The document discusses the types of nervous systems classified by Pavlov and their characteristics. Pavlov classified nervous systems according to their levels of excitation and inhibition. The four main types are: 1) strong unbalanced with predominance of excitation, 2) strong well-balanced active with high mobility, 3) strong well-balanced passive with low mobility, and 4) weak with extremely weak excitation and inhibition leading to fatigue. Different nervous system types determine the rate of forming new conditioned reflexes and their strength and stability.
The endocrine system is composed of organs positioned throughout the body in widely separated locations. Endocrinology is the study of the structure and functioning of the endocrine system.
The endocrine system is composed of organs positioned throughout the body in widely separated locations. Endocrinology is the study of the structure and functioning of the endocrine system.
organic biologically active compounds of different chemical nature that are produced by the endocrine glands, enter directly into blood and accomplish humoral regulation of the metabolism of compounds and functions on the organism level.
organic biologically active compounds of different chemical nature that are produced by the endocrine glands, enter directly into blood and accomplish humoral regulation of the metabolism of compounds and functions on the organism level.
The intricate relationship between the brain and human behavior has been a subject of fascination and study for centuries.
The brain serves as the command center of our bodies and plays a crucial role in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and actions.
Understanding this relationship is essential in comprehending the complexities of human behavior and exploring the profound ways in which our brains influence who we are as individuals.
In this discussion, we will delve into the remarkable interplay between the brain and human behavior, examining the impact of this dynamic connection on our cognitive processes, emotions, decision-making, and overall mental well-being.
This slide talks about neuroplasticity, the central nervous system, the brain and its structure, the spinal cord, autonomic nervous system, its functions, nervous system and learning, neurotransmitters, working of neurotransmitters, classification, types of neurotransmitters, neurotransmitters in learning and limbic system in learning.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
If you want to know the causes of depression so this documents is for you, and if want best psychiatrist in dubai so follow the link of related article in the document.
Components of the Nervous System, Various Parts of the Brain, Sulci, Gyri and Fissures, Cerebral Hemispheres, Various lobes in the Brain, Cerebellum, Brainstem.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
How to Give Better Lectures: Some Tips for Doctors
Physiology(types of hna)
1.
2.
3. Type of nervous system determines rate of creation of new conditioned
reflexes, strength and stability of these reflexes, intensity of external and
internal inhibition, rate of irradiation and concentration of nervous
processes, the capacity for induction and less or grater possibility for
development of abnormalities of higher nervous activity.
TYPE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
4. I.P. Pavlov classifies types of higher nervous activity according to several
attributes that considered as most reliable indices of higher nervous activity.
These were intensity of the excitation and inhibition, the ratio of these processes
in central nervous system and their mobility, that is rate at which excitation was
replaced by inhibition and wise versa. In experimental practice the following four
principle types of higher nervous activity are met:
1) strong unbalanced type, characterized by predominance of excitation over
inhibition;
2) strong well-balanced active type, characterized by high mobility of nerve
processes;
3) strong well-balanced passive type, characterized by low mobility of nerve
processes;
4) weak type, characterized by extremely weak development of both excitation
and inhibition, which cause fatigue and low workability.
TYPE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
AFTER I.P. PAVLOV
5. The analysis and synthesis of the direct stimuli from surroundings first signal system
performs. This includes impressions, sensations. This functional mechanism is common
in human and animals. In the course of his social development and labor activity second
signal system, which based on using verbal signals, develop. This system includes
perception of words, reading and speech.
The development of the second signaling system was incredibly broadened and changed
quality of higher nervous activity of cerebral hemispheres. Words are signals of other
signals. Man uses verbal signals for everything he perceives through the receptors.
Words are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, processing of surrounding
primary information. This gives the first general human empiricism and finally science,
the instrument of man's higher orientation in the environment and its own self.
So, second signaling system is socially determined. Outside the society, without
association with other people second signaling system is not developed.
THE FIRST AND SECOND
SIGNALING SYSTEM
6. There are two aspects of communication: sensory, involving reading, hearing of speech, and
second, the motor aspect, involving vocalization and its control. It is known, that lesion of
posterior portion of the superior temporal gyrus, which is called Wernicke's area, and is part of
auditory associative cortex, make impossible to the person to interpret the meanings of words.
