This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which occur when mixing two or more substances causes undesirable changes. It classifies incompatibilities as minor or major and describes three types: physical, chemical, and therapeutic. Therapeutic incompatibilities involve drug errors, contraindicated drugs, dosage form errors, or dosage errors. Physical incompatibilities include insolubility, liquefaction, and immiscibility. Chemical incompatibilities result from oxidation, hydrolysis, and other reactions. Oxidation can be prevented through various measures like antioxidants, light protection, and suitable dosage forms.
This document discusses various types of pharmaceutical incompatibilities including chemical, physical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. It focuses on chemical incompatibilities and describes several types of chemical changes that can occur including oxidation, hydrolysis, polymerization, isomerization, decarboxylation, carbon dioxide absorption, and formation of insoluble complexes. Specific examples are provided for each type of chemical change and factors that can induce or protect against these changes are discussed.
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which occur when two or more ingredients in a prescription interact in an undesirable way that affects the safety, efficacy, appearance or stability of the medication. It defines three main types of incompatibilities - physical, chemical and therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor or viscosity. Chemical incompatibilities occur due to reactions like oxidation or acid-base interactions. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended pharmacological effects. The document provides examples and explanations of specific incompatibilities within each category.
The document discusses different types of drug incompatibilities, including physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in a drug formulation's properties from mixing ingredients, like precipitation or color changes. Chemical incompatibilities can cause immediate reactions between ingredients like gas formation. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended effects, such as negative interactions between drugs. The document provides examples for each type of incompatibility to illustrate the concepts.
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which occur when ingredients in a prescription interact in undesirable ways. It classifies incompatibilities as physical, chemical, or therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like solubility from mixing solvents or ingredients. Chemical incompatibilities involve immediate reactions like oxidation, acid-base reactions, or hydrolysis. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended effects when combined with another drug or excipient. The document provides examples like immiscibility, insolubility, oxidation-reduction reactions, and contraindicated drugs. Rectifying methods include vigorous shaking, choice of emulsifying agents, use of antioxidants, and avoiding certain drug combinations.
This document provides information about pharmaceutical suspensions. It begins by defining a suspension as a disperse system where an insoluble solid internal phase is uniformly dispersed throughout an external liquid phase. Particle size is important for suspensions to be classified as coarse or colloidal. Suspensions differ from solutions in that particles remain dispersed rather than dissolving. Sedimentation occurs over time due to particle size and density. Suspending agents are added to prevent sedimentation by increasing viscosity. The document discusses formulation, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of suspensions.
This document discusses different types of incompatibilities that can occur when mixing ingredients in prescriptions. There are three main types: physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physical incompatibilities involve a visible change, such as insolubility or immiscibility, resulting in an uneven mixture. Chemical incompatibilities occur via reactions like pH changes that alter the chemical properties. Therapeutic incompatibilities change the intended medical effects. The document provides examples and remedies for each type, such as altering solvents, volumes, or adding emulsifying agents to overcome physical incompatibilities. Care must be taken when mixing ingredients to avoid unwanted interactions.
Physical incompatibilities and chemical incompatibilitiesshital trivedi
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, specifically physical incompatibilities. It defines pharmaceutical incompatibilities as undesired changes in safety, appearance, or therapeutic purpose that occur when mixing substances or drugs with antagonistic chemical, physical, or therapeutic properties. Physical incompatibilities are caused by insolubility, precipitation, immiscibility, liquefaction of solids, evaporation, adsorption, absorption, or physical complexation. Remedies include changing the order of mixing, altering solvents, modifying ingredient forms or dosage forms, adding emulsifiers or suspending agents, and adjusting therapeutically inactive substances. Common examples like insoluble solids in suspensions and eutectic mixtures that liquefy are described.
This document discusses various types of pharmaceutical incompatibilities including chemical, physical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. It focuses on chemical incompatibilities and describes several types of chemical changes that can occur including oxidation, hydrolysis, polymerization, isomerization, decarboxylation, carbon dioxide absorption, and formation of insoluble complexes. Specific examples are provided for each type of chemical change and factors that can induce or protect against these changes are discussed.
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which occur when two or more ingredients in a prescription interact in an undesirable way that affects the safety, efficacy, appearance or stability of the medication. It defines three main types of incompatibilities - physical, chemical and therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor or viscosity. Chemical incompatibilities occur due to reactions like oxidation or acid-base interactions. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended pharmacological effects. The document provides examples and explanations of specific incompatibilities within each category.
The document discusses different types of drug incompatibilities, including physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in a drug formulation's properties from mixing ingredients, like precipitation or color changes. Chemical incompatibilities can cause immediate reactions between ingredients like gas formation. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended effects, such as negative interactions between drugs. The document provides examples for each type of incompatibility to illustrate the concepts.
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which occur when ingredients in a prescription interact in undesirable ways. It classifies incompatibilities as physical, chemical, or therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like solubility from mixing solvents or ingredients. Chemical incompatibilities involve immediate reactions like oxidation, acid-base reactions, or hydrolysis. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended effects when combined with another drug or excipient. The document provides examples like immiscibility, insolubility, oxidation-reduction reactions, and contraindicated drugs. Rectifying methods include vigorous shaking, choice of emulsifying agents, use of antioxidants, and avoiding certain drug combinations.
This document provides information about pharmaceutical suspensions. It begins by defining a suspension as a disperse system where an insoluble solid internal phase is uniformly dispersed throughout an external liquid phase. Particle size is important for suspensions to be classified as coarse or colloidal. Suspensions differ from solutions in that particles remain dispersed rather than dissolving. Sedimentation occurs over time due to particle size and density. Suspending agents are added to prevent sedimentation by increasing viscosity. The document discusses formulation, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of suspensions.
This document discusses different types of incompatibilities that can occur when mixing ingredients in prescriptions. There are three main types: physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physical incompatibilities involve a visible change, such as insolubility or immiscibility, resulting in an uneven mixture. Chemical incompatibilities occur via reactions like pH changes that alter the chemical properties. Therapeutic incompatibilities change the intended medical effects. The document provides examples and remedies for each type, such as altering solvents, volumes, or adding emulsifying agents to overcome physical incompatibilities. Care must be taken when mixing ingredients to avoid unwanted interactions.
Physical incompatibilities and chemical incompatibilitiesshital trivedi
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, specifically physical incompatibilities. It defines pharmaceutical incompatibilities as undesired changes in safety, appearance, or therapeutic purpose that occur when mixing substances or drugs with antagonistic chemical, physical, or therapeutic properties. Physical incompatibilities are caused by insolubility, precipitation, immiscibility, liquefaction of solids, evaporation, adsorption, absorption, or physical complexation. Remedies include changing the order of mixing, altering solvents, modifying ingredient forms or dosage forms, adding emulsifiers or suspending agents, and adjusting therapeutically inactive substances. Common examples like insoluble solids in suspensions and eutectic mixtures that liquefy are described.
