The social structure of Pompeii and Herculaneum consisted of different classes and groups. The local elite, such as Marcus Holconius Rufus, held political power and expressed their high status through patronage and public works. Freedmen, who made up a large part of the population, often worked in trades and commerce, though they maintained ties to their former masters. Women represented all classes in society and could gain status through electoral and religious roles, though they could not vote or hold political office. Archaeological and epigraphic evidence, such as dedications and graffiti, provide insights into the varied social roles and relationships between classes in the ancient Roman communities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

1. C cv
P&H Revision
Evidence, Evidence, Evidence

2. KNOW THE SYLLABUS
 1 Geographical context
 the physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and
Herculaneum
 plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum


 2 The nature of sources and evidence
 the range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers, official inscriptions,
graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains
 the limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources
 the evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for:
 the eruption
 the economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations
 social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
 local political life
 everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply and sanitation 2006(4)
2007 (4)
 public buildings – basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatres 2006 (8 )
 private buildings – villas, houses, shops
 influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion
 religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs. 2007 (8)


 3 Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past
 changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding
of Pompeii and Herculaneum 2006 (10) 2007 (10)
 changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies 2006 (10)
 issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international
contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism
 ethical issues: study and display of human remains

3. Answering Core questions
 Given the restrictions of space, answers
need to be concise and factual
 In the 8 and 10 mark questions you only
need an opening sentence which addresses
the question
 Always address the fragmentary nature of
the archaeological and written evidence

4. Geographical context
Setting Features Resources
Campania, fertile
region 200 km south
of Rome
Area near Pllegrean
fields( burning fields)-
geothermal activity
On the coast of
Naples
River Sarno flowed
into the Bay
Climate-
Mediterranean,
plentiful rainfall and
distinct dry season
Fertile soils allowed 2-
3 crop yields
Sea based navigation
and resources
Soils rich in
phosphorous and ash
Fish, molluscs ,garum
and Salt from sea
Wine and Olive oil
famous from this area
Salt used as
preservative- near
Herculaneum Gate
Other crops included
wheat barley,
cabbages, fruit
Sheep and Goats
were grazed

5. Range of
Available
Sources
reliability
Building remains
Static view of life.
Can only yield so
much
Artefacts
If context
remains,valuable
but most
removed
Paintings ,
mozaics,
frescoes
Authorship
unknown,
motives unknown
Epigraphic
inscriptions
Self
representation
and therefore
biased
Graffiti
Authorship
unknown
May represent
small subculture
Written sources
Elite male view
Numismatics
No indication of
real value of
coinage
Human Remains
Highly
interpretive
Seeds, Root
cavities
Much topsoil lost
over years from
previous
excavations

6. Influence of Greek and
Egyptian cultures
Greek
• Architecture, columns,-Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian arches,
• Religion, temple construction (Temple of Apollo),
Adapted Greek panthion of gods, Mystery Cults
• Hercules, connection with founder of
Herculaneum
• Art (House of the Faun –evidence of Hellenistic
East; Alexander Mozaic, Mozaic panels ,dionysus
and Greek theatre)
• Theatre, Greek design- performed Greek
tragedies and Comedies
• Palaestra ( Greek gymnasium) based on Greek
attitudes of keeping body and mind fit-
• Greek horticulture- gardens and water eg Villa of
Papyri- library of Greek works
Egyptian
• Religion; Temple of Isis- Popular with lower
classes, belief in afterlife
• Temple of Isis damaged in earthquake of 62
but fully repaired unlike other major buildings
• Art ( Egyptian paintings of Nile flora and
fauna
• “After conquest of Egypt, there was an influx
of craftsmen from Alexandria, expressed in
3rd art style depicting Sphinxes, Isis symbols
and Nile scenes”WD
• Statuettes and amulets have been found of
Bes, protector of women and children

7. Limitations, reliability and
usefulness of sources
 In assessing the reliability of sources the following
things need to be taken into consideration
 The context in which objects are found. Are they
related to the things around them or have they been
moved
 The reliability of dating methods
 Artefacts are in themselves, not evidence. They are
open to interpretation and manipulation
 Both sites are only partially excavated ( Pompeii 66%
and Herculaneum 30% ) and therefore huge gaps of
evidence exist. We cannot make generalizations about
a limited site

