This document discusses key concepts in the philosophy of science. It defines science as a systematic method of investigating natural processes through empirical evidence and logical reasoning. Some key aspects covered include the use of induction and deduction, falsifiability, Thomas Kuhn's ideas of normal and revolutionary science, and different research methodologies in social sciences like qualitative and quantitative analysis. The document also addresses common errors and biases that can occur in the scientific process.

1. POL / SOC 360-01
Spring 2015

8.  Referring to individuals who are socially or
politically defined as producers of knowledge
 Examples:
 Oracles
 Religious Figures
 Kings
 How do you discredit an authority?

9. Chairman Mao Zedong’s “Little Red Book” served
as a guidebook for proper behavior and thought.

11.  Obtained from supposed supernatural beings
(e.g. prophets, mediums, etc.)
 Existence of supernatural events
and psychological state of consumer
Nostradamus Joseph Smith

13.  Strict adherence to logic
 Main Assumptions:
 (1) Human mind understands world independent
of observable phenomena
 (2) Forms of knowledge exist independently of
personal experiences
 Scientific knowledge is threat

15. INSTRUCTIONS:
Write down terms, concepts, ideas, etc.
that come to mind when you hear this word.
SCIENCE

16.  Is science a prestigious
undertaking?
 Is science the compilation
of a body of knowledge?
 Is science the objective
research of empirical
phenomena?

17. A set of logical, systematic, documented methods
for investigating nature and natural processes, and
the knowledge produced by these investigations.

18. Astrology is considered a pseudoscience.
Pseudoscience occurs when claims are presented appearing scientific,
even though they lack supporting evidence.

20.  #1: Nature is Orderly
 Regularity and Order
 Structure amidst Change
 Example: Newtonian Laws of Motion
 #2: We Can Know Nature
 Humans are a part of nature
 Human behavior can be explained
 Humans exhibit patterns conducive to investigation

21.  #3: Natural Phenomena Have Natural Causes
 #4: Nothing is Self-Evident
 #5: Knowledge Based on Experience
 Empirical investigation evidence for relationships
 Importance of Perception
 #6: Knowledge is Superior to Ignorance
 Knowledge for knowledge’s sake
 Findings open to continual review

24.  Explanations for “Why?” questions
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Specific expectations are
deduced from a general premise.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
General conclusions are
drawn from specific data.
X causingY
Sample  Population
Cannot be 10o% certain.
(95% is good enough)
Socrates Transitive Property

26.  “Gold standard” of science
 You have made predictions today.
 X causesY X is present Can predictY

28. VERSTEHENTRADITION
 Natural and social sciences
are separate bodies of
knowledge
 Objective and subjective
nature of behavior
 Definition of Social Science
 Importance ofWeber
LOGICAL EMPIRICISM
 “Unified Science” approach
 Social and natural sciences
studied and investigated
with same approaches

30. ARISTOTLE FRANCIS BACON CARL HEMPEL

31. Popper believed that theories are tentative “conjectures,”
rather than universal laws assumed to be true

32.  “Normal Science”
 “Revolutionary Science”
 How does a “revolution”
occur in science?
 What was Popper’s
argument against Kuhn?

34.  What is “methodology?”
 Methodological Change in Political Science
 Traditional / Historical Approach (1930-1960)
 “Behavioral Revolution” / Empirical Approach (1960s)
 Perestroika Movement (2000s)
 Why methodology?

36.  Observing
 Errors: Selective Observation; InaccurateObservation
 Generalizing
 Error: Overgeneralization
 Reasoning
 Error: Illogical Reasoning
 Reevaluating
 Error: Resistance to Change
 Why might this occur?

39.  Policy Motivations
 Academic Motivations
 Personal Motivations

41.  Descriptive Research
 Defines and describes social phenomena
 Exploratory Research
 Investigation of phenomena without expectations
 Explanatory Research
 Identifies causes and effects of social phenomena
 Evaluation Research
 Determines effects of social programs, etc.

43.  Quantitative Analysis
 Large “N”
 Mathematics and Statistical Methods
 General Patterns of Human Behavior
 Qualitative Analysis
 Small “N”
 Few Cases / Observations
 Field Studies, Interviewing, Direct Observation

47. STRENGTHS
 Overcomes errors in
reasoning
 Clarity of opinion
 Accumulation of
knowledge
 Expansion of knowledge
LIMITATIONS
 Different interpretations
 Different results
 Complexity of social world