This lecture discusses pharmaceutical powders. It begins by defining a pharmaceutical powder as a solid dosage form containing finely divided drugs or chemicals meant for internal or external use. Powders permit drugs to be reduced to a very fine state, enhancing dissolution rate, absorption, and masking unpleasant tastes. The lecture then covers various types of powders including divided powders for internal use (simple, compound, cachet-enclosed), bulk powders (antacids, laxatives), and powders for external use. Methods for reducing particle size like trituration, pulverization, and levigation are also summarized.
Liniments are topical preparations intended for external application to relieve conditions like itching, dry skin, pain, and inflammation, and can be alcoholic, oily, or emulsion bases. They are applied with friction and contain ingredients like analgesics, rubefacients, and counterirritants. Common examples of liniments include Compound Calamine Liniment, Efficascent Oil, and White Liniment.
Pharmaceutical powders are mixtures of finely divided drugs or chemicals meant for internal or external use. Powders have advantages like good chemical stability and ease of swallowing large doses. However, powders also have disadvantages such as the potential for misunderstanding correct usage and difficulty making uniform individually wrapped doses. Proper mixing and particle size reduction are important to ensure homogeneity and the desired properties of pharmaceutical powders.
In 3 sentences:
This document discusses types of incompatibilities in prescription medications, including physicochemical and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physicochemical incompatibilities involve physical or chemical changes when substances are mixed, such as precipitation or color changes. Therapeutic incompatibilities occur when drug interactions produce unintended pharmacological effects that differ from what was prescribed. The document provides examples and methods for preventing various types of incompatibilities.
This document discusses semisolid dosage forms including ointments, creams, and gels. It defines these forms, describes common ingredients used in their preparation such as bases, preservatives, and gelling agents. Methods of preparation including fusion and emulsification are outlined. The document also discusses ideal properties and how these forms are evaluated based on parameters like penetration, release of active ingredients, and irritation potential.
This document discusses different types of incompatibilities that can occur when prescribing or mixing substances. It defines incompatibilities as occurring when two or more substances that are antagonist in nature are combined, forming an undesirable product that may affect the safety, purpose, or appearance of the preparation. The main types of incompatibilities covered are physical incompatibilities, which result in a physical change, and chemical incompatibilities, which result in a chemical reaction. Examples and methods for correcting common physical and chemical incompatibilities are provided. Therapeutic incompatibilities can also occur if certain drugs are prescribed incorrectly for a patient in terms of dosage, drug interactions, or contraindications.
This document provides information about gastrointestinal agents (GI agents), which are drugs used to treat GI disorders. It discusses the classifications of GI agents including acidifying agents, antacids, protectives, adsorbents, and cathartics. It then describes common antacids including aluminum hydroxide gel, calcium carbonate, and magnesium salts. The ideal characteristics of antacids are outlined. Common calcium-containing and magnesium-containing antacids are also discussed in more detail.
This document provides an overview of the evaluation of semisolid dosage forms such as ointments, creams, and suppositories. It discusses ideal properties of semisolids and categories of semisolids. Evaluation methods for ointments include testing for drug content uniformity, penetration rate, drug release rate, absorption into bloodstream, and irritancy. Cream evaluation includes testing for appearance, spreadability, washability, rheology, and sensitivity. Suppository evaluation comprises tests for appearance, weight uniformity, melting range, liquefaction time, breaking strength, and dissolution rate.
Pharmaceutical degradation can occur through physical, chemical, or microbiological processes. Physical degradation includes changes in appearance, properties like hardness or consistency, and polymorphic changes. Chemical degradation involves reactions like hydrolysis, oxidation, decarboxylation, isomerization, and polymerization that break down the drug. Microbial degradation is caused by microbial growth contaminating the product. Proper storage conditions and formulation design can help prevent degradation through control of factors like temperature, humidity, light exposure, and microbial contamination.
This document discusses chemical incompatibilities in pharmaceutical preparations. It begins by defining incompatibility and describing different types, including chemical incompatibility. Chemical incompatibility can occur due to chemical interactions between ingredients forming toxic or inactive products. The document then covers various methods for addressing precipitate-yielding combinations and different types of chemical incompatibilities like those involving alkaloids, soluble iodides, salicylates, and barbiturates. Specific examples of incompatible combinations and recipes demonstrating adjustment methods are also provided.
This document provides information on various liquid dosage forms including their descriptions, advantages, disadvantages and examples. It discusses liquid forms such as otic preparations, nasal preparations, syrups, elixirs, tinctures, fluid extracts, douches, enemas, liniments, collodion, aromatic waters, spirits/essences, mouthwashes, gargles and astringents. For each type, it outlines what they are, how they are administered and common examples. The document is an informative reference for the different types of liquid dosage forms used in pharmaceutical preparations.
Introduction to liniment and turpentine linimentkopalsharma85
The document provides instructions for preparing a 30 mL liniment of turpentine by first making an emulsion of soft soap, turpentine oil, and camphor and then adding water to reach the final volume, to be used externally for conditions like arthritis, muscle pain, and nerve pain by counterirritant and irritant mechanisms of the ingredients. Key ingredients in the liniment include soft soap as an emulsifying agent, turpentine oil and camphor as rubefacients and counterirritants, and the liniment is applied topically with gentle rubbing to provide relief from deep-seated pain.
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which occur when two or more substances are combined and an undesirable product is formed that affects safety, efficacy, appearance or stability. It describes three main types of incompatibilities - physical, chemical and therapeutic.
Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor or viscosity due to immiscibility, insolubility, precipitation or liquefaction. Chemical incompatibilities occur via reactions like acid-base or oxidation-reduction and may be corrected by changing mixing order or ingredients. Therapeutic incompatibilities arise from errors in dosing, contraindicated combinations or drug interactions that alter intended pharmacological effects. The document provides examples of different types of incompatibilities and methods for correcting
The document discusses suspensions, which are heterogeneous systems with small, solid particles dispersed throughout a liquid medium. Suspensions can be used orally, parenterally, or externally. They are divided into coarse and colloidal suspensions based on particle size. Various factors including particle size and distribution, viscosity, and stability must be considered for suspension formulation and production. Common methods for preparing suspensions involve using mortar and pestle or mixing equipment depending on the materials used.
Pharmaceutical powders are solid dosage forms containing one or more drugs in finely divided form, with or without excipients. They have advantages like faster onset of action compared to other oral solid dosage forms. Powders are classified based on their intended use and formulation. They include bulk powders, simple/compound powders enclosed in papers or capsules, and compressed powders made into tablets. Proper mixing and packaging is important for powder formulations to ensure uniform drug content and stability.