This Wernicke's area is located in dominant hemisphere, which is usually the left. The process
of speech includes two principle stages of mentation: formation of thoughts to be expressed
and motor control of vocalization. The formation of thoughts is the function of associative
areas in the brain. Wernicke's area in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus is most
important for this ability. Broca's speech area lies in prefrontal and premotor facial region in
the left hemisphere. The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, mouth,
respiratory system and other accessory muscles of speech are all initiated from this area.
Articulation means movements of mouth, tongue, larynx, vocal cords, and so forth that are
responsible for the intonations, timing, and rapid changes in intensities of the sequential
sounds. The facial and laryngeal regions of the motor cortex activate these muscles, and the
cerebellum, basal ganglia, and sensory cortex all help control the sequences and intensities of
muscle contractions. Transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and certain
neuropeptides transmit their signals by what is referred to as slow synaptic transmission. The
resulting change in the function of the nerve cell may last from seconds to hours. This type of
signal transmission is responsible for a number of basal functions in the nervous system and is
of importance for e.g. alertness and mood. Slow synaptic transmission can also control fast
synaptic transmission, which in turn enables e.g. speech, movements and sensory perception.
NERVE SUBSTRATE OF SPEECH
7. The ability of a full-term baby to develop temporary connections of
the first signaling system arises in a few days after the birth.. In the
first six months of life speech sounds mean little to a child. They
are simply stimuli to the auditory analyzer like any other sounds.
The first signs of development of the second signaling system
appear during the second half of the first year of life. If a person or
an object is named and shown to a child many times, reaction to
this name develops.
Later after leaning a few words, a child begins to name objects
itself. Finally, at a later time he uses a stock of words to
communicate with other people.
DEVELOPMENT OF SIGNALING
SYSTEMS IN CHILDREN
8. Main functions of speech are communicative, regulatory, programming and gives
general notion about surroundings. Communicative function permits exchange
of information between people. Such a function is also present in animals, which
use for this aim vocalization of different intensity to warn about danger or
express positive and negative emotions. People use verbal signals for everything
he perceives through the receptors. Words are abstraction of reality and allow
generalization, processing of surrounding primary information.
Verbal instructions may direct human activity, give suggestion about proper
mode of behavior. This is programming function of speech. Programming
function of speech involves emotional component also, which may influence to
emotional status of a person. As limbic system, which controls emotions, has
direct connection with autonomic nervous system.
So speech through emotions may influence to functions of visceral organs.
Physician may use this effect for psychotherapy. It is necessary remember about
jatrogenic disorders also.
FUNCTIONS OF SPEECH
9. Attention is selectiveness of psychical processes or any
kind of mental activity, which helps in getting and
processing the information. There are sensory, motor,
intellectual and emotional forms of attention, depending
to kind of activity of a person.
There are voluntary and involuntary levels of attention.
Involuntary attention is present from the birth of man.
Voluntary attention develops in life course, due to mental
activity, formation of speech function and studying
languages.
ATTENTION AS PSYCHICAL
FUNCTION
10. Involuntary attention is controlled by lower portion of brain
stem and midbrain, where centers of roof reflexes are
locates. Voluntary attention appears as a result of higher
cortical activity in visual, auditory, motor areas and so on.
Lesion of these cortical areas leads to such disturbances in
processing special sensory information as ignore of stimuli
of different modality. Intellectual attention appears because
of function of prefrontal associative cortical area. The limbic
system of the brain is responsible for emotional attention.
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF
ATTENTION
11. Memory function helps fixing of perceived information, keeping
it in verbal form or as traces of percept stimuli and recognizing of
this information in proper time. Genetic memory keeps
information about body structure and forms of its behavior.
Biological memory is presented in both philogenetic and
ontogenetic forms. The immune memory and psychical memory
for instance, belong to ontogenetic memory.
General characteristics of memory are duration, strength of
keeping the information and exactness of its recognizing. In man
mechanisms of perception and keeping the information are
developed better, comparing to other mammalians.
According to duration is concerned short-time and long-time
memory; in relation to kind of information – sensory and logic.
MEMORY AS PSYCHICAL
FUNCTION
12. The prefrontal association area is essential to carrying out thought processes in
the mind. This presumably results from some of the same capabilities of the
prefrontal cortex that allow it to plan motor activities.
The prefrontal association area is frequently described as important for
elaboration of thoughts to store on a short-term basis “working memories”
that are used to analyze each new thought while it is entering the braine. The
somatic, visual, and auditory association areas all meet one another in the
posterior part of the superior temporal lobe. This area is especially highly
developed in the dominant side of the brain – the left side in almost all right-
handed people.
