This document presents the results of a study that investigated the environmental hazards of idle time and speed of a compression ignition engine fueled with Iraqi diesel fuel. The study measured emissions of CO, HC, CO2, NOx, particulate matter, and noise from the engine at various idle speeds (900, 1000, 1200, 1500 rpm) over a 20 minute period. The results showed that increasing idle time and decreasing idle speed generally increased emissions and noise, while increasing idle speed improved combustion and reduced most emissions and noise. Specifically, higher idle times and lower speeds increased CO, HC, NOx, PM and noise but decreased CO2, while higher speeds increased CO2 and NOx but decreased other emissions and noise. The aim was
Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Injection of OxyHydrogen Gas on t...IJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRAC: Oxy-Hydrogen gas, H2O2, is a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen produced by water electrolysis. In this work, an experimental exploration was carried out in order to study the effect of the addition of oxy-hydrogen gas into inlet air manifold on speed performance characteristics of a diesel engine at different operating conditions. The experimental work was performed on a test rig comprising a four stroke 5.67 liters water-cooled diesel engine and a Heenan hydraulic dynamometer. Instrumentation included devices for measuring engine speed, load, fuel consumption and inlet air flow rate. The measurements were conducted at 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm. At each speed, the engine load was adjusted to 20%, 40% and 80% from the engine full load which corresponds to engine brake mean effective pressures of 1.55, 3.11, and 6.22 bar, respectively, for Oxy-hydrogen generator supplied Currents of 26A and electrolyte concentration of 25 %. The fuel saving percentage and so the brake thermal efficiency for the H2O2 enriched CI engine is more evidently seen at low loads and high-speed conditions. the volumetric efficiency drop was about 5 % at small speeds and reaches to about 2% at higher engine speed.
Effects of Errors on Vehicle Emission Rates from Portable Emissions Measure...Gurdas Sandhu
See journal paper at http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2340-02
Portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS) are useful for quantification of real-world vehicle activity, energy use, and emissions. However, there is no standard methodology for processing PEMS data; this can lead to errors in reported results. PEMS typically include tail-pipe exhaust gas and particle analyzers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, engine sensors, and electronic control unit (ECU) data loggers. The sensitivity of estimated emission rates to random errors in measurements is quantified. Methods are evaluated for identification and correction of improper synchronization of PEMS, ECU, and GPS data streams and for road grade estimation. Estimated fuel use and emission rates for light- and heavy-duty vehicles are sensitive to errors in intake manifold absolute pressure and engine revolutions per minute values and in indicators of air-to-fuel ratio including carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations. Synchronization can be aided by maximizing the Pearson correlation coefficient between two indicator variables and confirming the result by matching concurrent increases in indicator variables. The effect of improper synchronization on estimated modal emission rates is quantified. Modal average emission rates based on vehicle-specific power (VSP) are more sensitive to improperly synchronized engine versus GPS data. Improperly synchronized data streams result in decreased variability between the lowest and highest modal average emission rates. Estimation of road grade from a linear least squares slope of elevation over a specified distance is demonstrated. VSP-based modal fuel use and pollutant emission rates are less sensitive to differences in road grade than to errors in synchronization.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Analysis of fuel consumption and oxides of nitrogen using oxygen enriched air...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Injection of OxyHydrogen Gas on t...IJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRAC: Oxy-Hydrogen gas, H2O2, is a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen produced by water electrolysis. In this work, an experimental exploration was carried out in order to study the effect of the addition of oxy-hydrogen gas into inlet air manifold on speed performance characteristics of a diesel engine at different operating conditions. The experimental work was performed on a test rig comprising a four stroke 5.67 liters water-cooled diesel engine and a Heenan hydraulic dynamometer. Instrumentation included devices for measuring engine speed, load, fuel consumption and inlet air flow rate. The measurements were conducted at 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm. At each speed, the engine load was adjusted to 20%, 40% and 80% from the engine full load which corresponds to engine brake mean effective pressures of 1.55, 3.11, and 6.22 bar, respectively, for Oxy-hydrogen generator supplied Currents of 26A and electrolyte concentration of 25 %. The fuel saving percentage and so the brake thermal efficiency for the H2O2 enriched CI engine is more evidently seen at low loads and high-speed conditions. the volumetric efficiency drop was about 5 % at small speeds and reaches to about 2% at higher engine speed.