This document discusses drug incompatibilities that can occur during various stages including compounding, formulation, manufacturing, packaging, dispensing, storage, and administration. It defines incompatibilities as undesirable interactions between substances that affect safety, purpose or appearance. Incompatibilities are classified as physical, chemical, or therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor, taste, viscosity or morphology. Chemical incompatibilities produce harmful products through oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis or complexation. Therapeutic incompatibilities are unintended pharmacological interactions that occur after administration, such as from incorrect dosing, wrong dosage forms, contraindicated drugs, or synergistic/antagonistic effects. Care must be taken during all stages
Semisolid dosage forms: Definitions, classification, mechanisms and factors influencing dermal penetration of drugs. Preparation of ointments, pastes, creams and gels. Excipients used in semi solid dosage forms. Evaluation of semi solid dosages forms
This document provides information on various monophasic liquid dosage forms including gargles, mouthwashes, throat paints, and syrups. It discusses the components, advantages, disadvantages, and methods of preparation for each type. Gargles are aqueous solutions used to treat throat infections that are prepared by dissolving ingredients in solvents. Mouthwashes are solutions used for oral hygiene that can be cosmetic or therapeutic. Throat paints are viscous liquids applied to the mouth and throat to treat infections. Syrups are concentrated sugar solutions that can also contain medication, providing a pleasant way to administer liquid drugs. The document outlines the typical ingredients and formulations for each monophasic liquid dosage form.
This document discusses different types of incompatibilities that can occur in prescriptions, including physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in a medication's appearance, taste, or odor due to issues like immiscibility, insolubility, or precipitation. Chemical incompatibilities occur due to chemical reactions between ingredients and can be detected by precipitation, effervescence, decomposition, or color changes. Therapeutic incompatibilities arise when medications do not produce their intended pharmacological effect, often due to dosing errors, prescribing contraindicated drugs, or drug interactions. The document provides examples of each type of incompatibility and methods for correcting physical and chemical issues.
This document discusses types of incompatibilities in prescriptions, including physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. It provides examples of each type and methods for correcting common incompatibilities, such as changing the order or rate of mixing, adding emulsifying or suspending agents, or substituting ingredients of equal therapeutic value. The document aims to help understand reasons for prescription incompatibilities and how to safely resolve issues during compounding, formulation, manufacturing, packaging, dispensing, storage, or administration of drugs.
This lecture discusses pharmaceutical powders. It begins by defining a pharmaceutical powder as a solid dosage form containing finely divided drugs or chemicals meant for internal or external use. Powders permit drugs to be reduced to a very fine state, enhancing dissolution rate, absorption, and masking unpleasant tastes. The lecture then covers various types of powders including divided powders for internal use (simple, compound, cachet-enclosed), bulk powders (antacids, laxatives), and powders for external use. Methods for reducing particle size like trituration, pulverization, and levigation are also summarized.
Liniments are topical preparations intended for external application to relieve conditions like itching, dry skin, pain, and inflammation, and can be alcoholic, oily, or emulsion bases. They are applied with friction and contain ingredients like analgesics, rubefacients, and counterirritants. Common examples of liniments include Compound Calamine Liniment, Efficascent Oil, and White Liniment.
Pharmaceutical powders are mixtures of finely divided drugs or chemicals meant for internal or external use. Powders have advantages like good chemical stability and ease of swallowing large doses. However, powders also have disadvantages such as the potential for misunderstanding correct usage and difficulty making uniform individually wrapped doses. Proper mixing and particle size reduction are important to ensure homogeneity and the desired properties of pharmaceutical powders.
In 3 sentences:
This document discusses types of incompatibilities in prescription medications, including physicochemical and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physicochemical incompatibilities involve physical or chemical changes when substances are mixed, such as precipitation or color changes. Therapeutic incompatibilities occur when drug interactions produce unintended pharmacological effects that differ from what was prescribed. The document provides examples and methods for preventing various types of incompatibilities.
This document discusses semisolid dosage forms including ointments, creams, and gels. It defines these forms, describes common ingredients used in their preparation such as bases, preservatives, and gelling agents. Methods of preparation including fusion and emulsification are outlined. The document also discusses ideal properties and how these forms are evaluated based on parameters like penetration, release of active ingredients, and irritation potential.
This document discusses different types of incompatibilities that can occur when prescribing or mixing substances. It defines incompatibilities as occurring when two or more substances that are antagonist in nature are combined, forming an undesirable product that may affect the safety, purpose, or appearance of the preparation. The main types of incompatibilities covered are physical incompatibilities, which result in a physical change, and chemical incompatibilities, which result in a chemical reaction. Examples and methods for correcting common physical and chemical incompatibilities are provided. Therapeutic incompatibilities can also occur if certain drugs are prescribed incorrectly for a patient in terms of dosage, drug interactions, or contraindications.
This document provides information about gastrointestinal agents (GI agents), which are drugs used to treat GI disorders. It discusses the classifications of GI agents including acidifying agents, antacids, protectives, adsorbents, and cathartics. It then describes common antacids including aluminum hydroxide gel, calcium carbonate, and magnesium salts. The ideal characteristics of antacids are outlined. Common calcium-containing and magnesium-containing antacids are also discussed in more detail.
This document provides an overview of the evaluation of semisolid dosage forms such as ointments, creams, and suppositories. It discusses ideal properties of semisolids and categories of semisolids. Evaluation methods for ointments include testing for drug content uniformity, penetration rate, drug release rate, absorption into bloodstream, and irritancy. Cream evaluation includes testing for appearance, spreadability, washability, rheology, and sensitivity. Suppository evaluation comprises tests for appearance, weight uniformity, melting range, liquefaction time, breaking strength, and dissolution rate.
Pharmaceutical degradation can occur through physical, chemical, or microbiological processes. Physical degradation includes changes in appearance, properties like hardness or consistency, and polymorphic changes. Chemical degradation involves reactions like hydrolysis, oxidation, decarboxylation, isomerization, and polymerization that break down the drug. Microbial degradation is caused by microbial growth contaminating the product. Proper storage conditions and formulation design can help prevent degradation through control of factors like temperature, humidity, light exposure, and microbial contamination.
This document discusses chemical incompatibilities in pharmaceutical preparations. It begins by defining incompatibility and describing different types, including chemical incompatibility. Chemical incompatibility can occur due to chemical interactions between ingredients forming toxic or inactive products. The document then covers various methods for addressing precipitate-yielding combinations and different types of chemical incompatibilities like those involving alkaloids, soluble iodides, salicylates, and barbiturates. Specific examples of incompatible combinations and recipes demonstrating adjustment methods are also provided.
This document provides information on various liquid dosage forms including their descriptions, advantages, disadvantages and examples. It discusses liquid forms such as otic preparations, nasal preparations, syrups, elixirs, tinctures, fluid extracts, douches, enemas, liniments, collodion, aromatic waters, spirits/essences, mouthwashes, gargles and astringents. For each type, it outlines what they are, how they are administered and common examples. The document is an informative reference for the different types of liquid dosage forms used in pharmaceutical preparations.
