PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORM NOTES

PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORM
NOTES
T.B.EKNATH BABU
STUDENT AT ARULMIGU
KALASALINGAM COLLEGE OF
PHARMACY
THIS NOTES BASED ON Dr.M.G.R.
UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS

PHARMACEUTICAL AEROSOLS
DEFINITION
A pharmaceutical aerosol is defined as a colloidal system containing liquid and solid particles (active ingredients) suspended
in a propellant (liquefied gas or compressed gas). The power propellants helps in expelling the contents from the container.
Aerosols are meant for topical, systemic and oral administration, these are also known as Pressurized Packages .
Advantages Easy and convenient application. Can be delivered directly to the affected area . Rapid response to the
medicament . Reduced irritation. Dose can be delivered without contamination. Protect unstable drugs. Lower dosage of drug
minimize adverse side effect. Disadvantages Expensive Propellants are toxic in nature. Highly inflammable
Components of Aerosols Propellants Containers Valves and actuators Product concentrate
6 Components of aerosols Propellant Container Valve and actuator Product concentrate container
PROPELLANTS It is responsible for developing the power pressure within the container and also expel the product when the
valve is opened and in the atomization or foam production of the product. Types of propellants (a) Liquefied gases (b)
Compressed gases
(a) LIQUEFIED GASES Dispersing the active ingredient into a fine mist. Pressure within the container remains constant.
Relatively inert and nontoxic. Types of Liquefied gases Chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs) Trichloromonfluoromethane (Prop
11) Dichlorodifluoromethane (Prop 12) Dichlorotetrafluoroethane (Prop 114) Hydrocarbon Propane, Butane, and Isobutane
3.Hydrochlorofluorocarbon and Hydrofluorocarbon Monochlorodifluoroethane , Difluoromethane
(1) Chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs) Propellant of choice for oral and inhalation . Advantages Chemical inertness Lack of
toxicity Non flammability. Disadvantages High cost It depletes the ozone layer Damage global warming potential
(2) Hydrocarbon Can be used for water based aerosols and topical use. Advantages Inexpensive Excellent solvents It does not
cause ozone depletion Disadvantages Inflammable Unknown toxicity produced e.g. propane , butane , isobutane

(3) Hydrochlorofluorocarbon and Hydrofluorocarbon They may not contain chlorine and have one or more hydrogen atom.
These compounds break down in the atmosphere at faster rate than CFCs- lower ozone destroying effect. Advantages Low
inhalation toxicity High chemical stability High purity Not ozone depleting Disadvantages Poor solvent High cost
(b) Compressed gases Used when the aqueous phase need not be miscible with the propellant. Do not have chilling effect, for
topical preparation. Advantages Inexpensive Non flammable No environmental problems Disadvantages Pressure falls during
use Produce coarse droplet spray e.g. CO 2 , N 2 O, N 2
Containers They must be stand at pressure as high as 140 to 180 psig (pounds per sq. inch gauge) at 130 0 F. A . Metals 1.
Tinplated steel (a) Side-seam (three pieces) (b) Two-piece or drawn (c) Tin free steel 2. Aluminium (a) Two-piece (b) One-
piece (extruded or drawn ) 3. Stainless steel B. Glass 1. Uncoated glass 2. Plastic coated glass
Tinplated steel : Used in topical pharmaceutical aerosols Coating decreases the compatibility problems Light Inexpensive
Aluminum: Used in oral aerosols - Metal containers may be further coated with organic coating, e.g. oleoresin, phenolic ,
vinyl or epoxy coating for additional protection .
Glass containers: These containers are preferred because of its esthetic value and absence of incompatibilities. These
containers are limited to the products having a lower pressure and lower percentage of the propellant. Glass is basically
stronger than the metallic containers.
Two types of glass aerosol containers
i) Uncoated glass container: Decreased cost and high clarity and contents can be viewed at all times.
ii) Plastic coated glass containers: These are protected by plastic coating that prevents the glass from shattering in the event
of breakage. Pressures up to 33 psig can be used. Mainly used for some topical and metered dose inhaler aerosols.
Glass Advantage: Absence of incompatibility Its use is limited for products having lower pressure and lower percentage of
propellant There are two types of glass containers: Uncoated glass: Low cost - High clarity Plastic coated glass: Prevent the
glass from shattering in the event of breakage Used for some topical and MDI aerosols

Valves To delivered the drug in desired form. To give proper amount of medication. Not differ from valve to valve of
medication in pharmaceutical preparation . Types - Continuous spray valve - High speed production technique. - Metering
valves
20 Valve components Ferrul or mount cap Valve body or housing Stem Gasket Spring Dip tube Gasket spring
22 Actuator To ensure that aerosol product is delivered in the proper and desired form . These are specially designed buttons
which helps in delivering the drug in desired form i.e., spray, wet stream, foam or solid stream Different types of actuators
Spray actuators Foam actuators Solid steam actuators Special actuators
FORMULATION
Depending on the type of aerosol system utilized, the pharmaceutical aerosol may be dispensed as fine mist, wet spray,
quick-breaking foam, stable foam, semi solid or solid. The type of system selected depends on i) physical, chemical and
pharmacological properties of active ingredients ii) site of application An aerosol formulation consists of two components: i)
Product concentrate ii) Propellant
i) Product concentrate: consists of active ingredients or a mixture of active ingredients and other agents such as solvents,
antioxidants and surfactants.
ii) Propellant: .single or blend of propellants may be used. The propellant is selected to give the desired vapor pressure,
solubility and particle size. Fluorinated hydrocarbons are gases at room temperature. They may be liquefied by cooling their
boiling point or by compression at room temperature. Eg : Freon 12 will form a liquid when cooled to -30° C(-22° F) or when
compressed to 70 psig at 21°C(70° F). Blend of solvents is used to achieve the desired solubility.
Surfactants are mixed to give the proper HLB value for an emulsion system. Space aerosols usually operate at 30 to 40 psig at
21° C and may contain as much as 85% propellant. Surface aerosols commonly contain 30 to 70% propellant with pressures
between 25 and 55 psig at 21°C(70° F). Foam aerosols usually contain only 6 to 10 % propellant and operate between 35 and
55 psig at 21°C (70° F). These aerosols can be considered to be emulsions.
Types of system Solution system Water based system Suspension or Dispersion systems Foam systems 1. Aqueous stable
foams 2. Nonaqueous stable foams 3. Quick-breaking foams 4. Thermal foams Intranasal aerosols

Types of systems
1. Solution system •Consist of two phases liquid and vapor •If the active ingredient is soluble in propellant it has one system
•The ratio of propellant and solvent could range from 5% (foaming) to 95% (inhalation). •To lower vapor pressure we can add
solvents of non volatile e.g. Propylene glycol, acetone, alcohol
2. Water based systems •Are increasing in use nowadays •Have relatively large amount of water •There is three phase system:
water, propellant and vapor. •In aquasol system it has two phases i.e. water and vapor
3. Dispersed systems (suspension) •It needs surfactants •Particle size is important
4. Foam systems •Have foaming agent •Aqueous or non aqueous
MANUFACTURING PROCEDURE FOR AEROSOLS
1. Pressure filling
2. Cold filling
3. Compressed gas filling
Equipments used Those fill at pressurized and low temperature 1. Pressure filling (gauge-burette) 2. Cold filling (low temp.)
3. Compressed gas filling (after concentrate has been filled)
Pressure filling apparatus
It consists of a pressure burette which helps in metered filling of liquefied gas in to the aerosol container under pressure, an
inlet valve is present at the bottom or top of the pressure burette, which incorporates the propellant into the container and
flows with its own vapour pressure in the container. The trapped air escapes out from the top valve. The propellant which are
having low pressure stop flowing as the pressure of burette and container becomes equal. If further propellant is to be added,
then the aerosol container is attached to the container is attached to the nitrogen cylinder through a hose(rubber pipe), the
pressure exerted by nitrogen helps in the flow of the propellant into the container. Otherwise compressed air is provided on
the upper wall of the container for further addition of propellant. another device which consists of piston arrangement can also
be used for pressure filling. This device helps in always maintaining positive pressure. This type of device cannot be used for
filling inhalation aerosols which have metered valves.

PROCEDURE: It is a slow method compared to cold filling method. But with the latest developments, the production rate has
been greatly increased. This method involves filling of the concentrate into the container at the room temperature. Then the
valve is placed in the container and crimped. Through the opening of the valve the propellant are added or it can be added
“under the cap”.
Since the opening of the valve are smaller in size ranging from 0.018-0.030 inches, it limits the production and the process
becomes slow. But with the use of rotary filling machines and new filling heads where the propellants are filled through valve
stem, the production rate is increased. The trapped air in the container and air present in head space is removed before filling
the propellant. This is done so as to protect the products from getting adversely affected.
ADVANTAGES: Solutions, emulsions, suspensions can be filled by this method as chilling does not occur. Contamination
due to moisture is less. The production rate can be increased. Loss of propellant is less.
Various units used in pressure filling methods are, Air cleaner Concentrate filler Valve placer Propellant filler Valve crimper
Water bath Labeler Coder Packing table Vacuum crimper Pressure filler The fillers does not have the facility of refrigeration
as chilling is not required. vacuum crimper and pressure filler comes under single unit if filling is carried by ‘under the cap’
method.
Cold filling apparatus
The apparatus used for cold filling purpose is simpler compared to pressure filling apparatus. It consist of an insulated box in
which copper tubings are placed. The tubings are coiled to increase the area for cooling. Before operating the nit, the insulated
box should be filled with dry ice or acetone. The apparatus can be operated with or without metered valves. Hydrocarbon
propellant cannot be filled into aerosol containers using this apparatus because large amount of propellant escapes out and
vaporizes. This may lead to formation of an explosive mixture at the floor level. Fluorocarbons do not form any explosive
mixture although their vapours are heavier than air.
PROCEDURE: non aqueous products and products which can withstand low temperature that is -40ºF are used in this
method. The product concentrate are chilled to a temperature of -40ºF and filled into already chilled container. Then the
chilled propellant is added completely in 1-2 stages. The filling of propellant depends upon the amount of propellant is used.
Another method is to chill both the product concentrate and propellant in a separate pressure vessel and then filling them into

the container. The valve is placed and crimped on the container. Then test for leakage and strength of container is carried out
by passing container into a heated water bath, where the contents of the container get heated to 130ºF. After this, they are air
dried, and the caps are placed on the container and labeled.
The cold filling method is no longer being used, as it has been replaced by pressure filling method. Various units used in
pressure filling methods are, Air cleaner Concentrate filler Valve placer Propellant filler Valve crimper Water bath Labeler
Coder Packing table the fillers are capable of refrigeration since the product concentrate and propellant are chilled.
Compressed gas filling apparatus
The filling of compressed gas does not require any large equipments and can be easily done in the lab. To reduce the pressure
of compressed gas (high pressure), a pressure reducing valve is required. The apparatus consists of delivery guage. A flexible
hose pipe which can withstand high guage pressure that is 150 pounds per square inch is attached to the delivery guage along
with the filling head. A flow indicator is also present in specialized equipments.
PROCEDURE: The product concentrate is filled into the container. Valve is placed and crimped on the container. With the
help of vacuum pump the air is removed from the container. Filling head is put in the opening of the valve and the gas is
allowed to pass. The gas stops flowing if the delivery pressure and the pressure within the container become equal. Carbon
dioxide and nitrous oxide is used if more amount of gas is required or for the stability purposes. High solubility can be
achieved by shaking the container manually or with the help of mechanical shakers.
PHARMACEUTICAL APLLICATION
1. Aerosols are those preparations containing therapeutically active ingredients which either dissolved or suspended in the
propellant blends and solvents. The propellants are in the form of compressed gases and liquefied gases. Aerosols are used for
oral or topical administration.
2. Aerosols exhibits local action in nose, throat, lungs, eye, ear, vagina or rectum.
3. Aerosols also exhibit systemic effect when they pass from the lungs and get absorbed into the blood stream. 4. Metered
dose inhalers help in administration of the liquid or solid mist or spray to the respiratory system or to the nasal passage.
5. The particle size should be below 10µm. For effective or maximum therapeutic activity, particle size should range between
3-6 µm,