Effects of Errors on Vehicle Emission Rates from Portable Emissions Measure...Gurdas Sandhu
See journal paper at http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2340-02
Portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS) are useful for quantification of real-world vehicle activity, energy use, and emissions. However, there is no standard methodology for processing PEMS data; this can lead to errors in reported results. PEMS typically include tail-pipe exhaust gas and particle analyzers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, engine sensors, and electronic control unit (ECU) data loggers. The sensitivity of estimated emission rates to random errors in measurements is quantified. Methods are evaluated for identification and correction of improper synchronization of PEMS, ECU, and GPS data streams and for road grade estimation. Estimated fuel use and emission rates for light- and heavy-duty vehicles are sensitive to errors in intake manifold absolute pressure and engine revolutions per minute values and in indicators of air-to-fuel ratio including carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations. Synchronization can be aided by maximizing the Pearson correlation coefficient between two indicator variables and confirming the result by matching concurrent increases in indicator variables. The effect of improper synchronization on estimated modal emission rates is quantified. Modal average emission rates based on vehicle-specific power (VSP) are more sensitive to improperly synchronized engine versus GPS data. Improperly synchronized data streams result in decreased variability between the lowest and highest modal average emission rates. Estimation of road grade from a linear least squares slope of elevation over a specified distance is demonstrated. VSP-based modal fuel use and pollutant emission rates are less sensitive to differences in road grade than to errors in synchronization.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Analysis of fuel consumption and oxides of nitrogen using oxygen enriched air...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analysis of fuel consumption and oxides of nitrogen using oxygen enriched air...eSAT Journals
Abstract Pollution is one major factor which affects the environment nowadays, resulting in green house effect and global warming. Suitable methods are introduced to increase the engine fuel economy and bring down the emissions within the tolerable limit. One way of doing it is by inducting oxygen into the combustion chamber since oxygen is a combustion enhancer the amount of oxygen entering into the combustion chamber if increased it would result in better engine performance and lower emissions. Oxygen can be inducted in the intake stroke by the help of an external source and mixing chamber is provided so that it helps in better mixing of air and supplementary oxygen. This additional increase of air will affects all parameters of the engine like operating temperature, fuel consumption, Brake power, emissions, and heat release but only fuel consumption and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) alone is analyzed. Load test was conducted on a compression Ignition engine for various concentration of oxygen from (21% to 27%) with an interval of 2%. This experimental study shows better fuel economy and better brake specific fuel consumption but led to a very high percentage of Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) emission and lower carbon monoxide (CO), hydro carbon (HC) emission. Keywords: NOx emission, Fuel economy, Diesel engine, Oxygen enriched air.
In this study, analysis of DRO and ORO (C10-C40) were performed using a Shimadzu GC-FID equipped with fast temperature programmable (FTP) column that aim to significantly reduce the run time for this analysis.
COMPARATIVE EMISSION ANALYSIS OF CNG AND OCTANE IN RETROFITTED CAR ENGINESIAEME Publication
Comparative emission analysis of octane and compressed natural gas (CNG) fueled retrofitted spark ignition car engine refers to exhaust emission (carbon monooxide, carbon di-oxide, Nitrogen Oxide) analysis and exhaust temperature on car engines which are operated with either gasoline or CNG using a solenoid actuated valve mechanism. The analysis was successfully carried out with the help of an exhaust gas analyzer (IMR 4000). Octane was used as the conventional fuels, whereas CNG was the alternative fuel. Comparative analysis of the experimental result showed the retrofitted engine produced higher exhaust gas temperature andNOx emission over different engines of different mileage when were used with CNG.
Other emission contents were significantly lower than those of the gasoline emissions.
The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fuel...iosrjce
The replacement of gasoline with ethanol is increased worldwide indicating the need to understand
the air quality impacts of this exchanging. In the recent study, variable experimental tests conducted to evaluate
the impacts of several ethanol-gasoline blends (E20, E50, and E80) on particulate matter (PM) and lead (Pb)
concentrations emitted from a four-stroke, single cylinder, water-cooled spark-ignition (SI) engine. PM and Pb
exhaust emissions measured and analyzed at variable engine operation parameters.
The emitted PM emissions reduced with increase concentration of ethanol in the blend. Compared to the
baseline gasoline (E0), E20 gave relatively lower reductions in PM emissions, while E50 and E80 both reduced
PM emissions under the conditions studied. Ethanol was observed to impact Pb emissions depending on the
ethanol share in the blend
Investigation on evaporative emission from a gasoline polycarbonate fuel tankeSAT Journals
Abstract It is estimated that about 15 to 20 percent of the vehicle hydrocarbon (HC) emission were due to evaporation of fuel. Hence a need was felt to understand the extent of evaporative emission from gasoline fuel system. A polycarbonate fuel tank that is predominantly used in two wheeled vehicles is considered for study. Emission can surface to atmosphere in three modes; diffusion through fuel tank wall, escaping through vent in tank and when fuel tank cap is opened for refueling. The average temperature condition which prevails in south India which is in the range of 27o C to 34oC was considered. From which temperatures which were at proximity to peak high and low day time were chosen. The complete set up was placed in open atmosphere to replicate the working environment. The emission constituents and its levels were measured by conducting the test particularly for averaged out day time high and low temperature condition. Further diffusion test was conducted within a range of 34oC to 36oC, this temperature is considered to be range of maximum temperature which prevails in south India. From which a temperature was chosen and the test was conducted. This comparative study gives an indication of emission and its quantity from the fuel tank at the ambient temperature. Keywords: Evaporative Emission, Fuel Tank, HC Emission
OBD-II and Oxygen Sensor: Review the I.C Engine - Emissions related PerformanceIJCERT
Increased awareness regarding the adverse effects of pollutants from automobile exhaust gases has been the main driving force for implementation of more and more stringent legislation on automobile exhaust emissions in many Countries. On Board Diagnostic (OBD), regulations in the USA for light and medium duty vehicles (I. C. Engines) are introducing to implement the air quality standard. California and the Federal Government used a driving cycle to certify 1966 and newer models which referred to as either California Cycle or the Federal Test Procedure (FTP). The California Air Resource Board (CARB) and the objective to reduce hydrocarbon (HC) emission caused by malfunction of the vehicles emission control systems adopted the California code of Regulations (CCR) known as OBD – II. The diagnosis is based on the oxygen sensor response time that is the amount of time to complete a switch from rich to lean or lean to rich transition that gives the ability to control the engine at stochiometric Air Fuel ratio. Typical values of lean mean voltage and rich mean voltage are 300 to 600 mill volts respectively. For post-cat O2 sensor, in particular, voltage level checks and heater systems checked and done and the failure thresholds for the post O2 sensor, diagnostic must not be set at a point beyond the failure limit where the catalyst diagnostic is affected.