Introduction to liniment and turpentine linimentkopalsharma85
The document provides instructions for preparing a 30 mL liniment of turpentine by first making an emulsion of soft soap, turpentine oil, and camphor and then adding water to reach the final volume, to be used externally for conditions like arthritis, muscle pain, and nerve pain by counterirritant and irritant mechanisms of the ingredients. Key ingredients in the liniment include soft soap as an emulsifying agent, turpentine oil and camphor as rubefacients and counterirritants, and the liniment is applied topically with gentle rubbing to provide relief from deep-seated pain.
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which occur when two or more substances are combined and an undesirable product is formed that affects safety, efficacy, appearance or stability. It describes three main types of incompatibilities - physical, chemical and therapeutic.
Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor or viscosity due to immiscibility, insolubility, precipitation or liquefaction. Chemical incompatibilities occur via reactions like acid-base or oxidation-reduction and may be corrected by changing mixing order or ingredients. Therapeutic incompatibilities arise from errors in dosing, contraindicated combinations or drug interactions that alter intended pharmacological effects. The document provides examples of different types of incompatibilities and methods for correcting
The document discusses suspensions, which are heterogeneous systems with small, solid particles dispersed throughout a liquid medium. Suspensions can be used orally, parenterally, or externally. They are divided into coarse and colloidal suspensions based on particle size. Various factors including particle size and distribution, viscosity, and stability must be considered for suspension formulation and production. Common methods for preparing suspensions involve using mortar and pestle or mixing equipment depending on the materials used.
Pharmaceutical powders are solid dosage forms containing one or more drugs in finely divided form, with or without excipients. They have advantages like faster onset of action compared to other oral solid dosage forms. Powders are classified based on their intended use and formulation. They include bulk powders, simple/compound powders enclosed in papers or capsules, and compressed powders made into tablets. Proper mixing and packaging is important for powder formulations to ensure uniform drug content and stability.
This document discusses drug incompatibilities that can occur during various stages including compounding, formulation, manufacturing, packaging, dispensing, storage, and administration. It defines incompatibilities as undesirable interactions between substances that affect safety, purpose or appearance. Incompatibilities are classified as physical, chemical, or therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor, taste, viscosity or morphology. Chemical incompatibilities produce harmful products through oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis or complexation. Therapeutic incompatibilities are unintended pharmacological interactions that occur after administration, such as from incorrect dosing, wrong dosage forms, contraindicated drugs, or synergistic/antagonistic effects. Care must be taken during all stages
Semisolid dosage forms: Definitions, classification, mechanisms and factors influencing dermal penetration of drugs. Preparation of ointments, pastes, creams and gels. Excipients used in semi solid dosage forms. Evaluation of semi solid dosages forms
This document provides information on various monophasic liquid dosage forms including gargles, mouthwashes, throat paints, and syrups. It discusses the components, advantages, disadvantages, and methods of preparation for each type. Gargles are aqueous solutions used to treat throat infections that are prepared by dissolving ingredients in solvents. Mouthwashes are solutions used for oral hygiene that can be cosmetic or therapeutic. Throat paints are viscous liquids applied to the mouth and throat to treat infections. Syrups are concentrated sugar solutions that can also contain medication, providing a pleasant way to administer liquid drugs. The document outlines the typical ingredients and formulations for each monophasic liquid dosage form.
This document discusses different types of incompatibilities that can occur in prescriptions, including physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in a medication's appearance, taste, or odor due to issues like immiscibility, insolubility, or precipitation. Chemical incompatibilities occur due to chemical reactions between ingredients and can be detected by precipitation, effervescence, decomposition, or color changes. Therapeutic incompatibilities arise when medications do not produce their intended pharmacological effect, often due to dosing errors, prescribing contraindicated drugs, or drug interactions. The document provides examples of each type of incompatibility and methods for correcting physical and chemical issues.
This document discusses types of incompatibilities in prescriptions, including physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. It provides examples of each type and methods for correcting common incompatibilities, such as changing the order or rate of mixing, adding emulsifying or suspending agents, or substituting ingredients of equal therapeutic value. The document aims to help understand reasons for prescription incompatibilities and how to safely resolve issues during compounding, formulation, manufacturing, packaging, dispensing, storage, or administration of drugs.
Pharmaceutical-WPS Office(Conflict2022-05-23-13-29-31).pptxSudipta Roy
This document discusses pharmaceutical incompatibilities, which are undesirable changes that occur when two or more substances are combined, affecting safety, efficacy, appearance, and stability. There are three main types of incompatibilities: physical, chemical, and therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve a physical change when substances are combined, such as changes in color, odor, taste, viscosity or morphology. One example given is insolubility - when one substance is insoluble in the vehicle it is being added to, such as chalk powder precipitating out of an aqueous solution due to its insolubility in water. Suspending agents can be added to prevent precipitation in such cases.
The main idea is the incompatibilities that accrue between the IV drug with drug, solution, container and IV set .
Simple study of incompatibilities of drug admixtures in Iraq , that accrue heavily in pharmacy and hospitals, it incorrect because the compliance of patient not a reason for admixture and we didn't found any study on this admixtures that confirm it safety. At last it very important to avoid it because the great risk .
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DEGRADATION OF PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS.
Physical Factors
Loss of volatile constituents
Loss of water
Absorption of water
Crystal growth
Polymorphism changes
Colour changes
Chemical factors
Hydrolysis
Oxidation
Carboxylation
Decarboxylation
Isomerization
Polymerization
The document discusses the importance of stability in pharmaceutical compounding and outlines factors that can affect stability. It defines stability as a product retaining its properties and characteristics within specified limits throughout its shelf life. There are five main types of stability: chemical, physical, microbiological, therapeutic, and toxicological. Factors like temperature, light, humidity, ingredients, dosage form, pH, and solvent composition can influence stability. Pharmacists must store products under proper conditions and expiration dates to ensure stability and prevent issues.
This document discusses various types of incompatibilities that can occur when combining drugs or ingredients in prescriptions or formulations. It defines physical, chemical, and therapeutic incompatibilities. Specific examples are provided for each type, including precipitation, oxidation, hydrolysis, effervescence, interactions with containers, and errors in dosage. Methods to identify and resolve different incompatibilities, such as modifying the order or rate of mixing, adding stabilizers or buffers, and selecting compatible dosage forms, are also outlined.
Drug interactions can occur when two or more drugs are taken together and interact through various mechanisms. This can intensify or reduce a drug's effects, produce new reactions, or increase toxicity. Key interaction types include pharmacokinetic changes affecting absorption, distribution, metabolism or excretion of one or both drugs. Foods like grapefruit can also interact through similar mechanisms like inhibiting drug metabolism. Close monitoring is needed when multiple drugs or foods that may interact are used together.
Preformulation studies characterize the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of new drug substances to aid in developing stable, safe, and effective dosage forms. Key goals are to establish physicochemical parameters, kinetic rate profiles, physical characteristics, and compatibility with excipients. This helps with dosage form selection and rational design, understanding process variables, and developing bioavailable dosage forms. Principal areas of study include bulk characterization, solubility analysis, stability analysis, and drug-excipient interaction studies to detect incompatibilities. Common interaction types are physical, chemical, and therapeutic.