6. Aerosols are used to formulate several agents which includes local analgesics, antiseptics, fungicides, antibiotics and anti-
inflammatory agents.
7. Aerosols are available in non pharmaceutical preparations like deodorants, perfumes, cosmetic air sprays, toothpastes and
shaving creams .
8.They are also available as house hold products such as spray starch, waxes, polishes, cleaners and lubricants. 9. The drug
administered through aerosols gives quick response and rapid action. As aerosol containers are fitted with metered valves.
10. These preparations are easy to carry.
11. They are uniformly applied without touching the affected area.
12. Sterility of the product is maintained during storage even after opening the valve(as micro organisms cannot enter the
container).
13. The drug does not undergo hydrolysis as there is no water present in the propellant.
14. The drugs are well protected from light and air in aerosol formulation.
15. Patient compliance is high.
Evaluation Of Pharmaceutical Aerosol
A . Flammability and combustibility Flash point Flame extension, including flashback B. Physiochemical characteristics .
Vapor pressure Density Moisture content Identification of propellant(s) Concentrate-propellant ratio C. Performance 1.
Aerosol valve discharge rate Spray pattern Dosage with metered valves Net contents Foam stability Particle size
determination Leakage Biologic characteristics E. Therapeutic activity Evaluation parameters of pharmaceutical aerosols
Flammability and combustibility i) Flash point: It is mainly determined by the use of standard tag open cup apparatus.
Aerosol product is chilled to a temperature of about -25° F and transferred to the test apparatus. The test liquid is allowed to
increase slowly in temperature, and the temperature at which the vapors ignite is taken as the flash point. The flash point
obtained is usually the flash point of the most flammable component (hydrocarbon propellant in case of topical aerosols).
ii) Flame extension or flame projection: This test indicates the effect of an aerosol formulation on the extension of an open
flame. The product is sprayed for about 4 sec into the flame. Depending on the nature of the formulation, flame is extended,
the exact length is measured with a ruler.

B. Physicochemical characteristics: i) Vapor pressure: The pressure can be measured with a pressure gauge or through the use
of a water bath and test gauges. Excessive pressure variation from container to container indicates the presence of air in the
head space. A can puncturing device is available for accurately measuring vapor pressure.
ii) Density: Hydrometer or pycnometer is mainly used to determine the density of an aerosol system. A pressure tube is fitted
with metal flanges and a Holk valve, which allows for the introduction of liquids under pressure. The hydrometer is placed
into the pressure tube. Sufficient sample is introduced the valve to cause the hydrometer to rise halfway up the length of the
tube and the density can be read directly. Specific gravity can be determined through the use of high pressure 500 mL
cylinder.
iii) Moisture: Presence of moisture can be determined by using a) Karl Fischer b) Gas Chromatography
iv) Identification of propellants: Identification of propellants and composition of each propellant in the blend can be done by
using a) Gas chromatography b) Infrared spectrometry
C) Performance: i) Aerosol valve discharge rate: Known weight of an aerosol product has been taken and discharging the
contents for a given period of time using standard apparatus. The container is reweighed after the specified time, the change in
the weight per time gives the discharge rate, expressed as grams per second .
ii) Spray patterns: The method is based on the impingement of the spray on a piece of paper that has been treated with a dye-
talc mixture. An oil soluble or water soluble dye is used depending on the nature of the aerosol. The particles that strike the
paper cause the dye to go into the solution and to be absorbed onto the paper. This gives a record of the spray, which can be
used for the comparison purposes. To control the amount of material coming into contact with the paper, the paper is attached
to a rotating disk that has an adjustable slit.
iii) Dosage with metered valves: Reproducibility of the dose was observed when the valve is pressed. Actual amount of
medication received by the patient. Reproducibility of the dosage may be determined by assay techniques whereby one or two
doses are dispensed into a solvent or onto a material that absorb the active ingredient. These solutions can be assayed and the
amount of active ingredients determined. Another method involves accurate weighing of the filled container followed by
dispensing of several doses. The container can be reweighed and the difference in weight divided by the number of doses
dispensed gives the average dose. This test can be repeated and compared the results. Determination of dose received by a
patient is rather difficult procedure, since all of the material dispensed is not carried to the respiratory tract.

iv) Net contents: The tared cans that have been placed onto the filling line are reweighed and the difference in weight is equals
to the net contents. Destructive method: weighing of full container followed by dispensing of the contents from the container.
The contents are then weighed, with provision being made for the amount retained in the container. Other method is opening
the container and removing as much of the product as possible. This test mainly useful for determining the actual amount that
can be dispended. Weight of empty container =W1 gm Weight of the filled container = W2gm Difference in the weight = W1-
W2gm net content. Distractive method: weight the filled container, dispensing the content and than contents are weigh.
v) Foam stability: The life of foam can range from a few seconds to one hour or more depending on the formulation. Methods
include: i) visual evaluation ii) time for a given mass to penetrate the foam iii) time for a given rod that is inserted into the
foam to fall iv) use of rotational viscometers.
vi) Particle size determination: Two methods are used to determine the particle size of the aerosols. 1) Cascade impactor 2)
Light scattering decay
1) Cascade impactor: This method analyses the particles having diameters ranging from 0.1 to 30μ. A series of nozzles and
glass slides at high velocity are projected through a stream of particles, the larger particles become impacted first on the lower
velocity stages. the smaller particles pass on and are collected at higher velocity stages
2) Light scattering decay: Determination of particle size in epinephrine aerosols. The aerosol settles under turbulent
conditions, the change in light intensity of a Tyndall beam is measured. It is noted that a) a mass median diameter of an
epinephrine aerosol ranged from 2.7 to 3.5 μ b) 70% to 78% of the particles were less than 5μ c) 88% to 93% were less than
7μ d) 98% to 100% were less than 10μ
D) Biological testing: This type of testing an aerosol should include a consideration of therapeutic activity and toxicity.
Therapeutic activity: the dosage of the product has to be determined for inhalation aerosols and this must be related to the
particle size distribution. Topical preparations are applied to the test areas and adsorption of the therapeutic ingredients can be
determined Toxicity: Aerosol applied topically may be irritating to the affected area and or may cause chilling effect. When
the skin is sprayed with an aerosol for a given period of time, the change in the skin temperature was observed .this change in
temperature is mainly determined by the use of thermistor probes attached to recording thermometers. Inhalation toxicity can
also be determined by exposing the test animals to vapors sprayed from an aerosol container.

SUPPOSITORY
All types of suppositories are melt at normal body temperature after introducing in body cavity and produce their effect. Page
2 It is comes under semi solid preparation because it is prepared by melting all ingredients (bases and other additives along
with active ingredient). It is solid dosage form meant to be inserted into Body cavity like rectum , urethra, vagina, where
they melt or soften to release the drugs and produce their local or systemic effect.
ADVANTANGE OF SUPPOSITORY
It is suitable for the drugs which are destroyed by portal circulation. It is suitable for infants and old people who find difficulty
in swallowing of drugs. It is suitable for drugs which produce irritating effect in GIT. It is suitable for unconscious patients
which can not taken drugs orally. Drugs having bad odour and taste can be used in suppository form. It is the alternated
dosage form for drugs which have less bioavailability when it is taken orally.
DISADVANTAGE OF SUPPOSITORY
Leakage problem is also most critical problem along with suppository after introducing in body cavity at elevated
temperature. Page 4 The most important problem is storage condition because it stored at low temp. (10-20 0c ). Other than
the bases get liquefied. The drugs which cause irritation to mucous membrane can not be administrated by this form. The
manufacturing process is more difficult as compare other formulation. The shape of suppository used in rectal is torpedo
shape TYPES OF SUPPOSITORY
(A)RECTAL SUPPOSITORY-
. The length is about 3 Page 5 cm. The weight of suppository used in children is about 1g and in adult about 2g. It is
inserted in the rectal .
(B) URETHRAL SUPPOSITORY
It is available in pencil shape. Those intended for males weigh 4 gm each and are 100-150 mm long. The weight of this type
suppository is about 2g and 60-75 mm long in Females.
(C) VAGINAL SUPPOSITORY

It is contains the combination of polyethylene glycol of different molecular weights as suppository bases. Page 7 It is
contains the drugs which are used in treatment of the infections of female genitourinary tract and meant for contraception. It
is about 3-5g in weight. It is in oviform shape.
(D) NASAL SUPPOSITORY
It is about 1g in weight. It is cylindrical in shape. These are meant for introduction into the ear. It is also known as
AURINARIES. The glycero- gelatin is used as suppository bases. (E) EAR CONE It is about 1g in weight. These
suppository are meant for introduction into nasal cavity
FORMULATION OF SUPPOSITORIES (
A) SUPPOSITORIES BASES-
B) IDEAL PROPERTIES OF SUPPOSITRIES BASES- The following properties should be required for bases---
IDEAL PROPERTIES OF SUPPOSITRY BASES
It should retain hardness and It should be stable during storage condition , No change in colour, shape , odour It should not
irritate and produced inflamed sensation in body cavity.  Bases should be exist in solid form at room temperature. It should
have sponification no. range between200-245. It should have iodine value less than 7.  It should have acid value less than
0.2 or zero.  It should have good emulsifying and wetting property.  It should not reacts with drugs and additives.
(1) HYDROPHILIC BASES(A) WATER DISPERSIBLE BASES-
Cellulose derivatives like methylcellulose, sod.carboxymethyl cellulose are also comes under this class. Page 12 These
are used alone or in combination with other type of bases. These are the mixture of non ionic surfactants which are
chemically related to polyethylene glycol.12. This types of bases are interact with few drugs and alter the
bioavailability of these drugs. Page 13 They can be stored at elevated temperature. Disadvantages- They do not
support the growth of microbes in the preparation. They are suitable for both water soluble and oil soluble drugs.13.
Advantages
EXAMPLES