Adsorption of hydrogen sulfide using palm shell activated carboneSAT Journals
Abstract Removing H2S from biogas that is produced from anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent is a crucial step in order for the biogas to be utilized as a source of energy. In this study, palm shell activated carbon (PSAC) prepared by steam activation was used to adsorb H2S from simulated biogas. The parameters studied were H2S concentration, adsorption temperature and space velocity. The effect of these parameters towards breakthrough adsorption capacity was studied using statistical analysis with Design Expert Software. H2S concentration and space velocity were found to be significant in affecting the breakthrough adsorption capacity.Adsorption temperature on its own was found not to have significant effect on the breakthrough adsorption capacity but its interaction with other parameters was found to be significant. Characterization of fresh and spent PSAC confirmed and provided further information on the adsorption of sulfur species on PSAC pore surface. Keywords: Activated carbon; Biogas; Hydrogen sulfide; Adsorption
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Diesel Engine Combustion Simulation using Computational Fluid DynamicsIDES Editor
Diesel engines are used in automotive and stationary
applications. The main problem with diesel engines is emissions
of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulates. In order to minimize
the emissions, it is necessary to design the diesel engine with
better in-cylinder flow (air-fuel mixing) and combustion
process. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation
helps to understand the Diesel engine temperature distribution
and NOx species concentrations with respect to time. A small
direct injection (DI) engine was chosen for the study. CFD
simulation results were compared with that of engine emission
tests. Results were found to be in agreement with NOx
emissions. This paper also presents the simulation results of
direct injection diesel engine in-cylinder flow (air-fuel mixing)
and combustion.
The effect of rotational speed variation on the static pressure in the centri...IOSR Journals
The current investigation is aimed to simulate the three-dimensional complex internal flow in a
centrifugal pump impeller with five twisted blades by using specialized computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
software ANSYS /FLUENT 14code with a standard k-ε two-equation turbulence model.
A single blade passage will be modeled to give more accurate results for static pressure contours on (blade,
hub, and shroud). The potential consequences of static pressure associated with operating a centrifugal
compressor in variable rotation speed.
A numerical three-dimensional, through flow calculations to predict static pressure through a
centrifugal pump were presented to examined the effect of rotational speed variation on the static pressure of
the centrifugal pump . The contours of the static pressure of the blade, hub, and shroud indicates negative low
static pressure in the suction side at high rotational speed (over operation limits )and the static pressure
increases gradually until reach maximum value at the leading edge (6×105 Pa) of the blade.
Analysis of fuel consumption and oxides of nitrogen using oxygen enriched air...eSAT Journals
Abstract Pollution is one major factor which affects the environment nowadays, resulting in green house effect and global warming. Suitable methods are introduced to increase the engine fuel economy and bring down the emissions within the tolerable limit. One way of doing it is by inducting oxygen into the combustion chamber since oxygen is a combustion enhancer the amount of oxygen entering into the combustion chamber if increased it would result in better engine performance and lower emissions. Oxygen can be inducted in the intake stroke by the help of an external source and mixing chamber is provided so that it helps in better mixing of air and supplementary oxygen. This additional increase of air will affects all parameters of the engine like operating temperature, fuel consumption, Brake power, emissions, and heat release but only fuel consumption and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) alone is analyzed. Load test was conducted on a compression Ignition engine for various concentration of oxygen from (21% to 27%) with an interval of 2%. This experimental study shows better fuel economy and better brake specific fuel consumption but led to a very high percentage of Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) emission and lower carbon monoxide (CO), hydro carbon (HC) emission. Keywords: NOx emission, Fuel economy, Diesel engine, Oxygen enriched air.
In this study, analysis of DRO and ORO (C10-C40) were performed using a Shimadzu GC-FID equipped with fast temperature programmable (FTP) column that aim to significantly reduce the run time for this analysis.
COMPARATIVE EMISSION ANALYSIS OF CNG AND OCTANE IN RETROFITTED CAR ENGINESIAEME Publication
Comparative emission analysis of octane and compressed natural gas (CNG) fueled retrofitted spark ignition car engine refers to exhaust emission (carbon monooxide, carbon di-oxide, Nitrogen Oxide) analysis and exhaust temperature on car engines which are operated with either gasoline or CNG using a solenoid actuated valve mechanism. The analysis was successfully carried out with the help of an exhaust gas analyzer (IMR 4000). Octane was used as the conventional fuels, whereas CNG was the alternative fuel. Comparative analysis of the experimental result showed the retrofitted engine produced higher exhaust gas temperature andNOx emission over different engines of different mileage when were used with CNG.
Other emission contents were significantly lower than those of the gasoline emissions.
The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fuel...iosrjce
The replacement of gasoline with ethanol is increased worldwide indicating the need to understand
the air quality impacts of this exchanging. In the recent study, variable experimental tests conducted to evaluate
the impacts of several ethanol-gasoline blends (E20, E50, and E80) on particulate matter (PM) and lead (Pb)
concentrations emitted from a four-stroke, single cylinder, water-cooled spark-ignition (SI) engine. PM and Pb
exhaust emissions measured and analyzed at variable engine operation parameters.