This document discusses the three main types of drug degradation: chemical, physical, and microbial. Chemical degradation includes hydrolysis, dehydration, isomerization, decarboxylation, elimination, oxidation, and photodegradation. Physical degradation involves crystallization, phase transitions, and moisture adsorption. Microbial degradation can occur if formulations become contaminated and depend on the type and amount of microbes present. Drug-excipient and drug-drug interactions can also lead to degradation through reactions. Maintaining proper storage conditions is important to prevent degradation via these routes.
The document discusses prodrug concepts and provides examples of different types of prodrugs. It defines a prodrug as a biologically inactive derivative of a drug molecule that undergoes biotransformation in the body to release the active drug. The objectives of prodrug design are to improve solubility, stability, absorption, and tissue selectivity while decreasing toxicity. Prodrugs are classified based on the linkage between the drug and promoiety, including carrier-linked, mutual, and bioprecursor prodrugs. Functional groups like esters and alcohols are commonly used to link drugs to promoieties. The prodrug approach can modify important drug properties like solubility.
Incompatibilities in prescription, prescription Incompatibilities, important ...RajkumarKumawat11
Incompatibilities in prescription, prescription Incompatibilities, pharmaceutics, prescription errors, important topic for pharmacist, how to remove error in the dispense and compound prescription
The document discusses prodrugs, which are inactive compounds that are metabolized into active drug metabolites. It provides background on the history of prodrugs, the prodrug concept, objectives of prodrug design, properties of ideal prodrugs, classifications of prodrugs, and limitations and applications of prodrugs. Specifically, it describes how prodrugs can overcome barriers like poor solubility, stability issues, low absorption, and toxicity to improve drug delivery and pharmacokinetics. Prodrugs are classified based on their structure and site of conversion to the active drug. Common examples of early prodrugs included aspirin and chloramphenicol derivatives.
This document discusses drug interactions, which occur when two drugs are administered together and one modifies the effects of the other. It describes several types of interactions, including drug-drug, drug-food, and drug-environment. Interactions can be quantitative, increasing or decreasing a drug's effects, or qualitative, producing abnormal or new responses. The mechanisms of interactions include pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic effects. It is important for doctors to consider potential interactions when prescribing multiple medications to a patient.
Selection of excipients must be done with an utmost care to avoid physical and chemical interactions that ultimately lead to the degradation of the quality of the product.
The document discusses liquid oral dosage forms such as syrups and elixirs. It covers formulation and manufacturing considerations for liquid orals including solubility enhancement techniques, preservation, viscosity control, sweetening agents, flavors, and stability testing. Specific types of oral liquids are described like solutions, suspensions, emulsions. The key steps in formulation of syrups and elixirs involve solubility of drugs, addition of preservatives, viscosity agents, sweeteners and flavors. Manufacturing involves selection of raw materials, equipment used for mixing, filling and packaging.
There are three classes of drug incompatibility: physical, chemical, and therapeutic. Physical incompatibility involves changes in a drug's properties from mixing, such as color or solubility, due to insolubility, precipitation, or other interactions. Chemical incompatibility can cause immediate changes after mixing like decomposition or color changes from reactions. Therapeutic incompatibility modifies a drug's intended effects when taken with another drug due to antagonism, overdose, or other reasons. Common causes are discussed along with examples and methods to prevent incompatibilities.
Pharmaceutical Incompatibility : Mr. P. B. JadhavPRASHANT JADHAV
This document discusses drug incompatibilities, which occur when undesirable changes take place in the properties of a medication when two or more ingredients are mixed together. It classifies incompatibilities into three types - physical, chemical, and therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor, or viscosity due to insolubility or other interactions. Chemical incompatibilities show immediate effects like decomposition or color change from reactions. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended effects, such as from overdose, wrong dosage, or drug interactions that antagonize each other. Examples are provided for each type of incompatibility.
Product Stability Studies & Stability Testing Amit Attri
This presentation provides an overview of pharmaceutical stability testing. It discusses the different types of stability studies including formal stability studies, stress stability studies, and abbreviated stability studies. Key factors that influence drug stability are also explained such as temperature, humidity, pH, and light exposure. Common degradation pathways for drugs like hydrolysis, oxidation, and photodegradation are summarized. The presentation emphasizes the importance of stability testing for determining a drug's shelf life and appropriate storage conditions. It provides examples of stability issues for several drugs.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked together through peptide bonds. Peptides are short chains of amino acids, while proteins can be made of long chains of amino acids folded into shapes. Proteins can be classified based on their size and shape as globular or fibrous proteins, or based on their functions such as structural, regulatory, catalytic, transport, genetic, storage and defense proteins. Some peptides act as toxins or have important roles as hormones, antibiotics, or in oxidation reduction systems.
The document discusses the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in the peptide chain. The secondary structure involves hydrogen bonding that causes the chain to fold into structures like alpha helices or beta sheets. Tertiary structure describes further folding and interactions that result in the protein's three-dimensional shape. Quaternary structure refers to multiple peptide chains linked together in a protein.
Lipoproteins are spherical complexes formed by lipids and proteins that transport insoluble lipids through the blood. There are four main classes of lipoproteins: chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL), and high density lipoproteins (HDL). Chylomicrons and VLDL are involved in transporting triglycerides, LDL transports cholesterol, and HDL transports excess cholesterol from tissues back to the liver.
This document provides information about lipids and fatty acids. It begins with an outline of chapter topics on the chemistry and classification of lipids. It then defines lipids and lists their main functions in the body. Lipids are classified as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. Key reactions for lipids include hydrolysis. Fatty acids are classified based on saturation and chain length. Essential fatty acids, which must be obtained through diet, are discussed. Neutral fats are described as triacylglycerols composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
This document discusses lipids and fatty acids. It defines lipids and lists their main functions. Lipids are classified as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. Fatty acids are described, including their chemistry, classification as saturated or unsaturated, nomenclature, and examples of biologically important fatty acids. Essential fatty acids are discussed along with their importance.
This document summarizes the digestion, absorption, and transport of dietary lipids in the human body. Dietary lipids undergo limited digestion in the mouth and stomach by lipases before entering the intestine, where pancreatic enzymes emulsify and break down triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol esters into absorbable components. These components are absorbed via micelle transport into intestinal cells and repackaged into chylomicrons that enter the bloodstream. Chylomicrons deliver lipids to tissues and lose triglycerides due to lipoprotein lipase activity before remnants are removed from circulation by the liver.