Combination of Tween 61 (85%) and glyceryl monostearate (15%) Page 14 Combination of Tween 61(60%) and Tween
60(40%) Sorbitan fatty acid esters(SPANS) Polyoxyethelene stearates(MYRIS) Polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid
ester(TWEENS)
(B) WATER SOLUBLE BASES (1) GLYCERO-GELATIN- For gets a stiff mass , the quantity of gelatin should be increased
to 32.5% and reduced the glycerol to 40%. Page 15 According to BP the composition of the bases – GELATIN- 14% w/w
GLYCEROL– 70% w/w WATER– QS  It is a mixture of gelatin, glycerol, and water.  This occurs as a gels
16. PREPARATION OF GLYCERO-GELATINE BASES GLYCEROL WATER GELATINE GLYCERO-GELATINE
BASES
ADVANTAGES
It absorbs moisture and promotes microbial growth , so this reason preservatives are used . Page 17 This base is disperse
slowly in the body cavity fluids and provides prolonged release and action of drugs. DISADVANTAGES- Suppository
prepared by glycero-gelatin bases are strong and translucent unlike cocoa butter suppositories.17.
DISADVANTAGES
Handling and manufacturing of these type of suppository are difficult. Page 18 It requires special storage condition at about
10-15 0c. It exerts undesirable laxative action. It causes dehydration and irritation of rectal mucosa The bases are show
incompatibility with protiens prescipitants due to the gelatin18.
. (2) POLY ETHYLENE GLYCOL(POLYGLYCOL)
They are the mixture of two or more grades of macrogols used as suppository bases. Page 19 They are also called as
macrogols.  Solid have mol.weight about more than 1000.  Liquids have mol.weight about 200-600.  They occur in
liquid and solids.  They are long chain polymers of ethylene oxide.  CARBOWAXES(U.S)  It is also called as
PASTONALS (GERMANY). 19
FOR SOFT SUPPOSITORY PEG 1000- 96 parts PEG 4000- 4 parts Page 20 FOR HARD SUPPOSITORY PEG 1000- 75
parts PEG 4000- 25 parts PEG 4000- 33 parts PEG 6000- 47 parts PURIFIED WATER- 20 parts20. EXAMPLES
ADVANTAGES

It is chemically stable. Page 21 It has good water absorbing capacity. It dose not move out from body cavity after
introducing. It does not support microbial growth. It does not get degraded or hydrolysed. This base is thermostable.21.
DISADVANTAGES
Sometimes leakage may be occur after introducing in body cavity. Page 22 The physical characteristics of the bases are
change from batch to batch. Large quantities of water can not be incorporated into the bases.So emulsifier such as tween 61
(6-10%) are useful to increase the absorption of water. It melt easily in warm weather,so it should stored in cool place in
warm season. It is susceptible to rancidification,so it should be stored in dry place away from light.22.
. (2) LIPOPHILIC BASES (a) COCOA BUTTER
It consists of a mixture of ester of oleic acid,palmatic acid,stearic acid and other fatty acid with glycerol. Page 23 At room
temperature ,it is yellowish- white with a paints,chocolate like odour. It can exist in more than one crystalline form or
exhibits polymorphism. Among all fatty acid about 40% are unsaturated fatty acid . It is natural triglyceride.23
ADVANTAGES
It does not cause irritation in mucous membrane. Page 24 It shows good release of water soluble drugs. It has emollient
effect which is useful to relieve inflammation. It is liquified readily on warming and sets rapidly on cooling.24.
DISADVANTAGES
Sometimes leakage may be occur. Page 25 It required extra lubricant during poring in holder. The physical property of the
base is vary from batch to batch. It gives soft suppository when formulated along with chloral hydrate , phenol, volatile oil,
which have lower melting point. It is susceptible to rancidification ,so it should be stored in dry place away from light.25.
(B) ANTI OXIDANTS
Tocopherol Page 26 Hydroquinone Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) Butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) Ascorbic
acid Ethyl or propyl gallate These are commonly used in all types of suppositories. EXAMPLES- It is protect the drugs
and bases from getting degraded due to oxidation.26.
(C) EMULSIFYING AGENTS

Wool fats Page 27 Wool alcohol Poly sorbates (TWEEN 61) EXAMPLES These are increase the water absorbing
capacity of fatty bases.27.
(D) HARDENING AGENTS
Macrogols at high molecular weight. Page 28 Beeswax EXAMPLES These are the agents which are used to bring the
melting point to normal. These are involved in those formulation where the melting point of the bases is decrease by the
drugs.28.
PRESERVATIVES
Propyl paraben Page 29 Methyl paraben Chorocresol EXAMPLES These are the agents which are used in prevent the
growth of microbial in suppository which contains water soluble bases.
. (F) THICKENING AGENTS
Steary alcohol Page 30 Magnisium stearate Colloidal silica Aluminium monostearate EXAMPLES These are the
agents which are used to increases the viscosity of molten bases and prevent sedimentation of suspended in solid bases.
. (G) PLASTICIZERS
Tween 85 Page 31 Tween 80 Glycol Glycerine Castor oils EXAMPLES It is also used to make the less brittles to
suppositories. These are the agent which are used to improved flexibility of suppositories.
Molds have different capacities like 1,2,4,8gm. Page 32 In side the molds the cavities are made up of aluminium , brass,
stainless steel , plastics.  It is consists of two or more parts which are joined with a screw.  Molds used in preparation of
suppositories are the metals devised with different shape.
METHODS OF PREPARATION OF SUPPOSITORIES MOLDS USED IN PREPARATION OF SUPPOSITORIES-
34. PLASTICS MOLDS Page 34
CALIBRATION OF THE MOLDSCC

To determine the volume of the mold, the suppositories are melted in a calibrated beaker, and the volume of the melt is
determined. Page 35 The suppositorys combined and average weight is recorded. The first step is to prepare molded
suppositories from base material alone.35.
LUBRICANTS USED IN MOLDS
The nature of lubricants should be different from nature of bases. Page 36 The lubricants are form a film between the wall
of mold cavity and base of suppositories so it prevent adhering of bases to the molds. It is also useful in easy removal of
suppositories from the molds. This is prevent sticking of bases to the wall of molds cavity. Cocoa butter and glycero-
gelatine bases are required lubrication of molds.36.
37. EXAMPLES(1) FOR COCOA BUTTER BASES ALCOHOL(90%)- 50ml GLYCEROL - 10ml SOFT SOAP - 10 gm(2)
LIQUID PARAFFIN(3) ARACHIS OILS
MANUFACTURING OF SUPPOSITORIES
It is more time consuming and not uniformity process. Page 38 It is more economical methods.  It is suitable for thermo
labile drugs.  Hand molding is useful when we are preparing a small number of suppositories.  Heat Molding 1) HAND
MOLDING-  Compression Molding  Automatics Machine Molding  Hand molding
The39. STEPS INVOLVED IN HAND MOLDING Then cut the rods and made one end to Page 39 pointed. Then these
masses are rolled into the shape of a cylindrical rod on the rolling tile in presence of lubricants to prevent the adherence of
masses.  It is incorporated into the suppository base by kneading with it or by trituration in a mortar. drugs and other
additives are made into a fine powder .
40. DRUG+ADDITIVES FINE POWDER MIXED IN BASES APPLY LUBRICANTS ON ROLLING TILE ABOVE
MASSES ARE ROOLED IN CYLINDRICAL SHAPE CUT THE RODS PACKED STORED
In this ,if any mass deposited in mold is not removed during cleaning, so produce overweight suppositories with mold marks.
Page 41 In this ,there are no chance of air entrapment and contamination of suppositories. By this the rate of production of
suppositories is more higher than hand molding. Using this machine, up to about 10,000 suppositories per hour can be
produced. All the operations in pour molding are done by automatic machines.41. (2) AUTOMATIC MACHINE
MOLDING

The cooling system results the solidification of suppositories. Page 42 The excess mass is removed by the scraping unit.
Before mass filled in mold ,the lubricant are apply in mold wall. This table rotates sequentially, the mold gets filled with
drug , additives, bases and cooled and ejects the suppositories. This machine consists of a turn table in which metal molds
are fitted. The rate of production of suppositories are about 3500-6000/hr.42. There are two types of machines used they
are following---(a)Rotary Machine-
STEPS INVOLVED IN PROCESS AS FOLLOWING Page 43 Then completed the ejection process , the empty molds are
again moves towards the filling unit for further processes. After the cooling the mold is moves towards ejection station , it
consists of a stainless steel rod which push out the suppositories from molds.43.
44. DRUG+ADDITIVES FINE POWDER MELT BASES + POWER HOPPER LUBRICATED THE MOLDS FILL
ABOVE MIXTURE IN MOLD COOLING SYSTEM EJECTION SYSTEMPACKED STORED
The rate of production is higher than rotary machine. Page 45 There is no chance of air entrapment and contamination of
suppositories as similar to rotary machine. All steps involved is similar to rotary machine. Except the rate of production is
more higher than rotary machine about 10000/hr. It is similar to rotary machine.45. (b) LINEAR MACHINE
COMPRESSION MOLDING
After cooling release them from compression machine and packed . Page 46 Then mass fulfill in mold move and s remove
the suppositories and keep them in cool placed.  WORKING- When placed the mass in cylinder and apply the pressure . 
CONSTRUCTION- The compression machine consists of a cylinder, piston , molds, and a metallic stop plate at the bottom.
47. PROCEDUREDRUG+ADDITIVES FINE POWDER MIXED WITH BASES LUBRICANTS APPLY IN MOLDS
PLACED THE MASSES IN CYLINDER APPLY PRESSURE RELEASE SUPPOSITORYCOOLED PACKED STORED
. ADVANTAGE-
The main disadvantage is air entrapment occurs during production so oxidation takes place in suppository. Page 48
DISADVANTAGE- Rate of production is more. It is suitable for thermolabile drugs because in this method no heat is
required48.
HEAT MOLDING