The emitted PM emissions reduced with increase concentration of ethanol in the blend. Compared to the
baseline gasoline (E0), E20 gave relatively lower reductions in PM emissions, while E50 and E80 both reduced
PM emissions under the conditions studied. Ethanol was observed to impact Pb emissions depending on the
ethanol share in the blend
Investigation on evaporative emission from a gasoline polycarbonate fuel tankeSAT Journals
Abstract It is estimated that about 15 to 20 percent of the vehicle hydrocarbon (HC) emission were due to evaporation of fuel. Hence a need was felt to understand the extent of evaporative emission from gasoline fuel system. A polycarbonate fuel tank that is predominantly used in two wheeled vehicles is considered for study. Emission can surface to atmosphere in three modes; diffusion through fuel tank wall, escaping through vent in tank and when fuel tank cap is opened for refueling. The average temperature condition which prevails in south India which is in the range of 27o C to 34oC was considered. From which temperatures which were at proximity to peak high and low day time were chosen. The complete set up was placed in open atmosphere to replicate the working environment. The emission constituents and its levels were measured by conducting the test particularly for averaged out day time high and low temperature condition. Further diffusion test was conducted within a range of 34oC to 36oC, this temperature is considered to be range of maximum temperature which prevails in south India. From which a temperature was chosen and the test was conducted. This comparative study gives an indication of emission and its quantity from the fuel tank at the ambient temperature. Keywords: Evaporative Emission, Fuel Tank, HC Emission
OBD-II and Oxygen Sensor: Review the I.C Engine - Emissions related PerformanceIJCERT
Increased awareness regarding the adverse effects of pollutants from automobile exhaust gases has been the main driving force for implementation of more and more stringent legislation on automobile exhaust emissions in many Countries. On Board Diagnostic (OBD), regulations in the USA for light and medium duty vehicles (I. C. Engines) are introducing to implement the air quality standard. California and the Federal Government used a driving cycle to certify 1966 and newer models which referred to as either California Cycle or the Federal Test Procedure (FTP). The California Air Resource Board (CARB) and the objective to reduce hydrocarbon (HC) emission caused by malfunction of the vehicles emission control systems adopted the California code of Regulations (CCR) known as OBD – II. The diagnosis is based on the oxygen sensor response time that is the amount of time to complete a switch from rich to lean or lean to rich transition that gives the ability to control the engine at stochiometric Air Fuel ratio. Typical values of lean mean voltage and rich mean voltage are 300 to 600 mill volts respectively. For post-cat O2 sensor, in particular, voltage level checks and heater systems checked and done and the failure thresholds for the post O2 sensor, diagnostic must not be set at a point beyond the failure limit where the catalyst diagnostic is affected.
Adsorption of hydrogen sulfide using palm shell activated carboneSAT Journals
Abstract Removing H2S from biogas that is produced from anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent is a crucial step in order for the biogas to be utilized as a source of energy. In this study, palm shell activated carbon (PSAC) prepared by steam activation was used to adsorb H2S from simulated biogas. The parameters studied were H2S concentration, adsorption temperature and space velocity. The effect of these parameters towards breakthrough adsorption capacity was studied using statistical analysis with Design Expert Software. H2S concentration and space velocity were found to be significant in affecting the breakthrough adsorption capacity.Adsorption temperature on its own was found not to have significant effect on the breakthrough adsorption capacity but its interaction with other parameters was found to be significant. Characterization of fresh and spent PSAC confirmed and provided further information on the adsorption of sulfur species on PSAC pore surface. Keywords: Activated carbon; Biogas; Hydrogen sulfide; Adsorption
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Diesel Engine Combustion Simulation using Computational Fluid DynamicsIDES Editor
Diesel engines are used in automotive and stationary
applications. The main problem with diesel engines is emissions
of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulates. In order to minimize
the emissions, it is necessary to design the diesel engine with
better in-cylinder flow (air-fuel mixing) and combustion
process. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation
helps to understand the Diesel engine temperature distribution
and NOx species concentrations with respect to time. A small
direct injection (DI) engine was chosen for the study. CFD
simulation results were compared with that of engine emission
tests. Results were found to be in agreement with NOx
emissions. This paper also presents the simulation results of
direct injection diesel engine in-cylinder flow (air-fuel mixing)
and combustion.
The effect of rotational speed variation on the static pressure in the centri...IOSR Journals
The current investigation is aimed to simulate the three-dimensional complex internal flow in a
centrifugal pump impeller with five twisted blades by using specialized computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
software ANSYS /FLUENT 14code with a standard k-ε two-equation turbulence model.
A single blade passage will be modeled to give more accurate results for static pressure contours on (blade,
hub, and shroud). The potential consequences of static pressure associated with operating a centrifugal
compressor in variable rotation speed.
A numerical three-dimensional, through flow calculations to predict static pressure through a
centrifugal pump were presented to examined the effect of rotational speed variation on the static pressure of
the centrifugal pump . The contours of the static pressure of the blade, hub, and shroud indicates negative low
static pressure in the suction side at high rotational speed (over operation limits )and the static pressure
increases gradually until reach maximum value at the leading edge (6×105 Pa) of the blade.
