN
( VITAMIN B 5 )
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• Introduction. The term niacin is the official name of the vitamin nicotinic acid.
The biochemically active form of the vitamin niacin is the amide, nicotinamide or
niacinamide. Niacin is pyridine derivative, Structurally, it is pyridine 3-carboxylic
acid. The amide form of niacin is known as niacinamide or nicotinamide.
• Occurrence. Niacin is widely distributed in plant and animal tissues, meat
products like liver, meat and kidney It is also present in yeast, grain cereals,
pulses, groundnut and coffee.
• The coenzyme forms of the nicotinamide are the nicotinamide nucleotide
coenzymes I and II which play a part in many biological oxidations.
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• Deficiency Disease. Both nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are
human pellagara-preventing factor. Pellagara is characterised by the
lesions of those parts of the body which are exposed to sunlight.
Their deficiency also causes black tongue in dogs.
• Severe deficiency of both nicotinic acid and nicotinamide causes
disturbances in digestive and nervous systems
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CONSTITUTION OF NICOTINIC ACID
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4
• Molecular formula : C6H5NO2
• Presence -COOH group:
Nicotinic acid Presence of –COOH Mono-sodium salt + Esters + Acid chloride
• Nature of N-atom:
As nicotinic acid forms addition salts with strong acids like HCl and HBr. This
shows that the nitrogen of nicotinic acid is basic in nature.
• Structure of nicotinic acid.
• Nicotinic acid on decarboxylation with lime yields pyridine. This reaction shows
that nicotinic acid is pyridine monocarboxylic acid. The position of the -COOH
group has been found to be 3 when the physical constants of the three acids
(pyridine-1-, 2-and 3-carboxylic acids) are compared with that of nicotinic acid.
This position has been further confirmed by the oxidation of 3-phenyl pyridine
which is obtained from ẞ-naphthylamine.
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SYNTHESIS OF NIACIN
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• 1) By oxidation of Nicotine:
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• 2) From Quinoline:
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF NIACIN
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• Dietary nicotinamide, niacin and tryptophan (an essential amino acid) contribute
to the synthesis of coenzymes- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate.
• The coenzymes NAD and NADP are involved in a variety of oxidation reduction
reactions.
• They accept hydride ion (hydrogen atom and one electron) and undergoes
reduction in the pyridine ring. This results in the neutralization of positive
charge.
• The nitrogen atom and the fourth carbon of nicotinamide ring participate in the
reaction.
• While one atom of hydrogen (as hydride ion) from the substrate (AH2) is
accepted by the coenzyme and the other hydrogen ion is released into the
surrounding medium.
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CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FOLIC
ACID
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• Introduction. Folic acid consists of three components pteridine ring,
p-amino benzoic acid (PABA) and glutamic acid (1 to 7 residues).
Folic acid mostly has one glutamic acid residue and is known as
pteroyl-glutamic acid (PGA).The active form of folic acid is
tetrahydrofolate .
• It is synthesized from folic acid by the enzyme dihydrofolate
reductase. The reducing equivalents are provided by 2 moles of
NADPH. The hydrogen atoms are present at positions 5, 6, 7 and 8
of THF.
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• Folic acid deficiency : it is the most common vitamin deficiency, observed
primarily in the pregnant women. The lactating women, women on oral
contraceptives and alcoholics are also susceptible to folate deficiency. The folic
acid deficiency may be due to (one or more causes) inadequate dietary intake,
defective absorption, impaired metabolism and increased demand. In the
pregnant women, a decreased absorption and increased clearance of folate is
responsible for the deficiency. Treatment with certain drugs (e.g. methotrexate)
that inhibit dihydrofolate reductase will cause folic acid deficiency.
• Properties. It is a yellow crystalline solid which is sparingly soluble in water. This
is stable in acid solution but is sensitive to sunlight and to high temperature
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ISOLATION OF FOLIC ACID
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Acidified liver extract Flow through Column (Activated coconut charcoal)
Latter adsorbs Folic acid elute with Alcoholic ammonia
the elute adsorb on super filterol followed by elution with ethanolic ammonium
hydroxide
Eluted concentrated Solution is ppt as Barium salt and then as phosphotungstate
Esterified compound adsorb over super filterol followed by elution on Acetone. folic
acid is purified by crystallisation and liberated as free acid by treating with NaOH
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CONSTITUTION OF FOLIC ACID
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• This was elucidated by Argier et. al., (1946) by carrying out experimentation on
the yeast L. casei factor. The structure of the latter has been found to be similar
to the folic acid obtained from Liver L casei factor with the difference that folic
acid obtained from yeast casei factor contains three molecules of glutamic acid
whereas that obtained from Liver L. casei factor contains only one molecule of
glutamic acid
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• The constitution of folic acid has been elucidated on the basis of
following facts
A) Alkaline hydrolysis of the yeast L. casei factor in anaerobic
condition yields two molecules of D-glutamic acid and the DL-form
of L. casei factor.
• On the other hand, alkaline hydrolysis of the yeast L. casei factor in
aerobic condition yields two substances:
• (1) an aromatic amine and (II) C7H5N5O3
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CONTINUE
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2) Structure of compound A (Aromatic amine)
• On hydrolysis, it yields one mole of p-aminobenzoic acid and three
moles of glutamic acid.
•
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• 3) Structure of compound B:
• Molecular formula: C7H5N5O3
• By the usual tests, it is shown that this compound B contains one
carboxyl, one amino and one enolic hydroxyl group.
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SYNTHESIS OF FOLIC ACID
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BIOCHEMICAL ROLE OF FOLIC ACID
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• Although folic acid is the vitamin, its reduction products are the
actual coenzyme forms. As enzyme, L-folate reductase, reduces
folic acid to dihydrofolic acid .