The following methods are involved in this process-(a)Melting the bases(b)Incorporation of the drugs and other
additives(c)Filling of mold(d)Cooling and collection of suppositories Page 49 In this process the bases are melted and the
drugs , additives are mixed in bases. These above liquid are mixed in melted bases in half amount after mixing , then added
remaining liquid in bases. Page 50 Triturate the ingredient on warm tile with the sufficient water. the drugs and additives
are in solid form , they are converted in fine powder and mixed properly on a warm tile. Incorporation of drug and additives
FILLING OF MOLDS
Overfilling is required to prevent the depression in suppositories. Page 51 During introducing the masses in molds the
stirring should be done to prevent the sedimentation of insoluble solids , if they present. Then the above masses are
introducing in molds. First the lubricants are apply in molds.
COOLING AND COLLECTION OF SUPPOSITORIES
Then open the mold and collect the suppositories and packed. Page 52 Cool the suppositories for 10-15 min. in
refrigerators. After the2-3 min . the mass just sets. Then remove the excess mass with warm spatula.
MELTING THE BASES DRUGS FINE POWDER TRITURATE WITH WARM WATER LIQUIDS MIXED ½ PARTS OF
LIQUIDS MIXING PROPER
APPLY THE LUBRICANTS IN MOLD OVERFILLING OF MASSESIN MOLDS REMOVE THE EXTRA MASSES
COOLING (10-15MIN) OPEN MOLDS PACKED STORED
. PACKING OF SUPPOSITORIES (1) DISPOSABLE MOLDS- These are meant for packing the suppositories. These are
made of plastics or aluminium foil. 56. (2) MODERN PACKING MACHINE It is consist of roll of packing materialwhich cut
in the required size and rolled around each suppositories. STORAGE CONDITION
The suppositories with cocoa butter stored at Used air tight container It is stored at 10-15 0c57. • < The suppositories
with glycero-gelatin stored at30 0c. < 35 0c.
TEST/EVALUATION OF SUPPOSITORIES.
a) Melting Range test :-

a) Melting Range test :- This test is also called the macro melting range test and is a measure of the time it takes for the entire
suppository to melt when immersed in a constant- temperature water bath. In contrast the micro melting range test is the
melting range measured in capillary tubes for the fat base only. The apparatus commonly used for measuring the melting
range of the entire suppository is a USP Tablet Disintegration Apparatus.
b) Liquefaction or Softening time test:- :
This test consists of a U-tube partially submersed in a constant- temperature water bath. A constriction on one side holds the
suppository in place in the tube. A glass rod is placed on top of the suppository, and the time for the rod to pass through the
constriction is recorded as the “softening time”. b) Liquefaction or Softening time test:-
c) Breaking Test:- :
c) Breaking Test:- The breaking test is designed as a method for measuring the fragility or brittleness of suppositories. The
apparatus used for a test consists of a double-wall chamber in which the test suppository is placed. Water at 37’C is pumped
through the double walls of the chamber, and the suppository, contained in the dry inner chamber, supports a disc to which a
rod is attached. The other end of the rod consists of another disc to which weights are applied. The test is conducted by
placing 600 g on the platform. At 1-min intervals, 200 g weights are added, and the weight at which the suppository collapses
is the breaking time.
d) Dissolution Test:- :
Testing for the rate of in vitro release of drug substances from suppositories has always posed a difficult problem, owing to
melting, deformation, and dispersion in the dissolution medium. Early testing was carried out by simple placement in a beaker
containing a medium. In an effort to control the variation in mass/ medium interface, various means have been employed
including a wire mesh basket, or a membrane, to separate the sample chamber from the reservoir. Samples sealed in dialysis
tubing or natural membrane have also been studied. Flow cell apparatus have been used, holding the sample in place with
cotton, wire screening, and most recently with glass beads.
Displacement value:- The volume of suppository from particular mold is uniform but its weight will vary because the density
of medicament usually differ from the density of base . To prepare product accurately , allowance must be made for the
change in density of mass due to added medicament The most convenient way of making this allowance is to use the
displacement value-“ the number of part by the weight of medicament that displace the one part by weight of base”

What is packaging ? It is the art and science of preparing articles for transport, storage, display and use. It is the process by
which the pharmaceuticals are suitably placed so that they should retain their therapeutic effectiveness from time to time of
their packaging till they are consumed.
Objectives of Packaging:
Objectives of Packaging Presentation Identification, information Protection Convenience, compliance Containment during
storage. Preserves integrity of product
Pack design:
Pack design Proprietary name Dose Approved names of API Uses Usage instructions Actual design may vary . company
identity should be retained . Prescription drugs - straight forward design OTC drugs – Distinctive design
Functions of pack:
Functions of pack Environmental protection : TEMPERATURE: High temp - ⬆ rate of reaction - ⬇ shelf life Repeated cycling
of temp – stability problems. Ex: cracking of creams LIGHT: UV light causes photo degradation. Remedy: colored/ opaque
containers, secondary packs.
MOISTURE AND HUMIDITY: Presence of water – hydrolysis and microbial growth → chemical instability High humidity
→ physical problems. Ex: caking of powders, Remedy: silica gel desiccants VOLATILE Materials O2 i → oxidation . Co 2 -
dissolve in water → carbonic acid → ↓ pH of product
Mechanical protection: Transportation & storage - mechanical stress to product. ∴ secondary packaging COMPRESSION:
Packs are stacked upon each other - crushed. → affects appearance & saleability. Remedy: secondary packs made of
cardboards of suitable thickness.
IMPACT: Movement / accident - sudden & intense forces. Remedy: Cushioning primary pack, Hold primary pack snugly in
secondary. VIBRATION: Transportation – vibration → Physical instability. Ex: separation of powders, Gradual opening of
screw caps.
Biological hazards: MICROBIOLOGICAL HAZARDS: Contamination - Product spoilage, Health risk. Remedy : Closure -
reasonable seal & for repeated use. Sterile products - hermetically sealed. HUMANS: Tampering. Remedy: tamper proof
packaging.
SELECTION OF TYPE OF PACK: Factors required for selection: Product/ pack contents Application of product Content
stability Content reactivity with packing material (Drug compatibility) Accessibility of pack to user Packaging process
Regulatory, legal, quality issues

Containers:
Containers Immediate container – direct contact with article at all times Well closed container – protect contents from
extraneous solids or from loss of articles under ordinary conditions of handling, shipment, storage & distribution. Tight
container - protects from extraneous liquids, solids or vapors, from loss of articles & from efflorescence, deliquescence under
ordinary or customary conditions & capable of tight re-closure. Hermetic container - impervious to air or other gases under
ordinary or customary conditions of handling, shipment, storage & distribution. Sterile hermetic containers - injections and
parenteral administrations.
Single dose container - holds a quantity of drug intended as single dose & when opened, cannot be resealed with assurance of
sterility. Ex: fusion sealed ampoules, prefilled syringes. Multiple dose container - hermetic containers that permits withdrawal
of successive portions of contents without changing the strength or endangering the quality or purity Ex: vials.
PACKAGING MATERIALS:
PACKAGING MATERIALS Required characteristics: Protection from environmental conditions Non-reactive with product
Must not impart to the product taste/ odors Non-toxic FDA approved Tamper resistant Adaptable to commonly employed
high speed packaging equipment.
GLASS CONTAINERS:
GLASS CONTAINERS Advantages: Disadvantages: Superior protective quality Economical Easy availability Chemically
inert Impermeable Strong Rigid FDA approved Does not deteriorate with age Excellent barrier to many elements Availability
of colored glass (amber) . Fragile Heavy
Manufacture of glass: :
Manufacture of glass: 4 processes: Blowing – compressed air forms molten glass in cavity of metal mold. Drawing – molten
glass pulled through discs/ rollers that shape the soft glass. Pressing – mechanical force presses molten glass against side of
mold. Casting – gravity/ centrifugal force cause molten glass to form cavity of mold.

PLASTIC CONTAINERS:
PLASTIC CONTAINERS Polymers: Additives: Polyethylene Polypropylene PVC Polystyrene Polymethylmethacrylate
Polyethylene terephthalate Polytrifluoroethylene Amino formaldehydes Polyamides Antioxidant Antistatic agent Colors
Impact modifiers Lubricants Plasticizer Stabilizers
Materials :
Materials Polyethylene: Advantages: Good barrier against moisture. Unaffected by strong acids & strong bases. Low cost
Disadvantages: Lack of clarity High permeation rate of essential odors, flavors, oxygen.
PowerPoint Presentation:
Density – 0.91 – 0.96 determines physical characters like: Stiffness Moisture vapor transmission Stress cracking Clarity.
Antioxidants used: Ex: butylated hydroxyl toluene, Dilamyl thiodipropionate . Antistatic additives: Ex: polyethylene glycols,
Long chain fatty acids .
Polypropylene :

Polypropylene Advantages: Resistant to stress cracking. Chemically resistant to strong acids, strong bases, organic material.
(except hot aromatic/ halogenated solvents) Has high M.P. ∴ suitable for boilable packages, sterilisable packages.
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages Disadvantages Remedy Lack of clarity Brittleness at low temperature (Fragile at 0 0 F) construction of thinner
walls. blend with polyethylene/ other material
Polyvinylchloride: :
Polyvinylchloride: Advantages: Disadvantages: crystal clear good oxygen barrier greater stiffness inexpensive tough easily
processed should not be over heated poor impact resistance (280 0 F – degrade → degradation products are corrosive) Heat/
UV → yellow. (So, STABILIZER used) Dioctyl tin mercapto acetate/ malate
PowerPoint Presentation:
Uses: Fabrication of plastic bottles. Skin coating on glass bottles. It is done by dipping bottle in PVC plastisol and the coating
is cured that gives shatter resistant coating.
Polystyrene:
Polystyrene Advantages Disadvantages: Rigid Crystal clear Low cost Acid, base resistant (except strong oxidizing agent)
High water transmission High oxygen permeability Easily scratched Cracks easily Builds up static charge Low melting point
Attacked by chemicals – produces cracks.
DRUG – PLASTIC CONSIDERATIONS :
DRUG – PLASTIC CONSIDERATIONS Permeation Leaching Sorption Chemical reaction Alteration of physical properties
Permeation:
Permeation Transmission of gases/ vapors/ liquids through plastic packaging materials that affects shelf life. water vapor, O 2
→ hydrolysis, oxidation. Volatile ingredients → pass through container walls . Ex : aroma of cosmetic products →
objectionable. W/o emulsions – should not be stored in hydrophobic plastic bottle. ( Oil phase migrates & diffuse into plastic)
Leaching :
Leaching Migration of plastic container ingredients into product. Ex: coloring agents like dyes migrate into parenteral solution
making them toxic. Release of constituents from container → drug contamination.
Sorption :
Sorption Factors affecting sorption: Chemical structure pH solvent system concentration of API temperature length of contact
Area of contact. Removal of constituents from drug product by packaging material. Highly potent drugs – sorption → affects
therapeutic efficacy Ex: sorption of diazepam to low density plastics → loss of drug available for administration. ∴ Glass
containers preferred Loss of preservatives → microbial growth.
Chemical reactivity :