This document provides information about lipids and fatty acids. It begins by defining lipids and listing their main functions in the body. It then classifies lipids as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. The document further describes the chemistry and classification of fatty acids, including saturated, unsaturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. It also discusses the nomenclature and isomerism of fatty acids. The key reactions of triacylglycerols are described.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the blood by endocrine glands and have profound effects on metabolic processes and cellular communication. They can be classified based on their chemical composition, location of receptors, or solubility. The major classes of hormones include steroids such as sex and adrenal hormones, peptides/proteins such as insulin and growth hormone, and amines such as epinephrine. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and include estrogens, androgens, progesterone, corticosteroids, and aldosterone. Peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin which are secreted by the pancreas, as well as hormones from the pituitary, parathyroid,
This document discusses enzymes and their properties. It begins by defining enzymes as globular proteins that act as biological catalysts to facilitate chemical reactions in living organisms. It then describes general enzyme characteristics such as their catalytic power, specificity, and ability to have their activity regulated. The document discusses how enzymes are named using systematic and common nomenclature systems. It also covers enzyme classification, cofactors/coenzymes, mechanisms of action, factors that influence activity, and kinetic models like Michaelis-Menten. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of the key concepts regarding enzymes.
1. The urea cycle is a series of enzymatic reactions that occurs primarily in the liver to convert toxic ammonia produced from amino acid catabolism into urea for excretion.
2. The cycle involves five principal reactions: carbamoyl phosphate synthesis, citrulline synthesis, argininosuccinate synthesis, argininosuccinate cleavage, and arginine cleavage into ornithine and urea.
3. The urea cycle serves two major biological roles - detoxification of ammonia into urea and biosynthesis of the amino acid arginine from ornithine in tissues like liver, kidney, and intestine.
1) Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to break them down into acetyl-CoA units, releasing energy.
2) Beta-oxidation involves a four-step cycle that removes two-carbon acetyl-CoA units from the fatty acid.
3) The complete breakdown of a fatty acid like stearic acid yields 9 acetyl-CoA molecules which enter the citric acid cycle, producing a total of 146 ATP molecules through electron transport chain reactions.
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
This document discusses glycogen metabolism. It notes that glycogen is a readily available form of glucose storage found primarily in the liver and muscles. Glycogen synthesis, or glycogenesis, occurs in the fed state in these tissues and involves three steps - isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate, activation of glucose-1-phosphate to UDP-glucose, and linkage of UDP-glucose to a glycogen chain catalyzed by glycogen synthase. Glycogen branching is accomplished by the enzyme amylo-(1,4-1,6)-trans-glycosylase which transfers glycogen segments to form branches. The synthesis and breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles
Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate materials to maintain blood glucose levels during periods without food intake. It takes place primarily in the liver and involves bypasses of three irreversible steps in glycolysis. Precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids are converted to pyruvate and then glucose. The pathway requires energy in the form of 6 ATP molecules to synthesize one glucose molecule from two pyruvate. Gluconeogenesis is important for supplying glucose to tissues like the brain and helps maintain normal blood sugar through processes like the Cori cycle.
The citric acid cycle is the principal process for generating reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2, which are necessary for ATP synthesis. It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and involves eight steps catalyzed by different enzymes. Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and the reduced coenzymes that fuel ATP production. Regulation occurs at three steps to precisely adjust the cycle's rate according to cellular energy needs. Overall, 12 ATP molecules are generated for each acetyl-CoA molecule that completes the citric acid cycle.
This document provides an overview of cholesterol biosynthesis, which occurs in most cells but primarily in the liver and intestine. There are 5 stages: 1) acetyl-CoA is converted to mevalonate, 2) mevalonate is converted to activated isoprene units, 3) six isoprene units condense to form squalene, 4) squalene is cyclized to lanosterol, and 5) lanosterol is converted to cholesterol over 20 steps. HMG-CoA reductase, which converts HMG-CoA to mevalonate, is the rate-limiting step and is regulated by feedback from cholesterol and bile acids as well as hormones like insulin, glucagon
This document provides information on carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates and explains their four main functions in living organisms. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document focuses on monosaccharides, describing their structures, classifications, stereochemistry including D and L isomers, anomers, mutarotation, and important naturally occurring monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose. It also outlines important reactions of monosaccharides such as oxidation, reduction, glycoside formation, and phosphate ester formation.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate biochemistry. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and classifies them based on molecular size into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are further classified as aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. The document discusses carbohydrate stereochemistry, including D and L isomers, enantiomers, and diastereomers. It also covers optical activity and how carbohydrate enantiomers can rotate plane-polarized light. Epimers are described as diastereomers that differ at only one chiral carbon.
This document summarizes the processes of transcription and translation. It explains that during transcription, RNA polymerase makes an mRNA copy of a gene from DNA. The mRNA then moves to the ribosomes in the rough ER for translation. During translation, ribosomes and tRNA molecules work together to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain according to the mRNA's codon sequence. The process continues until a stop codon is reached, and the polypeptide chain is released. Mutations can occur during these processes, potentially resulting in non-functional or disease-causing proteins. Examples of different mutation types and their effects are provided.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules made of nucleotides that contain three components: a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. DNA and RNA are the two main types of nucleic acids. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and has a double helix structure, while RNA contains the sugar ribose and is single-stranded. Both are composed of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds and function to carry genetic information for protein synthesis. Their primary differences are that DNA contains the base thymine while RNA contains uracil, and RNA is found in the cytoplasm while DNA remains in the nucleus.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
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Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
2. Pharmaceutical Incompatibilities
• A problem arises during the pharmaceutical compounding of two or more
substances because of their therapeutic, physical or chemical properties the
substances are said to be incompatible
• Incompatibility is the result of mixing two or more antagonistic substances and is
detected by changes in physical and chemical or therapeutic qualities
• It may affect the safety efficacy and appearance of a medicine
• A prescription is considered to possess an incompatibility when the combination
of its ingredients adversely effects the appearance, elegance, safety or
therapeutic efficacy
3. Classification
• In general we can say there are two types of incompatibilities;
• Minor incompatibilities (which do not harm or which can be easily avoided)
• Major incompatibilities (which should not be dispensed)
• Incompatibilities can be classified into three classes;
• Physical incompatibilities
• Chemical incompatibilities
• Therapeutic incompatibilities
4. Therapeutic Incompatibilities
• Undesirable pharmacological interactions between two or more ingredients that
leads to
• Potentiation of each other’s therapeutic effect
• Destruction of effectiveness of any ingredient
• Occurrence of toxic manifestations within the patient
• Therapeutic incompatibility arises when a drug error, dosage error or a dosage
form error is made either by the physician in prescribing or by pharmacist in
counselling, prescription handling or compounding.
5. Therapeutic Incompatibilities: Drug Error
• Drug error can be made either by the physician or by the pharmacist. It can
be due to;
• Writing or speaking error by the physician in the verbal or non-verbal
prescription
• Reading or hearing error by the pharmacist in prescription handling
• Example:
• Such problems tends to arise with, incorrect drug due to trademark or
nomenclature error.