A Review: Machine vision and its ApplicationsIOSR Journals
Abstract:The machine vision has been used in the industrial machine designing by using the intelligent character recognition. Due to its increased use, it makes the significant contribution to ensure the competitiveness in modern development. The state of art in machine vision inspection and a critical overview of applications in various industries are presented in this paper. In its restricted sense it is also known as the computer vision or the robot vision. This paper gives the overview of Machine Vision Technology in the first section, followed by various industrial application and thefuture trends in Machine Vision. Keywords:CCD- charged coupled devices, Fruit harvesting system, HIS- Hue Saturation Intensity, Image analysis, Image enhancement, Image feature extraction, Image feature classification processing, Intelligent Vehicle tracking , Isodiscriminationn Contour, Machine Vision
Recent Developments and Analysis of Electromagnetic Metamaterial with all of ...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Recent advances in metamaterials (MMs) research have highlighted the possibility to create novel
devices with electromagnetic functionality. The metamaterial have the power which can easily construct
materials with a user-designed EM response with a particular target frequency. This is the important
phenomena of THz frequency region that can make a considerable progress in design fabrication, and define the
characteristics of MMs at THz frequencies. This article illustrates the latest advancements of THz MMs
research.
Key word: Metamaterials (MMs), Terahertz (THz).
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Crash Analysis of Front under Run Protection Device using Finite Element Anal...IOSR Journals
Under-running of passenger vehicles is one of the important parameters to be considered during
design and development of truck chassis. Front Under-run Protection Device (FUPD) plays an important role
in avoiding under-running of vehicles from front side of a truck. An explicit finite element software Altair
Radio's is used in FUPD analysis for impact loading. The deformation of FUPD bar and plastic strains in
FUPD components are determined in the impact analysis for predicting failure of the system to meet the
compliance requirements as per IS 14812-2005. Additionally, failure analysis of the FUPD attachment points
with chassis is determined. Physical testing can be reduced significantly with this approach which ultimately
reduces the total cycle time as well as the cost involved in product development.
DEVELOPMENT OF MULTI CYLINDER CRD-I ENGINE TO MEET EURO VI EMISSION NORMSIAEME Publication
Direct injection diesel engine offers the benefit of better fuel economy over gasoline engine. Diesel engine with electronic control of high press ure, multiple injections per cycle, 4valves per cylinder, turbocharged with intercooled, cooled EGR or SCR and DPF have now become the key features to meet the upcoming emissions in India. This paper describes the work done on multi-cylinder diesel engine to meet the requirements of Bharat stage 5 emissions and has the potential to meet Euro6 emission norms.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
INFLUENCE OF INJECTOR OPENING PRESSURE ON EXHAUST EMISSIONS IN DI DIESEL ENGI...IAEME Publication
Experiments were conducted to study exhaust emissions of direct injection (DI) diesel engine with different levels of low heat rejection (LHR) combustion chamber such as i) ceramic coated cylinder head, ii) air gap insulated piston and air gap insulated liner and iii) ceramic coated cylinder head along with air gap insulation with pure diesel operation with varied injector opening pressure.Exhaust emissions of particulate emissions and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) were determined at various
values of brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of the engine. Particulate emissions were measured by AVL Smoke meter, while NOx by Netel Chromatograph NOx analyzer
Validation of Experimental and Numerical Techniques for Flow Analysis over an...IJERA Editor
The impact of improvement in vehicle aerodynamics mainly reflects in lower fuel consumption and lower carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. The governments of many countries support continuous aerodynamics’ improvement programs as a way of mitigating the energy crisis and atmospheric pollution. This work has the main goal to validate experimental and numerical techniques for application in road vehicles. The experimental results were obtained through the analysis of the flow around a standard body with simple geometry called Ahmed Body, using hot wire anemometry from experiments in wind tunnel. It was also proposed a computational validation using a commercial software (Star CCM +) to further analyze the flow and to corroborate the experimental results. Both results were compared and allowed characterizing the flow around the vehicle. The results obtained analyzing the Ahmed Body aimed further application on aerodynamics of heavyduty vehicles, which is an ongoing research being developed at the Experimental Aerodynamics Research Center – CPAERO, in Brazil.
Performance analysis of ic engine using air energizereSAT Journals
Abstract In normal circumstances, due to incomplete combustion, 30% of the fuel remains unburnt and is emitted in the form of black smoke, causing air pollution. Moreover, the carbon originating from incomplete fuel combustions, settles on the spark plug and on the engine piston, thus diminishing the compression capacity of the piston and increasing the friction factor. This rate of carbon deposition increases especially in city driving, as the engine works much of the time at part throttle. Excess carbon decreases the compression ratio of the engine which ultimately robs the engine of its power, due to acute knocking or detonation. The above problem can be reduced to some extent by making use of paramagnetic property of oxygen present in the incoming air i.e. by passing the air through external magnetic field. Keywords: Air Energizer, Magnet, IC engine;
Performance analysis of ic engine using air energizerLaukik Raut
In normal circumstances, due to incomplete combustion, 30% of the fuel remains unburnt and is emitted in the form of black
smoke, causing air pollution. Moreover, the carbon originating from incomplete fuel combustions, settles on the spark plug and
on the engine piston, thus diminishing the compression capacity of the piston and increasing the friction factor. This rate of
carbon deposition increases especially in city driving, as the engine works much of the time at part throttle. Excess carbon
decreases the compression ratio of the engine which ultimately robs the engine of its power, due to acute knocking or detonation.