Chemical reactivity Ingredients in plastic containers react chemically with drug or vice-versa. Chemically incompatible
substances alter the appearance of either plastic or drug product.
Modification: Modification Physical & chemical alteration of packaging material by drug product → degradation Ex:
Deformation in polyethylene containers by permeation of gases/ vapors from environment through container walls. Oils-
softening effect on polyethylene. Fluorinated hydrocarbons – attack polyethylene, PVC. Surfactants - change in polyethylene.
Petroleum solvents – extract plasticizer in PVC → plastic hard & stiff.
thermal degradation of polyethylene carry bags made from standard polyethylene (bottom) and biodegradable
polyethylene (top). Pictures show (left to right) at 0, 30 and 55 days exposure. :
thermal degradation of polyethylene carry bags made from standard polyethylene (bottom) and biodegradable polyethylene
(top). Pictures show (left to right) at 0, 30 and 55 days exposure.
METALS :
METALS TIN ALUMINUM USES Foods, pharmaceuticals, tin coated plates thick – aerosol cans, tubes for effervescent
tablets Intermediate thickness – collapsible tubes, roll on cap Thinnest – flexible foils ADVANTAGES Chemically inert,
good appearance Light weight, strong, impermeable DISADVANTAGES expensive Corrosion.
RUBBERS :
RUBBERS USES stoppers cap liners bulbs for dropper assemblies seals closures gaskets in aerosol cans
Types – disadvantages :
Types – disadvantages Synthetic rubbers: butyl, bromobutyl, chlorobutyl, neoprene, nitrile, silicone
FIBROUS MATERIALS :
FIBROUS MATERIALS Paper – labels, sterile sachets Cardboard - cartons, dividers. Tyvek ® - paper packaging rolls
FOILS:
FOILS Thin sheets of metal with < 100µm thickness. Aluminum : Barrier Attractive, reflective surface . Thick aluminum
sheet - tray for blister pack Thin aluminum foil - vacuum dispositioning
FILMS :
FILMS Non- fibrous, non- metallic, < 250µ thickness. Cellophane: Attractive, transparent film Can be colored & printed
Used as outer wrap. Plastics: Moisture barrier – PVC, polypropylene Gas barrier – polyester, PVC, nylon Heat sealers –
nylon, polypropylene.
LAMINATES :
LAMINATES Made by bonding the layers with adhesive. Different layers from outside in: Decoration , information
Mechanical protection Light, moisture barrier Heat sealer . Disadvantage : Migration of adhesive into product. - PVC (may be
PP) - OPA Film - Aluminium foil - Primer/Adhesive - Primer/Adhesive
CLOSURES :

CLOSURES Functions: Provides stability to product Compatibility Prevents contents from escaping out Prevents entry of
foreign substances Basic designs: Screw on, threaded, or lug Crimp on (crowns) Press on (snap) Roll on Friction.
Threaded screw cap: :
Threaded screw cap: When screw cap is applied, its threads engage with the corresponding threads molded on neck of bottle.
Made of : Metal – tin/ aluminum Plastic – thermosetting/ thermoplastic. Metal caps - coated inside with enamel or lacquer for
resistance against corrosion. Thermosetting plastics have a cap insert composed of backing material coated with aluminum
lining or plastic film.
Lug cap: It is an interrupted thread on glass finish. A lug is engaged on cap side walls and cap is drawn to the sealing surface
of container. It forms a hermetic seal. Useful in sterilization equipment and on production lines.

Press on (snap) closure: Some closures snap on. To open, the top is designed to pry off/ break off/ or have a built in
dispenser.
Crown cap: These are shallow metal caps crimped into locking position around the head of bottle. Used as crimped closure
for beverage bottles.
Roll on closures :
Roll on closures A plain aluminum cap is pushed over the neck of container and force is applied from the side to make the
aluminum fit the shape of neck. If neck has a screw thread, then the cap is pressed to match the thread exactly. Advantages:
Easily opened Effectively resealed Economical Tamper evident
Applications: Packaging of food, beverages, chemicals, pharmaceuticals Safety device for bungs in vials Types: Resealable
Non resealable Pilfer proof
Friction fit closures :
Friction fit closures An interference fit or friction fit requires some force to closure and open, providing additional security.
CLOSURE LINERS: CLOSURE LINERS Liner: Material inserted in a cap to affect a seal between closure and container.
Backing material Facing material Types: Homogeneous liner Heterogeneous/ composite liner
Factors in selecting a liner:
Factors in selecting a liner Compatibility ( chemical resistance) Appearance Gas, vapor transmission rates Removal torque
Heat resistance Shelf life Economics.
TORQUE TESTING :
TORQUE TESTING Torque tester – to control cap tightness on a packaging line, Prevent evaporation of product. Prevent
leakage of product. Prevent breakage of plastic molded closure. Ex: Owens- Illinois torque tester .
RUBBER STOPPERS :
RUBBER STOPPERS Ingredients: Rubber Vulcanizing agent Accelerator/ activator Extended filler Reinforced filler
Softener/ plasticizer Antioxidant Pigment Special components, waxes
Rubber stoppers:
Rubber stoppers syringes vials
PLASTIC CLOSURES :
PLASTIC CLOSURES
TAMPER RESISTANT PACKAGING :
TAMPER RESISTANT PACKAGING 1982 – OTC drugs – malicious adulteration (tainting of Tylenol capsules with cyanide
→ deaths) Nov 5, 1982 – FDA – regulations - Federal Register. The Proprietary Association - recommendations to FDA .
FDA regulations 21 CFR parts 211, 314, 700.

According to FDA, “a tamper resistant package is one having an indicator or barrier to entry which, if breached or missing,
can reasonably be expected to provide visible evidence to consumers that tampering has occurred. Tamper resistant package
may involve immediate container or closure systems or secondary container or carton systems or any combination thereof
intended to provide a visual indication of package integrity when handled in a reasonable manner during manufacture,
distribution and retail display”.
Exceptions for tamper resistant pack: :
Exceptions for tamper resistant pack: Dentifrices Skin care products Insulin Throat lozenges
Examples :
Examples Film wrapper Blister package Strip package Bubble pack Shrink seals, bands Foil, paper or plastic pouches Bottle
seals Tape seals Breakable seals Sealable tubes Aerosol containers Sealed cartons
Film wrapper:
Film wrapper For products requiring package integrity or environmental protection . It can be generally categorized into the
following types: 1. End folded wrapper 2. Fin seal wrapper 3. Shrink wrapper 64
End Folded Wrapper: :
End Folded Wrapper: Formation: Push product into sheet of overwrapping film → film forms around product → edges fold in
gift wrap fashion → folded surfaces sealed by pressing against a heated bar. It should be well sealed, printed or uniquely
decorated. Materials used: Cellophane Polypropylene Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) Nitrocellulose. 65
END FOLDED WRAPPER:
END FOLDED WRAPPER
Fin Seal Wrapper:
Fin Seal Wrapper Formation: Crimp film together→ seal the two inside surfaces of film together → compress material
between two heater bars. It is opened by tearing the wrapper only Materials used: polyethylene, Surlyn (Du Pont’s Ionomer
Resin ) Advantages : Better seal integrity Protective packaging 67
Shrink wrapper:
Shrink wrapper - prepared by packaging in a thermoplastic film that stretches during manufacturing and un-stretches due to
application of heat. Formation : Film unwinds → pocket formed in center fold of sheet → product inserted → L-shaped sealer
seals overwrap & trims off excess → pass through heated tunnel → shrinks to tightly wrapped unit Materials used: heat
shrinkable materials – polypropylene, polyethylene, PVC. Advantages: Flexibility Low cost of packaging equipment. 69
Blister package :

Blister package Heat soften a sheet of thermoplastic resin → vacuum draw the softened sheet into mold → cool → remove
sheet from mold → send sheet to filling station for product → lid with heat sealable backing material. Backing material - 2
types : Push through – heat seal coated aluminum foil Peelable - polyester/ paper - Child resistant 71
Materials used in blister pack: Thermoformable blister – PVC - PVC / polyethylene combinations Moisture protection –
polyvinylidene chloride (Saran) or laminated to PVC Polychlorotrifluoroethylene ( Aclar ) Advantages of blister pack:
Excellent environmental protection, Esthetically pleasing and efficacious appearance. Convenience Child resistance Tamper-
resistance 73
STRIP PACKAGE :
STRIP PACKAGE Formation: Feed two webs of heat sealable flexible film through heated crimping roller/ reciprocating
plate → drop product into pocket → continuous strip of packets formed → cut to desired number of packets in length.
Materials used: For high barrier applications – paper/ polyethylene/ foil/ polyethylene lamination For product visibility – heat
sealable cellophane/ polyester Advantages: High degree of seal integrity (∵ sealing done between pressure rollers) Useful for
moisture sensitive products ( ∵ high barrier materials like foil laminations/ saran coated films used) Use: used for tablets and
capsules. 74
BUBBLE PACK :
BUBBLE PACK It is formed by sandwiching product between thermoforamble , extensible or heat shrinkable plastic film and
rigid . Formation: Heat soften plastic film → vacuum draw pocket into film → drop product into pocket → seal with heal
coated paperboard. If heat shrinkable material is used- pass package through a heated tunnel → film shrinks into a bubble
over product → firmly attaches to backing card
SHRINK BANDING :
SHRINK BANDING Formation: Heat shrinkable polymer is manufactured as an extruded, oriented tube in a diameter slightly
larger than cap & neck ring of bottle to be sealed It is supplied to bottler as a printed, collapsed tube, either precut to a
specified length or in roll for an automated operation. Proper length of PVC is slid over capped bottle Bottle passed through
heat tunnel → tubing shrinks tightly. For ease of opening, tear perforations are supplied.
FOIL, PAPER OR PLASTIC POUCHES :
FOIL, PAPER OR PLASTIC POUCHES Flexible pouch: Formation: Formed during product filling operation by equipment:
Vertical/ horizontal forming Filling Sealing Advantages : tamper resistant environmental protection 79
BOTTLE SEALS :
BOTTLE SEALS Inner seal is bound to rim of bottle that access to product is attained by irreparably destroying the seal.
Liners used: glassine, foil laminations. Glassine liners: Two sheets of glassine paper are bonded together with wax or
adhesive. Glue mounted inner seals Pressure sensitive inner seals Heat sensitive adhesive 84
TAPE SEALS :

TAPE SEALS Glued or pressure sensitive tape or label is applied around or over closure of package, which must be destroyed
to gain access to packaged product. High density light weight paper with poor tear strength. Labels of self - destructing paper.
Perforations or partial splitting of paper.
BREAKABLE CAPS :
BREAKABLE CAPS Roll-on cap – carbonated beverages. Aluminum shell is placed over bottle neck. Cap blank is held on
bottle under pressure, rollers crimp and contour the bottle thread into cap blank. Bottom portion is perforated that it breaks
away when cap is unscrewed. Ratchet style plastic cap - Bottom portion has a tear-away strip that engages a ratchet on bottle
neck.
SEALABLE TUBES :
SEALABLE TUBES Collapsible tubes Metal tubes Puncture inserts - Seal the tube opening - Punctured and pried out to
access product. Extruded plastic tubes Laminated tubes – high barrier protection
Sealable tubes:
Sealable tubes Aluminum tubes Plastic extruded tubes

Quality Control
1.DESCRIPTION
2. SUITABILITY
container closure system for its intended use.

intended use. It should protect and compatible and composed of material that
are considered as safe for use with dosage form.
reference standards, and validation information
3. PROTECTION
against cause of degradation like: light, temp, loss of solvent, exposure to reactive
gases, microbial contamination. Not every drug product is susceptible to degradation
by all of these factors.
se factors actually have an
influence on a particular drug product.
protection against microbes is essential then maintain adequate integrity after
packaging and during packaging.
4. COMPATIBILITY

should be determined.
and leaching can lead to degradation, precipitation, change in drug pH, discoloration
investigated and appropriate action should be taken.
5. SAFETY
atient will be exposed
when being treated with drug products.
appropriate like Extraction study on the packaging components to determine which
chemical species may migrate in to dosage form and then toxicological evaluation of
those substances,
COMPONENTS & EVALUATION
HITESH BULCHANDANI SSPC, MEHSANA

on good scientific principles and take into account the specific container closure
system, drug product formulation, dosage form, route of administration, and dose
regimen (chronic or short-term dosing).
6. PERFORMANCE
performance include:
i. Container closure system functionality
cap that contains a counter), minimize waste (e.g., a two-chamber vial or IV bag),
improve ease of use (e.g., a prefilled syringe), or have other functions.
ii. Drug delivery
in the amount or at the rate described in the package insert.
are a prefilled syringe, a transdermal patch, a metered tube, a dropper or spray bottle,
a dry powder inhaler, and a metered dose inhaler.