• Alphaden – Mineral supplement
• Alphalin – Vitamin A product
• Alphyllin – A diuretic
6. Therapeutic Incompatibilities:
Contraindicated Drugs
• Pharmacist should take history before dispensing the drug to the patient. So that;
• He must be aware of any sort of drug interaction
• He avoid dispensing a drug which undergo renal clearance, to a patient with
renal insufficiency
• He avoid dispensing a drug which mainly undergo hepatic metabolism, to a
patient with liver dysfunctioning
• He avoid dispensing morphine to an asthmatic patient
• He avoid dispensing vasoconstrictor to a hypersensitive patient
7. Therapeutic Incompatibilities: Dosage Form
Error
• These are the errors which occurs due to
• If the physician has asked to compound topical product and pharmacist
compounded an oral product
• If topical products is swallowed by the patient
• If skin dosages are instilled into eyes, nose or ears
• If auxiliary label is not mentioned on the final compounded product
8. Therapeutic Incompatibilities: Dosage Error
• If there is an error in dosage requirement, i.e. how to take? When to take? How
much to take? How long to take?
• Over dosage; Excessive single dosage because of decimal errors. It occurs if the
doctor wrote it wrong or pharmacist read it in a wrong way.
• Excessive daily dose; suppose doctor has to write ‘after every 4 hours’ but
mistakenly he wrote ‘after every 1 hour’ then by this error the patient will receive
over dosage of the medicament.
• Addictive or synergistic combination; Two drugs may have such relation that
when they are administered together, leads to more intense effect.
• Example: Morphine with Barbiturates produce intense CNS depressant action.
9. Therapeutic Incompatibilities: Dosage Error
• Antagonistic combination; Two drugs may have such relation leads to under
dosage to the patients.
• Example: The reduction of the anticoagulant effect of warfarin when an agent
that accelerates its hepatic metabolism, such as phenobarbital.
• In case of emulsion or suspension if patient forget to shaken the preparation
before usage, leads to unequal dosage to user.
10. Physical Incompatibilities
• Physical incompatibilities are those incompatibilities in which the physical
properties of ingredients produce a mixture unacceptable in appearance or
results in inaccuracy of dosage.
• Physical incompatibilities can arise due to following reasons
• Insolubility
• Liquefaction
• Immiscibility
11. Physical Incompatibilities: Insolubility
• In complete solution
• Addition of wrong solvents e.g. gum-alcohol, silicon-water
• Amount of solvent is insufficient
• For Example
• In liquid preparations containing indiffusible solids such as; chalk, aromatic chalk,
powder succinyl sulphathiazole and sulphadimidine (in mixture) and calamine
and Zinc oxide (in lotion), a thickening agent is necessary to obtain an elegant
product from which uniform dose can be removed
12. Physical Incompatibilities: Insolubility
• Insoluble powders e.g. sulphur, certain corticosteroids and antibiotics are difficult
to wet with water, wetting agent are used.
• Example:
• Saponins for sulphur continuing lotions.
• Polysorbates for parenteral suspensions of corticosteroids and antibiotics.
• The deflocculating action of excess surface active agent may be cause claying.
This may be controlled by reducing the surfactant concentration.
13. Physical Incompatibilities: Insolubility
• Potent insoluble drugs are converted into salt form.
• Example:
• An alkaloidal salt for an alkaloids
• Sodium salt of barbiturates for the corresponding free compound.
• Constituents of alcoholic vegetable extract may precipitate.
• When a resinous tincture is added to the water. The water-insoluble resin
agglomerates forming indiffusible clots.
14. Physical Incompatibilities: Liquefaction
• When low melting point solids are powdered together with high melting point
solids, a liquid or soft mass is produced due to lowering of melting point of the
mixture to below room temperature
Example:
• Among the medicaments exhibiting this behavior are any pair of the following;
• Camphor, menthol, phenol, thymol, and chloral hydrate.
• Sodium salicylate or aspirin with phenazone.
15. Physical Incompatibilities: Immiscibility
• Immiscibility occurs between two liquids ingredients
• Oil (fixed oil) in water emulsion (emulsification or solubilization)
• Concentrated hydrophilic solutions of volatile oils such as spirits and
concentrated water used as adjuncts. (For example flavoring agents) in aqueous
preparations, are either gradually diluted with the vehicle before admixture with
the remaining ingredients or poured slowly into vehicle with constant stirring.
• Addition of high concentration of electrolytes to mixtures in which vehicle is a
saturated aqueous solution of a volatile oil causes the oil to separate and collect
as an unsightly surface layer.
• Example: Potassium citrate mixture BPC, in which the large quantity of soluble
solid, salts out the lemon oil and to disperse this evenly quillaia tincture is added
as a suspending agent or emulsifying agents.
16. Chemical Incompatibilities
• Chemical incompatibilities occur as a result of chemical reaction;
• Effervescence
• Precipitation
• Color changes
• It can be immediate or it can be delayed.
17. Chemical Incompatibilities: Types
• Following are the types of reaction that occurs;
• Oxidation
• Hydrolysis
• Polymerization
• Combustion reactions
• Isomerization
• Decarboxylation
• Formation of insoluble complexes
18. Chemical Incompatibilities: Oxidation
• Oxidation refers to the addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.
• The factors which leads to oxidation are includes;
• Pressure of oxygen: Increased pressure of oxygen will lead to oxidation of the
ingredients
• Light: Presence of light may cause photochemical oxidation reactions
• Temperature: Elevated temperature leads to oxidation of ingredients
• pH: Every drug has its optimum pH for stability. Therefore, change in the pH may
affect the stability of the drug and may cause its oxidation.
• Pharmaceutical dosage form: Oxidation reactions occurs in solutions faster than
in solid dosage forms
19. Chemical Incompatibilities: Oxidation
• Presence of pre-oxidants: Presence of pre-oxidants leads to the oxidation of
ingredients
For example; metals, peroxides.
• Type of solvents/ vehicle used: Oxidation occurs faster in aqueous solvent /
vehicles than others.
• Presence of unsaturated bonds: Presence of unsaturation (double or triple bond)
leads to easier oxidation than saturated bonds.
20. Chemical Incompatibilities: Oxidation
• Preventive measures taken to prevent oxidation reactions includes
• Addition of antioxidants: To avoid oxidation antioxidants are used
For example; Vitamin E, Vitamin C and inorganic sulfur compounds e.g. polysulfide and
thiosulfate.
• Protection form pre-oxidants: Addition of chemicals which forms complexes with
metals
For example; EDTA, Benzalkonium chloride
• Protection from light: The drug ingredients must be protected from light by using
dark containers for packing, storage of formulation in dark places, or by packaging
with substances which absorbs light
For example; oxybenzene
21. Chemical Incompatibilities: Oxidation
• Choice dosage form: Suitable dosage form must be selected which reduces the
possibility of oxidation.
For example; solids dosage forms are better over solutions.
• Maintenance of pH: Buffers must be used to maintain the pH for the stability of
the drug ingredients.
• Choice of suitable solvent/ vehicle: Hydroalcoholic or alcoholic vehicles are used
instead of aqueous vehicle to overcome oxidation.
• Maintenance of temperature: Storage at low temperature prevent oxidation.
• Protection from air: Oxidation can be avoided by packing the formulation in well
closed container or by the replacement of oxygen by nitrogen inside the
container.