The above problem can be reduced to some extent by making use of paramagnetic property of oxygen present in the incoming air
i.e. by passing the air through external magnetic field
Similar to Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle Time and Speed of Compression Ignition Engine Fueled With Iraqi Diesel Fuel (20)
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
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Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle Time and Speed of Compression Ignition Engine Fueled With Iraqi Diesel Fuel
1. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)
e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 12, Issue 1 Ver. III (Jan- Feb. 2015), PP 29-34
www.iosrjournals.org
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12132934 www.iosrjournals.org 29 | Page
Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle
Time and Speed of Compression Ignition Engine Fueled With
Iraqi Diesel Fuel
Miqdam Tariq Chaichan 1
, Sajda Sabri Faris 1
1
(Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq)
Abstract: Idle emissions of unburnt hydrocarbon (HC), CO, CO2, NOx, particulate matter (PM) and noise
measured from multi-cylinder direct injection diesel-fueled engine. The purpose was to evaluate the hazards
collateral to operating the engine at idle speed for long periods. Experiments were conducted at various speeds
(900, 1000, 1200 and 1500 rpm) and for 20 min period. The measurements obtained each 5 min.
The results indicate that increasing idle time increased CO, HC, NOx, PM, and noise, at the same time reduced
CO2 concentration. Increasing idle time deteriorated combustion causing lower CO2 while the other emissions
increased profoundly. Increasing idle speed improved the combustion and reduced CO, HC, PM and noise
while increased CO2 and NOx.
Keywords: Engine idling, idle time, NOx, PM, HC, CO, noise. .
I. Introduction
Climate change is an essential issue of concern for the last two decades. Climate change tied to energy
usage and the emissions emitted from fossil fuels combustion. Huge efforts are made to the use of that energy
efficiently and to reduce the emitted carbon dioxide quantity from all the used energy sources [1]. The idle
period for heavy-duty diesel vehicle consumes fuel and emitted emissions that reduce atmospheric quality. Idle
engine operation is crucial to provide the cab heat or air-conditioning that supply the driver comfort. However,
preventing this operation mode or period needs legislation, in addition to public edification for its importance to
air quality [2].
Heavy-duty trucks have been subjected to many valuable improvements to achieve high efficiencies. In
addition to reducing its fuel consumption, within the existing profiles of tractor and trailer operated all over the
world [3, 4, 5 & 6].
One obstacle to defining idle operation impact on air quality and human health is the lack of a
comprehensive tailpipe emissions database that describes these effects. A large number of studies investigated
and quantified idle emissions of heavy-duty diesel vehicles. The primary target of these studies was to
understand the impact of engine speed and load on idle emissions and to evaluate the idle reduction technologies
performance. Mc-Cormick [7] tested the emissions of idle operation of 24 heavy duty diesel vehicles and four
heavy-duty compressed natural gas vehicles. Diesel trucks emitted considerable quantities of HC, CO, NOx, and
PM emissions during idling compared to compressed natural gas trucks. Brodrick [8] tested the engine speed
and loaded impact on idle emissions on a 1999 model year Freightliner truck powered by a 450 horsepower
engine. Increasing the engine speed with air conditioning operated; resulted in increasing emissions of CO,
NOx, and CO2. It also increased the consumed fuel by 70%.
Chaichan [9] reported an increment in idle emissions of CO, HC, NOx, PM, and CO2 with adding EGR
to the suction manifold. Idle NOx concentrations increased with time; also, fuel injection control did not have
any effect on CO2 concentrations. The study concluded that the usage of the air conditioning in the truck without
increasing engine speed increased the emitted emissions. Increasing the engine speed increased the emissions of
CO2 and NOx highly, whereas PM and HC emissions increased by 100% and 70%, respectively.
Idle operation emitted emissions have serious impacts on human health, but truck drivers are
specifically at risk. Their long-term exposure to diesel exhaust increases the hazards of lung cancer [10]. The
recent studies of air pollution inside and outside of trucks at idling indicated an increase in fine particulates
emissions [11, 12 & 13]. The studies verified that the pollutant exposure, when the driver is resting in a truck
with the engine idling has a disruptive of sleep comfortably. Sleep intermittence causes driver exhaustion during
waking hours [14].
Idle reduction includes methods and technologies needed to be provided. Alternatives for cabin heating
and cooling must be taken into consideration. Maintaining the engine and reduce fuel sulfur content, improving
system warming for easy startup. Also, the providing of electricity for other amenities activities can lessen the
engine idle operation at stopping points. Many idle reduction technologies used including onboard direct-fired
2. Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle Time and Speed of…
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12132934 www.iosrjournals.org 30 | Page
heaters. The off-board stops electrification equipment on the truck that supplies electric power for air
conditioning, heating, and ventilation [15].
In this paper, the idle emissions quantity measurement was the one of primary targets. The examination
of the effect of elevated engine speed and engine idle time on idle emissions was one of the targets. Iraqi
conventional diesel fuel employed in the engine idle period evaluated, also.
II. Experimental Setup
2.1 Equipments
Fiat diesel engine used in the tests is direct injection, water-cooled, four cylinders in-line, and naturally
aspirated. Table 1 represents the major specifications of the tested engine. A hydraulic dynamometer is coupled
to the engine to control the applied load. An emissions analyzer type Multigas model 4880 was used to measure
the concentration of regulated emissions (NOx, HC, CO2, and CO).
Emitted PMs collected by a device type Sniffer L-30 (low volume air sampler). PMs obtained by
means of Whatmann-glass micro-filters. These filters weighted before and after the end of sampling operation
period that extend for half an hour every time. At the end of each sampling period, each filter was kept in a
plastic bag provisionally until weighing and analyzing the outcomes.
Particulate matters (PMs) concentrations determined by the equation:
(1)
Where: PM = the concentration of particulate matters in (µg/m3
).
w1 = filter weight before the sampling period in (g).
w2 = filter weight after the sampling period in (g).