be used to ensure consistency in the packaging components.
and design tolerances should be defined and monitored.
monitor melting point and glass transitions of plastics, and IR scanning to prove identity should be a part of an
ongoing quality-control monitoring program.
WHOLE HUMAN BLOOD
• Definition : It is the human blood mixed with asuitable anticoagulant
That is :
Human Blood + Anticoagulant = Whole Human Blood
Conditions for Being a Donor
Any person in good health is accepted as a donor provided that he or
she:
1) Is not suffering from any disease that can be transmitted by
transfusion. This includes syphilis, malaria, and serum jaundice.
2) Is not anemic. The haemoglobin content of the blood should not
be less than
� 12.5% for females
� 13.3% for males
(checked by allowing a drop of blood to fall into a copper sulphate
solution of specific gravity 1.053 for females, and 1.055 for males. If
the drop sinks, the sample is satisfactory)
3) Has been taking medication which might prove toxic or have
allergic reactions in a patient e.g. antibiotics.
Collection of the blood
• Blood is collected aseptically from the median cubital vein, in the front elbow.
• This blood is put into a sterile container containing an anticoagulant solution and the
bottle is gently shaken to ensure that blood and anticoagulant are well mixed, thus

preventing the formation of small fibrin clots.
• A maximum of 420ml of blood is taken in one attendance.
• Immediately afterwards the container is sealed and cooled to 4‐6 degrees centigrade
for storage.
Equipment Used for the Collection
Equipment used for taking the blood is madefrom plastics, and is disposable
The container earlier consisted of bottles, butPlastic bags have started being used and arethe containers of the future.
Blood Clotting
Two important steps in the clotting of blood are:
PROTHROMBIN (Soluble) In presence of THROMBOPLASTIN +
IIn response to injury, the tissues and blood platelets free substances that activate the clot
promoting enzyme THROMBOPLASTIN.Thromboplastin, with the assistance of ionized calcium and other factors, converts
PROTHROMBIN to active clotting enzyme THROMBIN.Thrombin then acts on FIBRINOGEN, converting it into insoluble
FIBRIN, the matrix of the clot.
ANTICOAGULANTS
CITRATES
CITRATES
• The solution most often used as a blood
anticoagulant is known as Acid‐citratedextrose
(ACD), composed of:
– Sodium Citrate (2.0 to 2.5 g)
– Dextrose (3.0 g)
– Water for Injection (q.s. to 120 ml)
• The citrate prevents clotting by binding the calcium ions as unionized calcium citrate, thus preventing a vital step of clotting.
Why Acid Citrate and not Normal Citrate??
• Earlier the normal, trisodium citrate was used but
it has a very high alkaline pH in solution which
causes considerable caramelisation of the
dextrose (darkening) during sterilization and the
two solutions have to be autoclaved separately.
• The Acid Citrate produces a pH of about 5 and
causes little or no caramelisation.

• In addition, it is less likely to induce flaking of the
glass of the container.
• The higher concentration (2.5g / 120ml) is often preferred because it more effectively reduces the formation of small clots.
Why add Dextrose?
• The dextrose delays haemolysis of the
erythrocytes in vitro and prolongs their life
after transfusion.
• Its function is hypothesized to be connected
with the synthesis of compounds, such as ATP,
that are important in making energy available
to living cells.
HEPARIN
• Naturally occurring anticoagulant.
• Made by the mast cells of the connective
tissue surrounding blood vessels.
• It inhibits clotting in the circulatory system.
• Occasionally, it is used in blood for transfusion
when large volumes must be given to one
patient and the corresponding amounts of
citrate would be harmful, e.g. in cardiac
surgery.
It quickly loses activity in blood in vitro and
normal quantities are effective for about a day.
• ACD on the other hand, prolongs the storage
life to three weeks.
• Heparin is expensive and may continue its
action even after transfusion, thus needing
administration of neutralizing substances such
as protamine sulphate.
DISODIUM EDETATE
• This is also a chelating agent like ACD.
• It has a strong affinity for divalent metals, and

thus will bind to calcium firmly.
• It is sometimes preferred when preservation of
blood platelets is essential, although the stability
of these seems to depend much more on
preventing contact with the glass surface: if
plastic bags or silicone‐treated glass is used, ACD
is almost as effective as Disodium Edetate.
• The survival of red blood cells in dextrose‐edetate
solutions is as good as in ACD.
TESTING OF WHOLE BLOOD
• At the time that blood is collected, two small additional
amounts are collected:
– One, which is often obtained by draining the collecting tube, is
put into a small 5 ml bottle and is firmly attached to the main
container. This is for testing compatibility with the blood of the
recipient. This separate specimen avoids the dangerous
procedure of attempting to remove a sample from the main
bottle without causing bacterial contamination.
If a plastic bag is used, it is possible to leave the blood‐filled
collecting tube attached to the bag and to seal it at several
points with a special tool; then a section can be separated for
testing without contamination
– The second, somewhat larger sample is used as soon as possible
for :
• Serological test to confirm the absence of syphilis and other diseases
• To determine the ABO blood group of the cells and plasma and the Rh
grouping of the cells.
BLOOD GROUPS
• Fundamental Aim: is to prevent antigen‐antibody
reaction.
• Red cells carry an antigen that reacts with the
corresponding antibody in the plasma of

individuals of certain other groups. If the cells are
transfused into an individual with the equivalent
antibody in his plasma, they are rapidly
destroyed, with serious consequences.
• Although some 9 blood groups are known, only
the ABO and Rh are of major importance as
causes of haemolytic transfusion reactions
1) ABO System
• The first sign of the haemolytic antigen‐antibody
reaction is agglutination and, therefore, red‐cell
antigens and plasma antibodies are called
agglutinogens or agglutinins respectively.
• The agglutinated cells haemolyse, freeing
haemoglobin and other constituents and causing
jaundice and kidney damage: if the latter is
extreme, the patient may even die.
• Fortunately most transfusion reactions are mild.
Rh System
• Rh factor, so named cause it was found in the
rhesus monkey.
• The red cells of some individuals carry an
antigen that is known as the Rh factor.
• If Rh+ blood is transfused into an Rhrecipient,
production of antibodies to the Rh+
blood may be stimulated.
• If this occurs, subsequent transfusion of Rh+
blood will cause a haemolytic reaction.
• Haemolytic disease in a new born:
– If a foetus is Rh+ from it’s father, and the mother is
Rh‐ and has the Rh+ antibody in her blood (either
from previous transfusion of Rh+ blood or as a
result of stimulation by antigens of the foetus), the

mother’s antibodies may cross the placenta and
destroy the foetal erythrocytes.
– This haemolytic reaction may kill the foetus or
cause the infant to be severely anaemic.
STORAGE
• Blood collected must be kept at a temperature between 4
to 6 degrees centigrade, at all times except during short
periods of transport and examination, which must not
exceed 30 mins.
• Even at this low temperatures, deleterious changes do take
place.
– The leucocytes disintegrate in a few hours
– The platelets disintegrate in a few days
– The red cells show a fall in ATP and other organic phosphates, a
reduction in oxygen‐carrying capacity and, due partly to loss of
lipid from their membranes, increased fragility.
• Storage at room temperature even for a day, seriously
reduces post‐transfusion survival of the erythrocytes.
• The fitness of blood for transfusion is based on its appearance. On
standing, the cells sediment, leaving a layer of yellow supernatant
plasma.
• If the blood has been taken shortly after a heavy fatty meal, the plasma
may be turbid and show a white layer of fat on it’s surface. On top of
the red cells there may be a complete or partial greyish layer of
leucocytes.
• The most important feature, however, is the line of demarcation
between cells and plasma, which must be sharp: if it is obscured by a
diffuse red coloration, indicating haemolysis, the blood is unfit for use.
• Complete haemolysis, especially if it occurs rapidly, is usually a sign of
bacterial infection, but its absence is not confirmation of sterility since
certain psychrophilic bacteria, predominately pseudomonads and
members of the coli‐aerogenes group, can grow in blood at refrigerator

temperatures without causing haemolysis.
• Many of the organisms isolated from contaminated blood have been
capable of using citrate as their sole source of carbon and, as would be
expected, this has led to clot formation, as citrate which is the
anticoagulant gets assimilated by the bacteria.
USES
• Haemorrhage, shock, burns and uncontrollable diarrhoea and
vomiting, can all cause significant losses of blood.
– Haemorrhage and other diseases may result in deficiency or
absence of vital blood constituents such as red cells, platelets, or
clotting factors.
– The transfusion of whole blood can be of great value in all these
circumstances but often, because of the risk of transfusion
reactions, it is not used where the need is solely to make up blood
volume but is restricted to haemorrhage and certain diseases
where there is deficiency of the vital oxygen‐carrying erythrocytes.
• Normally whole blood is not administered unless the ABO and
Rh groups of the donor and recipient are known and a sample
of the donor’s blood has been tested for compatibility with
that of the recipient.
• In an emergency, group O, Rh negative blood may be given
while taking necessary precautions.
CONCENTRATED HUMAN RED BLOOD
CORPUSCLES
Definition: This is the solution of human RBC’s
which have been concentrated using
centrifugation
Preparation
• It is prepared by removing most of the citrated plasma from wholeblood that is not more than a fortnight old and has been
allowed tostand or has been centrifuged to deposit the cells
•More than 40% of the supernatant fluid after the settling, is siphonedoff using sterile tubes, taking strict aseptic precautions
throughout.

• Since there is a risk of bacterial contamination the product must beused within 12 hours.
• The cells are matched with the recipient’s plasma and may then bemixed with matched cells from other bottles.
• The haemoglobin content must not be less than 15.5%
Uses
• This product is used when administration ofwhole blood might overtax the circulation, i.e., intreatment of diseases, such as
chronic anaemia(where blood volume has not been reduced),rather than haemorrhage (which would require areplenishment of
blood volume as well and thuswould require whole blood)
• Another application is in exchange transfusion in
infants: a toxic amount of citrate might be given if
whole blood was used.
DRIED HUMAN PLASMA
• It is the portion of the blood which has been separated from the cell content, and is dried, and can be used after
reconstitution with water.
Problems to be Overcome During Preparation
• Two major problems have to be overcome
– Transmission of Viral Jaundice
– Neutralization of Plasma Agglutinins.
1] Transmission of Viral Jaundice
• There are two types:
– Infective hepatitis (incubation time = 5 weeks, mortality rate = 0.3%)
– Homologous serum jaundice (incubation time = 20
weeks, mortality rate = 12%)
• Most infections following transfusion are mild
• Control is partly effected by refusing to accept donors with a history of jaundice, but not all cases are recognized and since
at present there is no
reliable test by which carriers can be detected, an occasional infected bottle is inevitable.
• Attempts have been made to kill the causative
viruses by treatment with UV light, but the method
is technically difficult.
• Note – if the preparation of a blood product involves pooling material from a larger number of donors, infection in one or
two bottles will be
distributed throughout the pool and appear in each of the units made from it.