22. Chemical Incompatibilities: Oxidation
• Chemical groups that are susceptible to oxidation:
• Phenolic compounds – Phenylephrine
• Catechol derivatives – Adrenaline, Nor-adrenaline
• Antibiotics – Tetracycline
• Oils – Fixed oils and Volatile oils
• Vitamins – Lipid soluble vitamins and Water soluble vitamins
23. Chemical Incompatibilities: Hydrolysis
• Breakdown of chemical compound in presence of moisture/water is called
Hydrolysis
• Hydrolysis is of two types;
1. Ionic hydrolysis: The breakdown of ionic compound into its positive and
negative ions.
Example: codeine phosphate reversibly broken down to codeine and phosphate.
2. Molecular hydrolysis: It is defined as the breakdown of whole molecule into its
components.
Example: Acetyl salicylic acid irreversibly broken down into salicylic acid and acetic acid.
24. Chemical Incompatibilities: Hydrolysis
• The factors which leads to hydrolysis are mentioned below;
• Presence of water: Presence of water leads to hydrolysis of formulation
ingredients.
• Use of water for vehicle: Using of water as vehicle for formulation may cause
hydrolysis.
• pH: Every drug has its optimum pH for stability. Therefore, change in the pH may
affect the stability of the drug and may cause its hydrolysis.
• For example; optimum pH for Atropine is 3.1 – 4.5
• Temperature: High temperature during autoclaving may leads to hydrolysis of the
formulation.
25. Chemical Incompatibilities: Hydrolysis
• Preventive measures to prevent hydrolysis during compounding includes;
• Protection from moisture: it can be done by packing with such substances which
are impermeable to water.
• Addition of dehydration agents: hydrolysis can also be avoided by the addition of
substances that absorb water.
• For example; Silica gel, Calcium carbonate.
• Use of vehicle: Hydrolysis can be prevented by using vehicles other than water.
• For example; alcohol.
• Maintenance of pH: Buffers must be used to maintain the pH for the stability of
the drug ingredients.
• Using of surfactants: Surfactants must be used which cause miscall formation.
26. Chemical Incompatibilities: Hydrolysis
• Reducing the solubility: By reducing the solubility of substances drugs can be
protected against hydrolysis.
• For example; suspensions.
• Complex formation: Formation of complexes must be done which protect the
drug from effects of water.
• Chemical groups undergo hydrolysis:
• Esters – Benzocaine, Procaine
• Amides – Chloramphenicol, Sulphonamides, Procainamide
• Nitriles – drugs containing NO2, NO3, N2O
27. Chemical Incompatibilities: Polymerization
• Polymerization is a process in which small repeating units called monomers are
bonded to form a long chain polymer
• Formaldehyde convert into para formaldehyde which appears in the form of precipitate. So,
to avoid, formaldehyde must be stored at suitable temperature.
• Ampicillin at high temperature form polymers which causes allergy.
• The following factors induces polymerization;
• Light: light may cause polymerization in the formulation or individual ingredients.
• Solvent/ vehicle: certain solvents induce polymerization.
• pH: Every drug has its optimum pH for stability. Therefore, change in the pH may
affect the stability of the drug and may cause its polymerization of monomers.
• Temperature: High temperature causes polymerization of ingredients.
28. Chemical Incompatibilities: Polymerization
• Preventive measures to prevent Polymerization reactions during compounding;
• Protection from light: The drug ingredients must be protected from light by using
dark containers for packing, storage of ingredients in dark places, or by packaging
with substances which absorbs light.
• For example; oxybenzene.
• Use of vehicle: Polymerization can be prevented by using suitable vehicles.
• Maintenance of pH: Buffers must be used to maintain the pH for the stability of
the drug ingredients.
• Maintenance of temperature: Storage at suitable low temperature prevent
polymerization.
29. Chemical Incompatibilities: Combustion
Reaction
• Such reactions takes place when the pharmaceutical dosage form contain
substances with different charges.
• Example: Surfactant with +ve and –ve charges
30. Chemical Incompatibilities: Isomerization
• Conversion of drug to its isomer is called isomerization
• Isomers have same molecular formula and different structural formula
(arrangement of atoms).
• There are two types of isomerism;
1. Optical isomerism: these are expressed by dextro rotatory and levo rotatory.
• Example: L-adrenaline is converted into d-adrenaline by change in pH and temperature.
• D-tubocurarine is more active than its L form.
2. Geometrical isomerism: these are expressed by Cis and Trans. Most of the
times the Cis form is more active than trans form.
• Example: Cis form of Vitamin A is more active.
31. Chemical Incompatibilities: Isomerization
• The following factors induces isomerization;
• Solvent/ vehicle: certain solvents induce isomerization of ingredients.
• pH: Every drug has its optimum pH for stability. Therefore, change in the pH may
affect the stability of the drug and may cause its isomerization.
• Temperature: Variation in temperature causes isomerization of ingredients.
• Impurities: certain impurities leads to isomerization of ingredients.
32. Chemical Incompatibilities: Isomerization
• Preventive measures to prevent isomerization of ingredients during compounding
includes;
• Use of vehicle: isomerization can be prevented by using suitable vehicles.
• Maintenance of pH: Buffers must be used to maintain the pH for the stability of
the drug ingredients.
• Maintenance of temperature: Storage at suitable temperature prevent
isomerization of drug ingredients.
• Protection from Impurities: Drugs can be protected against impurities by filtering
them out.
33. Chemical Incompatibilities: Decarboxylation
Reaction
• In general it can be understand by; evolution of Carbon dioxide during the
formulation.
• Carbon dioxide is evolved if a carbonate or bicarbonate is dispensed in a liquid
medicine containing an acid of an acidic drug. To prevent leakage or explosion the
reaction must be completed before the preparation is bottled.
• In some instances the reaction is slow and should be hastened by using a hot
vehicle.
• All drugs containing bicarbonate are not sterilized at high temperature.
34. Chemical Incompatibilities: Decarboxylation
Reaction
• Preventive measures are taken to prevent isomerization of ingredients during
compounding;
• Use of vehicle: Decarboxylation can be prevented by using suitable non-acidic
vehicles.
• Maintenance of pH: Buffers must be used to maintain the pH for the stability of
the drug ingredients.
• Maintenance of temperature: Storage at suitable temperature prevent
decarbocylation of drug ingredients.
35. Chemical Incompatibilities: Formation of
Insoluble Complexes
• Complexes are formed either due to drug or due to adjuncts used in formulation.
• Drugs: tetracycline form complex with heavy metalsremoved with EDTA
molecules.
• Adjuncts: Many molecular adjuncts used which medicaments and preservations
are bound to the macromolecules or trapped within miscall. The behavior is most
common in non-ionic macromolecules.
• Therapeutic activity or adjunct efficacy may be seriously impaired by complex
formation particularly emulgents (macrobol esters and ethers) and solublizers
(polysorbates) exhibit this phenomenon