Vt = the drawn air total volume (m3
)
The equation to evaluate Vt is:
tQVt t
(2)
Where: Qt= Elementary and final air flow rate through the device (m3
/sec).
t = sampling time in (min).
Table 1 Tested Engine Specifications
Engine type 4cyl., 4-stroke
Engine model TD 313 Diesel engine rig
Combustion type DI, water cooled, natural aspirated
Displacement 3.666 L
Valve per cylinder Two
Bore 100 mm
Stroke 110 mm
Compression ratio 17
Fuel injection pump Unit pump
26 mm diameter plunger
Fuel injection nozzle Hole nozzle
10 nozzle holes
Nozzle hole dia. (0.48mm)
Spray angle= 160o
Nozzle opening pressure=40 Mpa
Precision sound level meter equipped with microphone type 4615 was used to measure overall sound pressure.
A standard calibrator meter type pisto phone type 4220 used to calibrate the tests noise level meter.
1.2 The used fuel
The commercial Iraqi diesel used as engine fuel in this work. Iraqi diesel fuel is well known by its high
sulfur content (it was 10000 ppm sulfur in the present tested fuel). Also, it has a moderate cetane number (49 in
the present work).
2.3 Error analysis
The reliance potential of the tests outcomes is represented by measurement accuracy. The calibration of
the used measuring equipments defined the error sources, and then the uncertainty in this study can be
determined. Table 3 lists the measuring equipment and its accuracies. The uncertainty can be defined by the
equation [16]:
3. Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle Time and Speed of…
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12132934 www.iosrjournals.org 31 | Page
(3)
Where:
eR: outcomes uncertainty.
R : function includes variables or R=R (V1, V2, …, Vn).
ei : variable uncertainty range.
The partial derivative represents results sensitivity to a single variable. Then, the uncertainty for the recent
investigation results was:
The uncertainty result confirms the achieved accuracy in the measurement of more than 95% of the
present study. All tests repeated three times at least to lessen random errors in the results. The results average for
each test recorded along with more than 95% confidence.
2.4 Tests Procedure
The engine was left to run about 10 minutes without any load until the cooling water, and lubricant oil
reached 75°C. After that, the engine was made to run at constant speeds of 800, 1000, 1200 &1500 rpm.
Exhaust emissions CO2, CO, HC, NOx, PM, and noise measured at intervals of 5 minutes each. The readings
obtained for 20 minutes in each test. This time selected about the fact that this engine idling time is possible in
practical life in Baghdad city and other Iraqi governorates due to checking points and traffic strangulations.
III. Results And Discussions
The effect of engine runs time with various idle speeds on the emitted emissions studied. CO, CO2, HC,
NOx, PM and noise emissions considered. Fig. 1 shows time effect on CO2 concentrations for tested speeds.
CO2 concentrations increased until 10 min timing, and then it started to reduce till 20 min. At 1000 rpm, CO2
concentration increased gradually to reach its maximum value at 10 min operation time, and then it began to
decrease. The figure results indicate that after engine operation more than 10 min at idle speed the combustion
deteriorates. CO2 reduction means higher CO and HC concentrations resulted from this bad combustion. By
comparing the emitted CO2 for the studied engine speeds with that resulted by 900 rpm, it can be seen that an
increment in these concentrations at 1000 rpm with about 29%. CO2 decreased with about 22 and 10.7% for
1200 and 1500 rpm respectively.
Fig. 2 represents the time and idle speed effects on CO concentrations. CO emissions from diesel
engine are low during normal operation but at idle its behavior changed. At 900 rpm, CO concentration started
at high levels, and it declined until it reached its minimum values near 10 min timing. After 10 min operating,
these concentrations began to increase. At 1000 and 1200 rpm, CO concentrations reduced to reach its minimum
value around 5 min then it increased to 20 min. While at 1500 rpm, it reached its minimum value around 20 min
operations. CO2 deterioration means that the combustion is poor, so instead of complete combustion with no CO
concentrations, CO increased. The CO increment is due to the following:
Fig. 1, the effect of time and engine idle speed on emitted CO2 concentrations
4. Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle Time and Speed of…
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12132934 www.iosrjournals.org 32 | Page
1. At the beginning of combustion, the combustion chamber is cool causing fuel partial evaporation and
uncompleted combustion.
2. With idle period continuing, combustion chamber temperature increased, and better engine combustion
achieved.
3. With idle time and fuel injection continued, the quantity of partially burned fuel increased causing higher
CO concentrations.
The results indicated that the increments in CO concentrations were -32, 2.7 and 22% for 1000, 1200
and 1500 rpm compared with that emitted at 900 rpm. At 1000 rpm the lowest CO concentration was achieved.
Fig. 2, the effect of time and engine idle speed on emitted CO concentrations
Fig. 3, the effect of time and engine idle speed on emitted HC concentrations
Fig. 3 declares the impact of idle time and engine idling speed on HC concentration. Idle HC emissions
from diesel engines, in general are small in comparison to their gasoline counterparts because of high diesel
engine combustion efficiency. Idle HC emissions, in some cases, were so small that they could not even
detected accurately. HC concentrations reduced with time at 900 rpm till 10 min operation and then it increased
gradually. Increasing idling period increased these concentrations. At 1000 rpm, HC concentrations increased
till 10 min operation and then it reduced. For 1250 rpm the concentrations increased all the time. At 1500 rpm
HC concentrations reduced to 15 min operation and then, it increased with a high rate. When the vehicle
stopped, and no load subjected on the engine, the combustion chamber cooled, and uncompleted combustion
take place increasing HC concentrations. The engine became warmer with idle period continued which reduced
HC concentration. The emitted HC concentrations were increased by 130, 227 and 279% for engine idle speed
100, 1200 and 1500 respectively compared with 900 rpm emitted HC.