• Nowadays, the pools used for making dried plasma and serum are limited to not more than ten donations, and the incidence
of jaundice is only
slightly greater than when whole blood is transfused.
• However, in the past, when pools of 300 or more bottles were made, the incidence was 7 to 12%.
Preparation of Dried Plasma
• Dried plasma is usually prepared from time‐expired citrated blood
• The blood is centrifuged as in the case of concentrated red blood cells and the supernatant fluid is siphoned off.
• This siphoned fluid is then combined and batches of less than 10 bottles are pooled, choosing the correct ratio of blood
groups to neutralize the powerful agglutinins
• The pools are kept at 4 to 6 degrees centigrade while samples are tested for
sterility and no pool is used unless it passes
• Then 400ml quantities are dispensed into bottles and subjected to freeze drying.
• General aspects of freeze drying are followed with special features of the plasma
process‐
• Preliminary Freezing
• Primary Drying
• Secondary drying.
Preliminary Freezing
• The bottles are sealed with bacteriologically efficient fabric pads covered by ring‐type closures and then centrifuged at
‐18degrees
centigrade.
• The liquid snap‐freezes and becomes distributed around the inside of the bottle.
Primary Drying
• The bottles of frozen material are mounted horizontally in the drying chamber and a high vacuum is applied.
• The ice sublimes on to a condensing coil kept at ‐50 degrees centigrade and a small heater provides the latent heat required
for evaporation.
• This stage takes about 2 days, after which the residual moisture content is about 2%. Secondary Drying
• This is done in another chamber by vacuum desiccation over phosphorous pentoxide.
• It takes about a day, and the product is left with about 0.5% of moisture
• Each fabric seal is then replaced by an MRC type closure perforated by a plugged hypodermic needle. The bottles are
returned to the secondary drying chamber, re‐evacuated, and then the vacuum is broken with dry sterile nitrogen.
• Finally, the needles are removed and the closure is protected with a sterile viscose cap.

Storage
• Dried plasma, kept below 20 degrees centigrade and protected from light, moisture, and oxygen, remains usable almost
indefinitely, although it is customary to impose an arbitrary expiry date of about 5 years.
• Its fitness for use is shown by its solubility when reconstituted in a volume of water for injection (WFI), Sodium Chloride
Injection or a solution containing 2.5% dextrose and 0.45% sodium chloride, equivalent to the original volume of plasma.
• It must dissolve completely within ten minutes at room temperature.
• Gel formation or incomplete solution indicates deterioration.
• After reconstitution it must be used immediately.
Uses
• Reconstituted plasma is satisfactory alternative to whole blood in conditions where there is no loss of red cells.
• It is of particular value in the treatment of severe burns and scalds where, because of extensive fluid and protein
loss, there is considerable haemo‐concentration.
• It may also be given when blood is more appropriate; either because whole blood is unavailable or, in emergency, until the
results of matching tests are known.
• Because of its long storage life at a convenient temperature, dried plasma is more suitable than blood as a reserve stock in a
small hospital or a remote community.
DRIED HUMAN SERUM
• Prepared in the same way as dried plasma except that
the blood is collected into dry bottles and allowed to clot.
• The supernatant serum being separated after the clot has
retracted.
•Plasma is usually obtained from blood that is out‐of‐date, i.e. has been available
as whole blood for 21 days.
•By converting blood into serum this period in reserve is lost and, therefore, much
less blood is used for serum production
Its, storage and use are the same as for dried plasma.
LIQUID PLASMA AND SERUM
• The only official liquid blood product is humanplasma protein fraction.Why unmodified liquid plasma and serum are no
longer recognized??
• Plasma and serum, like blood, are excellent media for bacterialgrowth and, therefore, the user must be able to detect
contamination.
• Unfortunately, these products are often opalescent due tosuspended fat.

• Further, turbidity and deposits develop during storage and as aresult of movement during transport, thus making infection
verydifficult to identify.
• Attempts to remove fat by filtration were not very successfulbecause it blocked the filter, but centrifugation proved more
satisfactory.
• With serum it was then possible, by passing the product through asterilizing pad, to obtain a clear preparation that would
storereasonably well. It has passed out of use because blood is moreeconomically used for dried plasma production.
Further progress was made less urgent by the success of driedplasma but investigations continued and have contributed to the
development of the product known as human plasma proteinfraction.
THE FRACTIONATION OF PLASMA
• About 60% of plasma protein is albumin and,therefore, it plays a major part in maintaining thehigh osmotic pressure
necessary to retain fluid in the blood vessels.
• A very successful solvent precipitation techniquewas developed by which other proteins, as wellas albumin, were separated.
• Some of these, i.e. fibrinogen, prothrombin, andgamma globulin, proved so valuable that proteinfractionation of plasma
quickly became anestablished procedure.Techniques of Protein Separation
• One of the oldest methods of protein separation issalting‐out, but this is unsuitable for plasmafractionation because high
concentrations of salt are needed and these are not selective enough. Also,dialysis, a technique that is difficult to perform
aseptically, is necessary to remove the salt after theprecipitation.
• E. J. Cohn and his colleagues (due to the need for
transfusion material with a long life and stability, unlike whole blood, during the early part of the Second World
War), had developed a technique to separate albumin and other proteins from plasma.
• Cohn’s technique was based on the use of an organic solvent (ethyl alcohol) to reduce the solubilities of the
proteins, and was given flexibility by alterations of pH, ionic strength (i.e., salt concentrations) and protein.
• The use of an organic solvent, instead of salt, as a major precipitant confers a number of incidental advantages:
– Because of its volatility it can be removed easily during the freeze drying of the final product.
– Salt can be used in low concentrations to improve resolution.
– It helps to control contaminants because of its bacteriostatic activity.
– Being a liquid, it is easy to add aseptically
• On the other hand, it is necessary to keep the
temperature very low (0 to ‐5 degrees centigrade) to
prevent solvent denaturation of proteins.
Human Fibrinogen
• Fibrinogen is the soluble constituent of plasma which on addition of

thrombin is converted to fibrin (which is insoluble).
• After separation from plasma by fractionation, the precipitate is
collected by centrifugation, dissolved in citrate‐saline, and freeze
dried
• The air in the containers displaced by nitrogen.
• The citrate prevents spontaneous clotting when the material is
reconstituted.
• Fibrinogen dissolves slowly. However, like many other protein
solutions, it froths a lot if shaken and the solid‐stabilized foam is very
slow to disperse, thus agitation should be limited to rocking.
• The solution should be used as soon as possible and not later than
three hours after preparation.
• The fibrinogen must be stored under dry conditions, protected from
light and at a temperature below 20 degrees centigrade. The other
storage conditions are similar to that of dried serum.
Use of Human Fibrinogen
• Occasionally, fibrinogen is administered alone
to treat fibrinogen deficiency.
• But it is more often used in conjunction with
thrombin as will be seen ahead.
Human Thrombin
• Thrombin is an enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
• The prothrombin obtained from the fractionation of plasma
is washed with distilled water and dissolved in citrate
saline.
• It is converted to thrombin by adjustment of pH to 7 and
adding thromboplastin and calcium ions.
• The solution is filtered and freeze dried, and the air in the
containers is replaced by nitrogen.
• It is reconstituted with saline when required.
• The thrombin must be stored under dry conditions,
protected from light and at a temperature below 20

degrees centigrade. The other storage conditions are
similar to that of dried serum.
Uses of Human Thrombin
• The fibrin clot produced when thrombin is mixed with
fibrinogen is used in surgery to suture severed nerves
and to assist adhesion of skin grafts.
• The mixture clots at a rate that depends on the amount
of thrombin present and, therefore, if necessary, it can
be kept fluid long enough for adjustments, e.g. of skin
grafts to be made.
• The clot also acts as a haemostat (which will be seen
ahead in Human Fibrin Foam).
• Since the fibrin is human, it is well‐tolerated by the
body, and new cells penetrate it rapidly allowing a
quicker and better healing to occur.
Human Normal Immunoglobulin
Injection
• Immuno‐ or gamma globulin is obtained from the
globulins fraction separated in stage 3 of the fractionation
of plasma, as had been shown earlier.
• The ionic strengths are critical and further fractionation is
done as follows:
The immunoglobulins are dissolved in a suitable
solvent, usually 0.8% sodium chloride solution,
and a preservative, e.g. 0.01% thiomersal, is
added.
• The solution is sterilized by filtration, packed in
single‐dose containers and stored at 4 to 6

degrees centigrade, with protection from light.
• Normally pools of not less than 1500 donations
are used to ensure a satisfactory representation of
the various types of adult antibodies.
• However, as in the preparation of antivaccinia and
antitetanus immunoglobulins, which is obtained
from the blood of recently immunized donors, the
pools of blood can be smaller.
Uses of Immunoglobulins
• Used to prevent or attenuate diseases such as
– Measles
– Rubella
– infectious hepatitis
– hepatitis B
– Chickenpox
– Hypogammaglobulinaemia (deficiency in gamma globulins)
• It is used to prepare specific immunoglobulins such as:
– Human Anti‐Vaccinia Immunoglobulin – for small pox
– Human Anti‐Tetanus Immunoglobulin
– Human Anti‐D Immunoglobulin – used to suppress sensitization of
Rh –ve mothers to the Rh(D) antigen (Rh +ve infant)
– Anti‐HBsImmunoglobulin – this is still under investigation. It is an
immunoglobulin for Hepatitis B surface antigen.

QUALITY CONTROL OF BLOOD PRODUCTS
Sterility and Pyrogens
• All blood products must comply with the
official tests for sterility, and those
preparations (i.e. immunoglobulins and the
plasma protein fractions) that are exposed to
special risk of contamination with pyrogens
due to lengthy processing must also pass the
test for pyrogens.
Solubility
• Complete solubility in an appropriate volume
of the usual solvent, sometimes in a specified
time, is required for all solid preparations
except fibrin foam.
• It indicates that the protein constituents have
not deteriorated.