It plays the greatest single role of any part of cerebral cortex in the higher
comprehensive levels of brain function that we call intelligence. This zone is
also called general interpretative area, the gnostic area, the knowing area,
tertiary association area. It is best known as Wernike’s area in honor of the
neurologist who first describes it.
THINKING PROCESS AS PSYCHICAL
FUNCTION
13. It’s discovered the nervous substrate of long-term
memory is mostly cerebral cortex. The most
important regions are temporal lobes, prefrontal
area and hippocampus. Experimental researches
revealed that some thalamic nuclei and reticular
formation take part in memory function.
Reticular formation gives ascending stimulatory
influences to cerebral cortex, which help in keeping
awake condition of cortex and provides voluntary
attention.
NERVE SUBSTRATE OF MEMORY
14. At the molecular level, the habitation effect in the sensory terminal results
from progressive closure of calcium channels through the presynaptic terminal
membrane.
In case of facilitation, the molecular mechanism is believed to be following.
Facilitated synapse releases serotonin that activates adenylyl cyclase in
postsynaptic cell. Then cyclic AMP activates proteinkinase that then causes
phosphorylation of proteins. This blocks potassium channels for minutes or
even weeks. Lack of potassium causes prolonged action potential in the
presynaptic terminal that leads to activation of calcium pores, allowing
tremendous quantities of calcium ions to enter the sensory terminal. This
causes greatly increased transmitter release, thereby markedly facilitating
synaptic transmission.
Thus in a very indirect way, the associative effect of stimulation the facilitator
neuron at the same time that the sensory neuron is stimulated causes
prolonged increase in excitatory sensitivity of the sensory terminal, and this
establishes the memory trace.
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
OF MEMORY
15. Eric Kandel showed initially that weaker stimuli give rise to a form of short term
memory, which lasts from minutes to hours. The mechanism for this "short term
memory" is that particular ion channels are affected in such a manner that more calcium
ions will enter the nerve terminal. This leads to an increased amount of transmitter
release at the synapse, and thereby to an amplification of the reflex. This change is due
to a phosphorylation of certain ion channel proteins, that is utilizing the molecular
mechanism described by Paul Greengard.
A more powerful and long lasting stimulus will result in a form of long term memory
that can remain for weeks. The stronger stimulus will give rise to increased levels of the
messenger molecule cAMP and thereby protein kinase A. These signals will reach the
cell nucleus and cause a change in a number of proteins in the synapse. The formation
of certain proteins will increase, while others will decrease. The final result is that the
shape of the synapse can increase and thereby create a long lasting increase of synaptic
function.
In contrast to short term memory, long term memory requires that new proteins are
formed. If this synthesis of new proteins is prevented, the long term memory will be
blocked but not the short term memory.
SHORT AND LONG TERM
MEMORY
16. Consciousness is special form of perceiving surroundings and
goal-orientated activity of person with interrelation to
surroundings. Only social life forms consciousness. It involves life
experience of entire society.
This ability of prefrontal areas to keep track of many bits of
information could well explain abilities to prognosticate, do plan
for the future, delay action in response to incoming sensory
signals, consider the consequences of motor actions even before
they are performed, solve complicated mathematical, legal, or
philosophical problems, correlate all avenues of information in
diagnosing rare diseases and control our activities in accord with
moral laws.
CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS
MECHANISMS
17. Emotions are aspect of higher nervous activity that characterize subjective
attitude of person to various stimuli arousal in surroundings.
Emotional status reflects actual needs of man and helps in its realization.
NOTION “EMOTIONS”
18. According to subjective status there are positive and negative
emotions. Negative emotions are sthenic (aggression, affect) that
stimulate human activity and asthenia (horror, sadness, depression)
that inhibit behaviour. Lower or elementary emotions are caused by
organic needs of man or animal as hanger, thirst and survival, so
on).
In humans even lover emotions undergo to cortical control and are
brining up. Social, historical and cultural customs cause also
formation of higher emotions that regulates public and private
relations in society. Higher emotions appear due to consciousness
and may inhibit lower emotions.
CLASSIFICATION OF EMOTIONS
19. In newborns emotions of horror, anger, pleasure, are
revealed just after birth. Hunger, pain, getting cool, wet
bedclothes cause in newborn child negative emotions with
grimace of suffering and crying. Sudden new sound or
loss equilibrium causes horror and loss of free movement
causes anger.
Final formation of human emotions develops gradually
with maturation of nervous and endocrine regulatory
systems and needs up brining.