8. PLANS
 Pompeii is a walled ( 3.5km) urban area of approximately
66 hectares of which 45 has been excavated. Herculaneum
smaller about 20 hectares. Herc had a town wall and sea
wall
 8 Gateways link the urban area to the hinterland and
surrounding regions
 Both towns consist of long rectangular grid patterns
intersecting at right angles, to form insulae.
 Each insulae comprises housing of both rich and poor,
suburban villas, ships, taverns and workshops
 Pompeii was a thriving port, due to location on the sea and
Sarno river
 Herculaneum smaller resort with fewer public buildings
 The political, administrative, social and religious hub of the
urban area was the Forum, located in the South West of
the town ( Old City )

9. Streetscape
 Elevated sidewalks: due to sewage & litter in streets
 Street width: smaller streets  residential; larger streets 
commercial, reflected the relative volume of pedestrian & wheeled
traffic
 Street curve: slight curve to facilitate drainage, indicates which way
traffic turned
 Crosswalks: large stepping stones across the streets, ancient wagons
could clear the stones, made from volcanic tufa, often found outside
houses of the rich as they did not want to get wet feet – signs that
influential people were nearby.
 Herculaneum was richer & had underground drainage – no crosswalks
 Street ruts: from wagon wheels
 Pompeians drove on the right side of the road ~ Eric Poehler
 Pompeii was heavily built up & bustling with commerce & movement
– traffic jams were imminent ~ Eric Poehler – University of Virginia
 Paving: centre of the road is raised to allow water to run into the
gutters

10.  Small white stones ingeniously inserted randomly between large stones,
allowed people and animals to see the road after dark. Sidewalks also
contained small white stones for night time visibility
 The closer to the forum, the more frequent the white stones
 Pavers were particularly well fitted together with gaps of less than
3mm.
 Iron spikes pounded between stones to wedge them even more tightly
 Fountains: at many intersections, fountains with sculpted headstones
over rectangular stone troughs provided water for inhabitants
 Fed by lead pipes running beneath sidewalks from 2 cisterns, one at the
Vesuvius Gate & one at the Forum baths – fed by aqueduct
 So far 42 fountains have been found at Pompeii & 3 at Herculaneum
 People using the same fountains would share a close knit sense of
identity
 Location of fountains could indicate neighbourhood groupings & status
of neighbourhood; statue of patron of fountain carved from limestone
eg juncture of the forum & beginning of Via Dell’Abbondanza ~ Ray
Laurence

11. The Eruption
 August 24th- earthquake tremors for 4 days, springs dry up,
minor explosions on the morning of 24th
 Phases as determined by Sigurdsson;
 Plinian phase- huge cloud rose 20-30 kilometres. This column
produced grey, white pumice which because of the wind
direction fell to the SE
 Pompeii covered 2.5-2.8 metres
 Buildings begin to collapse
 Herculaneum experience only light ash fall
 Nuees Ardentes- hot gas avalanches. The ash column collapsed
under its own weight giving rise to a series of pyroclastic surges
and flows, comprised of red hot ash
 The 1st and 2nd surge destroyed Herculaneum
 The remaining 4 surges destroyed Pompeii

12. THE ERUPTION
Pompeii
First Stage ( Plinian )
Cloud of gas and pumice 2.7 mtres deep.
Possible fires from sparkes
Second Stage ( Pelean )
First and Second Pyroclastic surges ash and
poisenous gases up to 300 km hour 400
degrees C
3rd and 4th Surges and flows covered Pompeii
killing all remaining
5th and 6th surges and flows completely buried
Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis and Stabiae
Herculaneum
Not directly affected
First Surge and flow killed those remaining in
Herculaneum

13. The Physical evidence
 Sigurddson’s stratigraphic study ,
commissioned by National Geographic to
corroborate Pliny’s description limits the
reliability of his work
 Based assumptions on the similarity with
the Mount St Helen’s eruption in the
1980’s. No 2 eruptions are identical
 Assumed an even rate of ash fall over
time???