Idle NOx exhibited a total contrast to the idle CO and HC emissions behavior. NOx concentrations
increased with time increasing as Fig. 4 represents. At 900 rpm, NOx concentrations are the lower rate of all
other idling speeds. Increasing idle speed means increasing combustion chamber temperatures which result in
higher NOx. The concentrations measured in the present tests are greater than any regulated legislation as Euro
3, 4 or 5 or American Tier 3 or 4. The emitted NOx concentrations were increased by 19, 33.9 and 54.98% for
engine idle speed 100, 1200 and 1500 respectively compared with 900 rpm emitted HC.
5. Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle Time and Speed of…
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12132934 www.iosrjournals.org 33 | Page
Fig. 4, the effect of time and engine idle speed on emitted NOx concentrations
Idle PM emissions from the diesel engines are minuscule, especially for the later model year vehicles.
Fig. 5 clarifies the effect of idle time and speed on PM concentrations. PM concentrations increased at low
speeds due small combustion chamber temperatures. Increasing idling speed increased combustion chamber
temperatures causing lower PM. For idle period from 10 to 20 min, PM concentrations increased for all speeds
indicating combustion deterioration. The maximum concentrations resulted at 900 rpm stating the hazards from
operating the engine idle speed at low ones. The results showed that the decrements in PM concentrations were
25, 40 and 53% for 1000, 1200 and 1500 rpm compared with that emitted at 900 rpm. At 1500 rpm the lowest
PM concentration was achieved.
Engine noise increased at low idle speeds and reduced at high ones as Fig. 6 illustrates. At low speeds,
engine vibration increased causing higher noise accompanied with low lubrication for rotating parts. At high
engine idle speed, the block vibration reduced as well as lubrication of moving parts increased. The results
illustrate that the decrements in engine noise were 32, 33.5 and 33.6% for 1000, 1200 and 1500 rpm compared
with the 900 rpm engine noise. At 1500 rpm the lowest engine noise was achieved.
Fig. 5, the effect of time and engine idle speed on emitted PM concentrations
Fig. 6, the effect of time and engine idle speed on emitted noise
6. Practical Investigation of the Environmental Hazards of Idle Time and Speed of…
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12132934 www.iosrjournals.org 34 | Page
IV. Conclusions
The effect of idle time and engine idling speed were tested using multi-cylinder direct injection diesel
engine. The results indicate that increasing idle time increased CO, HC and NOx, and reduced PM and noise.
Increasing idle time deteriorated combustion causing lower CO2 while the other emissions increased profoundly.
Increasing idle speed improved the combustion and reduced CO, HC, PM and noise while increased CO2 and
NOx. Increasing engine speed enhanced combustion resulting in higher CO2 concentration, but it also increases
combustion temperature that led to higher NOx.
References
[1]. Downing K & Matthews S, Improving Truck Efficiency and Reducing Idling Submitted to: House Interim Committee on
Environment and Water, October 1, 2010.
[2]. Khan A S, Clark N N, Thompson G J, Wayne W S, Gautam M, Lyons D W and Hawelti D, Idle Emissions from Heavy-Duty Diesel
Vehicles: Review and recent Data, J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc., vol. 56, pp: 1404–141, 2006.
[3]. National Academy of Sciences (NAS), Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium- and Heavy-
Duty Vehicles, Washington D.C., The National Academies Press, 2010.
[4]. Denning C and Kustin C, The Good Haul: Innovations that Improve Freight Transportation and Improve the Environment,
Environmental Defense Fund, New York, NY 2010.
[5]. Cooper C, Kamakaté F, Reinhart T, Kromer M and Wilson R, Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel
Consumption and CO2 Emissions, Northeast States Center for a Clean Air Future, October 2009.
[6]. Rocky Mountain Institute, Transformational Trucking Initiative Report, 2009.
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Vehicles at High Altitude; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000, 50, 1992-1998.
[8]. Brodrick, C.-J.; Dwyer, H.A.; Farshchi, M.; Harris, D.B.; King, F.G., Jr. Effects of Engine Speed and Accessory Load on Idling
Emissions from Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Engines, J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. vol. 52, pp: 1026-1031, 2002.
[9]. Chaichan M T, Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and injection timing effect on emitted emissions at idle period, Al-Khwarizmi
Engineering Journal, vol.10, No. 4, pp:33-44, 2014.
[10]. Garshick E, Laden F, Hart J E, Rosner B, Davis M E, Eisen E A, Smith T J, Lung Cancer and Vehicle Exhaust in Trucking Industry
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presented at the 86th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington DC, 2007.
[12]. Doraiswamy P, Davis W T, Miller T L, Fu J S, Lam Y, Measuring Air Pollution Inside and Outside of Diesel Truck Cabs, Prepared
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[15]. Proc K, Nitschke B, Wagner F, Anderson M, Slezak L, Idle Reduction Technology Demonstration Plan, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory Report No. NREL/TP-540-34872, September, 2003.
[16]. ASHREA GIUDE LINE. Guide engineering analysis of experimental data, Guideline 2-1986.
Notation
IT injection timing
CN cetane number
DI direct injection
HC unburnt hydrocarbon
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
NOx nitrogen oxides
dB decibel
LCV Lower calorific value