APPEARANCE OF EMOTIONS IN
ONTOGENESIS
20. Emotions are important element of human behaviour,
creation of conditioned reflexes and mentation.
Negative emotions give fusty evaluation of current
situation does it useful or not. Mobilizing of efforts helps
then to satisfy current needs of person.
Positive emotions help to put in memory scheme of
behaviour, which was useful and have lead to success.
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF
EMOTIONS
21. Motor manifestations of emotions are mimic, gesticulation, body
posture and walk.
Emotional excitation usually is followed by autonomic reactions as
blush, dilation of pupils; increase of arterial pressure, rate of
heartbeat and breathing. Level of catecholamines in blood and 17-
oxycetosteroides in urine rises also.
Positive emotion may activate parasympathetic division of
autonomic nervous system. Severe emotional excitation may result
in visceral disorders because of circulatory disturbances and excess
hormones in blood.
EXTERNAL MANIFESTATIONS OF
EMOTIONS
22. Several limbic structures are particularly concerned with the affective nature of
sensory sensations – that is whether the sensations are pleasant or unpleasant.
The major rew3ard centres have been found to be located along the course of
the medial forebrain bundle, especially in the lateral and ventromedial nuclei of
the hypothalamus.
Less potent reward centres are found in the septum, amygdala, certain areas of
the thalamus, basal ganglia, and extending downward into the basal tegmentum
of the mesencephalon. The most potent areas for punishment and escape
tendencies have been found in the central grey area surrounding the aqueduct
of Sylvius in the mesencephalon and extending upward into the periventricular
zones of the hypothalamus and thalamus.
Less potent punishment areas are found in some locations in the amygdala and
the hippocampus. Electrical recording from the brain show that newly
experienced types of sensory stimuli almost excite areas in the cerebral cortex.
NERVE SUBSTRATE OF
EMOTIONS
23. Biological theory of emotions (P.K. Anochkin) considers that life course includes
two main stages of behavioural act: 1) formation of needs and motivations that
results from negative emotions and 2) satisfaction of needs that leads to positive
emotions it case of complete accordance of image and result of action.
Incomplete compliance of suspected and real result of action cause negative
emotions and continues behavioural act.
Information theory of emotions (P.V. Simonov)considers that emotions reflect
strength human of need and possibility of its satisfaction in current moment. In
absence of needs emotions can’t arise. There is also not emotional excitation, if
getting excess information about mode of satisfaction this need. Lac of
information already causes negative emotions that help to recall to mind life
experience and to gather information about current situation.
THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
24. Emotional excitation is spread in the brain due to variety of
neurotransmitters (noradrenalin, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine
and neuropeptides including opioides.
Positive emotions may be explained by revealing catecholamines
and negative emotions, aggression result from production
acetylcholine in the brain. Serotonin inhibits both kinds of
emotions.
Decrease of serotonin in blood is followed by groundless anxiety
and inhibition of noradrenergic transmission results in sadness.
NEUROTRANSMISSION OF
EMOTIONAL EXCITATION
25. According to theory of functional systems (Anochking) there are
such stages of behavioural act:
1) afferent synthesis; 2) taking of decision;
3) acceptor of result of action;
4) efferent synthesis (or programming of action);
5) performing of action;
6) evaluation of final result of action.
Due to converging and processing of both sensory information and
memory traces afferent synthesis in the brain is performed. Taking
of decision is based on afferent synthesis by choosing optimal
variant of action.
STRUCTURE
OF BEHAVIOURAL ACT
26. In the very lowest animals olfactory cortex plays essential roles in determining
whether the animal eats a particular food, whether the smell of a particular
object suggest danger, and whether the odour is sexually inviting, thus making
decisions that are of life-or-death importance. The hippocampus originated as
part of olfactory cortex.
Very early in the evolutionary development of the brain, the hippocampus
presumably becomes a critical decision-making neuronal mechanism,
determining the importance of the incoming sensory signals. Once this critical
decision-making capability had been established, presumably the remainder of
the brain began to call on it for the same decision making. Therefore, if the
hippocampus says that a neuronal signal is important, the information is likely
to be committed to memory.
Thus, a person rapidly become habituated to indifferent stimuli but learns
assiduously any sensory experience that causes either pleasure or pain. It has
been suggested that hippocampus provides the drive that causes translation of
short-term memory into long-term memory.
NEURONAL MECHANISMS OF
BEHAVIOUR