14. The value of Pliny’s Letters
 Problems with reliability- purpose to
eulogize his Uncle and reliant on
memory
 As a writer, had good eye for detail and
recorded mushroom cloud and physical
evidence of fires
 Most valuable because it records the
human reaction, panic, cries and chaos
of escape

15. A QUESTION ON THE
ECONOMY
 Opening sentence: “ The location of Pompeii as a port and
central to the fertile Campanian hinterland and Italian
penninsula ensured its vibrant and cosmopolitan economic
activity in primary secondary and tertiary activity. The
excavation of up to 600 shops indicates the scale of such
economic activity ”
 Give a brief description of major industries textiles, wine and
oil, garum, bakeries and a couple of minor ones like perfume(
recent excavation) and pottery ( Jaye Pont study)
 With each industry be able to give at least one piece of
specific supporting evidence eg The Bakery of Modestus
where 81 loaves of bread were recovered.
 If space allows mention market days, numismatical evidence
and the shops
 The wax tablets of Caecilius Jacundus records commercial
transactions recording receipts for loans and rent is valuable
supporting evidence

16. Economy
Of
Pompeii
Woollen
textiles
Fullery of Stephanus
Corporation of fullers
weavers and dyers
dedicated statue to
Eumachia
Olive Oil
Most on villa rusticae at
Boscoreale
Jashemski study
Both local and export
Market Gardens
Food producing areas occupied
9.7% of excavated area. ~
Jashemski
Wine
Pliny
Best wine Falernian
House of the Vetti
Amphitheatre area
Jashemski
Fishing and
Garum
Umbricius Scaurus
Identified by stamp on
containers
On Sarno
Bread Making
Bakery of Modestus
Lawrence identified 30
commercial premises
Pottery
Jaye Pont study of Terra
Sigilata
Paintings of potters using
kick wheel
Metal Work
13 Locations identified
Service Industry
Mule Drivers, Porters, Inn
Keepers and Brothels
serviced vibrant port
economy
Commerce
Coins; mix of roman and local
currency
Commercial transactions, wax
tablets; Caecilia Jacundus
Documents Faustilla money
lender

17. ECONOMY; DOMESTIC OR EXPORT?
Jongman vs Moeller
 Pompeii was a consumer city, economically dependant on the agricultural
products of the hinterland ~ Weber
 No. of production facilities within the region is sufficient for Pompeii & an export
market ~ Moeller
 Jongman believes that spinning and weaving were household crafts
 Small no. of workshops would service city not export market ~ Jongman
 Presence of looms in houses indicates weaving was small scale ~ Jongman
 Inscriptions record the use of wool in private residences
 Unclear if the industry supported only Pompeii or produced goods for export
 Six dye houses found in Pompeii ~ Moeller
 Moeller identified a number of workshops in the archaeological record with
processes associated with wool and cloth cleaning. ~ Ray Lawrence
 Involves 700 – 1000 workers ~ Moeller
 Large flocks of sheep for wool
 Limited numbers of sheep as 600 sheep perished in the earthquake of 62AD ~
Seneca
 No. of sheep was minimal because in order to provide food for such a densely
populated city, the land would have to have been used for farming, not grazing
~ Jongman
 Implication of commercial & ornamental gardening shows the distinction
between town & country is blurred ~ Jashemski

18. Social Structure
 Questions could ask about social structure in
general or could specifically require information
about 1 group. You need to have at least 2 pieces
of evidence for each level.
 ‘The boundaries between slave manumitted
slaves & freeborn were often exceedingly fluid.’ ~
Pamela Bradley
 ‘Wealthy freedmen imitated the cultural language
of the nobility in order to establish their
membership in that society.’ ~ Andrew Wallace-
Hadrill
 Cicero and Pliny the Elder criticised the
tendency of the rich, successful freedmen to ‘ape
the aristocracy.’