Assays
• For whole blood and concentrated RBCs the assay is a
determination of the haemoglobin value.
• For the remaining products, except fibrin foam (which has
no assay) and thrombin, the protein constituent is
determined chemically.
• In thrombin there must be a minimum number of clotting
doses per mg, a clotting dose being the amount of
thrombin required to clot 1ml of 0.1% fibrinogen in saline
buffered at 7.2 to 7.3 in 15 seconds at 37 degrees
centigrade.
• Determinations of Na and K ions in plasma protein fraction
ensures that the level are not high enough to disturb the
electrolyte balance of the recipient.
• An assay for sodium citrate in the same product prevents
toxic effects from excess of this salt.
Labelling for Whole Blood
Name of Preparation
• ABO Group
• Rh group and nature of antisera used for testing
• Total Volume; proportion of blood; nature and percentage of
anticoagulant and any other material introduced
• Date of Donation
• Expiry date
• Storage Conditions
• A statement that the contents must not be used if there is any sign
of deterioration
• An indication by which the history of the preparation can be traced.
Labelling of Dried Plasma Protein Fraction
Name of Preparation
• Volume of water of injection necessary for reconstitution
• Total amount of protein in reconstituted solution

• Concentrations of potassium, sodium and citrate ions
• Names and concentrations of stabilizing agents or other added substances
• Expiry Date
• Storage Conditions
• A statement that the contents must not be used if, after adding water, a gel forms or solution is incomplete
• An indication by which the history of the preparation can be traced
• An instruction to discard the reconstituted solution if not used within three Hours.
PLASMA SUBSTITUTES
The need for plasma substitutes?
• The limited supplies of plasma, the cost of
producing the dried form and the risk of
transmitting serum hepatitis stimulated
attempts to find substitutes of non‐human
origin that could be used to restore the blood
volume temporarily while the recipient
replaced the lost protein.
Properties of an Ideal Plasma Substitute
1. The same colloidal osmotic pressure as whole blood.
2. A viscosity similar to that of plasma.
3. A molecular weight such that the molecules do not easily diffuse
through the capillary walls.
4. A fairly low rate of excretion or destruction by the body.
5. Eventual and complete elimination from the body.
6. Freedom from toxicity, e.g. no impairment of renal function.
7. Freedom from antigenicity, pyrogenicity, and confusing effects on
important tests such as blood grouping and the erythrocyte
sedimentation rate.
8. Isotonicity, in solution, equal to that of blood plasma.
9. High stability in liquid form at normal and sterilizing temperatures
and during transport and storage.
10. Ease of preparation, ready availability and low cost.
Gum Saline

• This is a synonym for Injection of Sodium Chloride
and Acacia, which was official in the 1932 British
Pharmacopoeia.
• In the First World War Bayliss experimented with
soluble starch, dextrin, and gelatin as plasma
substitutes and finally used 6% acacia in 0.9%
Sodium Chloride solution.
• It was transfused extensively until signs of liver
dysfunction disclosed that the gum was not
metabolized but stored in various organs.
Polyvinylpyrrolidone
• In the Second World War, the Germans introduced a synthetic colloid,
polyvinylpyrolidone, for the treatment of shock.
• It was marketed in the 1950s but was later withdrawn because of suspected carcinogenicity.
Dextran
• To date this is the most satisfactory plasma substitute.
• It is a polysaccharide produced when the bacterium Leuconostoc mesenteroides is grown in a sucrose‐containing medium.
• In the sugar industry it occurs as a slime that clogs pipes and filters and interferes with crystallization.
The organism secretes an enzyme that converts sucrose to dextran according to the following equation‐
• Different strains produce dextrans of two main groups‐
– Long, practically unbranched chains of glucose units joined by 1‐6 glucosidic linkages.
– Highly branched polymers consisting of short chains
of 1‐6 units joined by 1‐4 and 1‐3 linkages to
branches. Branched chains are more likely to give rise toallergic reactions when injected, and indextrans used for plasma
substitutes thelinkages should be almost entirely of the 1‐6type. This is achieved by choosing a suitablespecially developed
strain of the organismthat produces dextran in which about 95% of the linkages are 1‐6.
Production
• Production involves laboratory culture followed by growth in

seed tanks in the factory and then in 4500 cubic dm
fermenters. (similar process to antibiotic production).
• Because synthesis of the enzyme and its action on the
sucrose are rapid, the high degree of asepsis maintained in
antibiotic fermentation is not necessary here.
• Also, as the process is inhibited by aeration, there is no need
for a costly supply of sterile air.
• Another special feature is the need to prevent the hydrolysis
of sucrose to glucose and fructose during sterilization of the
culture media. If this occurs, dextran will not be produced
because in nature the conversion does not involve inversion
but is a straight transglycosidation. Preventive measures
include adjustment of the media to neutral pH before
sterilization, and the avoidance of overheating.
When maximum conversion to dextran has been obtained
it is precipitated by adding a suitable organic solvent.
• Natural dextran consists of chains of approximately 200,000 glucose units with molecular weights up to about 50 million.
• Very large molecules i.e. those with a molecular weight above about 250,000 have serious drawbacks:
– They yield very viscous solutions that are difficult to administer.
– They may cause renal damage and allergic reactions.
– They interfere with blood matching and sedimentation tests
by causing rouleaux formation. Rouleaux are aggregates of red
cells that resemble piles of plates.
– They produce colloidal osmotic pressures that are lower than
those of small molecules.
summarize

Control for Dextran
• The following tests from the official specification
for Dextran 110 Injection illustrate the
precautions taken to confirm that the product is
suitable as a plasma substitute.
• Chemical techniques limit the amount of lead,
acetone and alcohol, reducing sugars, nitrogen (from culture medium) and acid and alkali.
• Biological methods show that the preparation is not pyrogenic, is sterile, and is free from proteins that could cause
anaphylaxis.
• The dextran content is determined by polarimetry and there are limit tests for small and large molecules.
– The former involves the injection into rabbits; the urine collected throughout the succeeding 48 hours must not contain more
than 30% of the injected dose. (as small molecules are excreted in the urine).
– The latter necessitates precipitation of the top 10% of the
fraction with alcohol and determining its intrinsic
viscosity; this must not be greater than 0.4% which is
equivalent to an average molecular weight of about
240,000.
– The intrinsic viscosity of the fraction as a whole is also
found and must indicate an average molecular weight of
about 110,000.
Dextran 40 Injection
• A number of conditions, including severe burns, crush
injuries and acute peritonitis, are accompanied by a severe
degree of sludging in the blood.
• This can be reduced by the administration of Dextran 40
injection which, because it contains polymers of low
molecular weight, lowers plasma viscosity and improves
capillary flow.
• Both changes reduce cell aggregation and this in turn,
further improves the flow.
• A crude dextran of low molecular weight is manufactured

by including very small template molecules in the
fermentation medium.
• Then fractionation is used to produce the clinical material
which has an average molecular weight of 40,000.
Absorbable Haemostats
• These materials are used to control bleeding
when it cannot be checked by more
conventional means.
• They are gradually absorbed by the tissue and,
therefore, if used during surgery can be left in
the body when the incision is closed, and if
applied to a surface wound need not be
removed when the dressing is changed.
• There are four important types:
– Human Fibrin Foam (which has been covered
earlier)
– Gelatin Sponge
– Oxidized cellulose
– Calcium Alginate
Absorbable Gelatin Sponge
• This is prepared by adding a small percentage of
formaldehyde to a warm solution of good quality gelatin.
• Which is then whisked into a foam and freeze‐dried.
• The porous product is cut into pieces of suitable size and
sterilized by dry heat at 140 degrees centigrade.
It is marketed as while or near white, rectangular, very
porous pieces that are extremely light and have a papery
feel.
• It absorbs many times its own weight of blood and the
official standard for absorbency requires absorption of
not less than thirty times it’s weight of water.
• When pressed tightly on to a bleeding area, blood is

taken up and clotting is encouraged by the large rough
surface which causes platelet disintegration.
• The sponge also acts as a plug by sticking to the
underlying tissues and mechanically supporting the clot
over the oozing vessels.
• Some times it is previously soaked in saline, antibiotic or
thrombin solution, when it must be pressed to remove
air and excess liquid before application.
It is marketed as while or near white, rectangular, very
porous pieces that are extremely light and have a papery feel.
• It absorbs many times its own weight of blood and the
official standard for absorbency requires absorption of
not less than thirty times it’s weight of water.
• When pressed tightly on to a bleeding area, blood is
taken up and clotting is encouraged by the large rough
surface which causes platelet disintegration.
• The sponge also acts as a plug by sticking to the
underlying tissues and mechanically supporting the clot
over the oozing vessels.
• Some times it is previously soaked in saline, antibiotic or thrombin solution, when it must be pressed to remove air and
excess liquid before application. Gaseous sterilization, often by formaldehyde, is used because heat causes serious
deterioration.
• The material has the appearance of the original dressing except that it may be less white in colour .
• It has a faint odour and acid taste.
• In contact with blood it turns dark brown and swells to a gelatinous coagulum. Small pieces are absorbed in 2 to 7 days but
very large
amounts may take several weeks.
• It inactivates thrombin, unless previously neutralized with sodium bicarbonate injection, and is incompatible with penicillin.
Calcium Alginate
• This is derived from alginic acid, a colloidal substance obtained from seaweeds Laminaria digitata and Laminaria cloustoni
which grow off
the scottish and Irish coasts.

• Alginic acid is a polyuronide built up from dmannuronic acid units.
• Its carboxyl groups react with the metallic ions to form alginates and, since the parent acid is unstable, the water‐soluble
sodium salt is used as
the source of other alginates. If ionized calcium salt is added to sodium
alginate solution instantaneous precipitation of calcium alginate occurs, a sensitive reaction that can be used for preparing
foams, fabrics
and other physical forms.
• These can be sterilized by autoclaving or dry heat.
• Alginate dressings can be removed, if necessary,by washing with a solution of sodium salt, e.g.
5% sodium citrate, which reverses the reaction shown in the equation above.
• They are compatible with penicillin and can be resterilized if necessary.
Calcium alginate dressings have a marked haemostatic effect that is probably due mainly to mechanical pressure.
HAIR STRUCTURE
Hairs are elongated keratinized structures. Keratin is a special protein, which is resistant to wear and tear. It is the protein that
also makes up the nails. Like other proteins in the body, keratin is also a large molecule made up of smaller units called amino
acids. The amino acids are joined together in a chain, like beads on a string.
The diameter of a single hair fiber varies from person to person; but it is usually around 0.05 to 0.09 millimeters. The
epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. Each hair arises from an indentation on the epidermis. The hair has two parts: the
hair follicle and the hair shaft.

HAIR FOLLICLE
The hair follicle is the point from which the hair grows. It is a tiny cup-shaped pit buried in the fat of the scalp.
The terminal part of the hair follicle seated within the skin is called a hair bulb. The hair bulb is the structure formed by
actively growing cells. These cells produce the long, fine and cylindrically shaped hair fibers. Here in the hair bulb, there are
some special cells, which produce the pigment that gives the hair its color. This pigment is called melanin and the cells
producing it are known as melanocytes. We also know that receptors for the male hormones - androgens, are located on the
cells of this structure.
At the base of each hair bulb is the dermal papilla containing a vessel tuft. Thus, it is essential for the nourishment of the
growing hairs. Within the skin, internal and external root sheaths cover the hair follicles. The external root sheath of a hair
follicle is continuous along with the epidermis. There are also some glands adjacent to the hair follicles. The most important
one of these glands is the sebaceous gland, which produces and secretes the natural oils lubricating hairs, namely sebum.

PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORM NOTES

PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORM NOTES

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PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORM NOTES