19. EVIDENCE AREA OF
SYLLABUS
‘A Marcus Holconius Rufus, military leader elected by the
people, duumvir five times, twice duumvir five-year, a priest of
Augustus Caesar, protector of the Colony.’
Political Life, Social
Structure, Religion
“Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, priestess of the city, on its own
behalf and on behalf of her son, Marcus Numistrius Fronto, was
built at his own expense a vestibule, a cryptoporticus and a
portico in honor of Concord and the Pietà Augustus
Women, social
structure, Politics
Sponsored by A Clodius Flaccus; “ For the feast of Apollo a day
of contests between 30 pairs of wrestlers and forty pairs of
gladiators in the amphitheatre. A hunt with wild boars and bears
and bullfights.”
Politics, social status,
entertainment/religio
n
Graffiti “ Profit is Joy” Economy
Serpent bracelet engraved “ From the master to his slave girl” Women, Slavery
Valeria Hedone, Innkeeper “ Handsome soldier, drink here for
just 1 as, for 2 asses you can drink better, and for 4 asses have
some really good Falernian wine.”
Economy

20. SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Local elite
Families like the Balbus in Herculaneum and Marcus Holconius Rufus formed the local elite. Some from wealth and
some from Patrician background. Expressed status through patronage, advising,granting favours, food and money. In
return the clients would give respect and voting support in the elections. Wealthy maintained strong ties of political
friendships , amici
Freedmen
Libertus,numbers increased in 1st centuryAD, associated with crafts, trade and commerce. Brothers Vetti owned wealthy
house and wine industry. Free in all ways but tended to maintain relationship with master. The children of freedmen could
become citizens. Hence the dedication of repairs to the Temple of Isis by a 4 year old
“Trade served as a leveller in society” WD
Women
Women represented in all classes. While freewomen could not vote or represent in government they could express status
through electoral support of relatives (14%) and public buildings ( Eumachia) and by roles as Public Priestesses ( Mamia).
Mamia had her tomb paid for at public expense. Women could own land ( Julia Felix)
Some freedwomen became financially successful ( Naevoleia Tyche). Women could own slaves. ( tablets of Poppaea Note )
Foreign women could run perfume shops
Slave women worked for masters in households and businesses ( bracelet ) and worked as prostitutes
Slaves
Obtained through capture and auction, employed on villa rustica and householdsas cooks, cleaners, attendents, wet nurses Could be manumitted.Assumed
masters name Females not permitted to marry, offspring was also slave. Iron chains from Boscoreale ,ag slaves treated harshly Heirarchy of slaves.
Dispensator controlled masters funds, and cellarius the food supplies

21. Local Political Life
Inscriptions, electoral graffiti( programmata)
2 Aediles
Elected for 1 year
Controlled all aspects of public life, roads, sewer,
markets, public games at own expense
Dumviri
Town Council
Town Council
80-100
Met once a year to
elect dumviri
Met in the Comitium Electoral Assembly Number unknown
Dumviri
Town Council

22. Food and Dining
 Food & Dining: ~ Robert Curtis
 All kinds of food were available to people of all social levels
 Many foods were eaten raw with minimum preparation or cooking
 Meat animals were butchered, then roasted, boiled or cooked in a stew
 Fish were scaled, gutted, perhaps filleted & similarly prepared
 Fruit was consumed raw
 Vegetables were cooked or boiled, nuts were eaten raw after shelling
 Grapes could be eaten raw or treaded, fermented & aged to make wine
 Ancient food technologies include grinding, pounding, crushing, pressing,
salting, drying, smoking, storing, transporting – evidence found in
Campania
 Olives were soaked in brine then eaten by themselves or with other
dishes, or used to make olive oil
 Fishing was an active occupation – archaeological finds of nets, sinkers,
hooks, fishermen ate or sold their catch in the town market

23. Dining Out
 Skeletal evidence suggests that P& H were well nourished
 Houses had at least 1 triclinium so named from the couches for
reclining
 Dinner was the main meal of the day and began at 4.00. In
wealthy homes, satirized in Trimalchio’s Feast the meal began
with Gustatio( eggs, olives, sausage), Fercula( dishes that are
carried), fish, shellfish, poultry, pork, lamb and finish with Mensa
Secundae, freash fruit, nuts and cheese, all with wine
 Metal braziers found in various rooms, including peristyle
gardens suggested a flexible attitude to dining.
 Collections of pottery dinner platters by Allison suggests that
food was served communally from large platters rather than
individually. Silver, bronze and glass dinner ware has also been
found
 Public eating took place at Thermopolia ( snack bars)and
Tabernae, in which large dolia in a marble bench held hot
drinks and dishes. 200 found in Pompeii. One of the largest
found in Herc opposite Palaestra had 2 entrances

24. Clothing
 During the year of office, the duumviri and Aediles wore
the purple bordered toga, the toga praetexta
 The dress of upper-class Roman males had distinctive
features which made their rank immediately visible to all
around them
 Equestrians wore the tunic with narrow stripes (angusta
clavi) and a gold ring
 Women belonged to the social class of their father &
husbands, but had no special clothes to indicate their
status
 The special mark of dress for citizen males was the toga
 Freed people had no distinctive dress but their names
indicated their status
 Slaves who had run away were sometimes required to
wear a metal collar with inscriptions such as ‘I have run
away. Capture me. When you have returned me to my
master, Zoninus, you will receive an award.’

25. Leisure and Entertainment
•Greek Tragedies and
Comedies performed.
Greek masks , now in
Naples Museum
•Actors low on social
scale
•Dice and
Knucklebones
•Painting in tavern
owned by SALVIUS
Baths
Forum,
Suburban
and Private
Baths
Chariot Racing and
Gladiators
Amphitheatre
inscriptions
”Celadus,
hearthrob of the
girls”
Gambling
Paintings
Theatre
Large and
Small
Theatre

26. BATHS, AMPHITHEATRE.
THEATRES
 Know architecture and layout of each of
these and any inscriptions associated
 Mention seating approximations
reflective, not of town size but servicing
region
 Mention Amphitheatre fight, painting and
ban by Nero for 10 years

27. Importance of Leisure & Entertainment
 Opening sentence would address the question eg “ Mens sana in
corpore sano”; sound mind and a sound body illustrates the Roman enthusiasm
for physical exercise while the number of religious holidays provided an
opportunity for theatre and spectacles
 Ancient terms and concepts to include would be otium and
negotum; leisure and work;
 Know the layout and terminology of the bath complexes/
theatres/ palaestra and amphitheatre ( seating capacities) and
be able to know at least 1 piece of graffiti from each( mention
Greek architecture, comedy and tragedies)
 Be able to explain who gladiators were, what they wore and
how they fought.
 Be able to give specific examples of mozaics and paintings eg
theatre masks in Naples Museum and painting of the
Amphitheatre fight between Pompeians and Nucerians
 Remember gambling, not just dice but cock fighting was also
popular
 Prostitution could double for economy and leisure and
entertainment

28. Forum Function
 The Function of the Forum in Roman times
is reflected in the various types of its
associated buildings, economic, religious,
political . The Forum space however was
equally vital in meeting the social needs of
its citizens. The space provided a focal point
for patron and client to be seen, important
and ambitious politicians to make speeches
and above all, festivals and processions to
be seen by all its citizens.

29. FORUM
FUNCTION
POLITICAL
ECONOMIC
RELIGIOUS
SOCIAL

30. Pompeii Forum Project
Carroll William Westfall
 “Roman culture was distinguished from other
ancient cultures by the enlarged role the public life
played in private affairs. Roman society was more
extensively stratified and more wealth and public
honors were available to each of the various
grades….Architecture was the most effective
means of making this point. The Roman city had
more public buildings and a more obvious public
character in its public places…Roman Pompeii
used civic activity and urban architecture to show
that the religious and civic life gave order and
vitality to private and commercial affairs….”
 GREAT QUOTE FOR ALMOST ANYTHING!!!!!!!

31. Public Buildings
 “From then on sponsors and donors had more
in mind than simply the effect of their gifts on
their fellow citizens; their gaze was fixed on
places farther afield, especially Rome. The
resulting spirit of competition then spread
from the elite to all strata of society. On all
sides we see the need for exhibition and self
promotion growing, reflected in public statues
and private tombs, ..”
 Paul Zanker Pompeii, Public and Private
Spaces

32. 62-79 AD URBAN RENEWAL OR DECAY?
 “The conventional view is that the state of the Forum in 79AD was
still in disrepair from the impact of the earthquake of 62AD . The
Pompeians had neglected the city’s buildings and the Forum was
nothing more than a builders yard. The alleged absence of recovery
has been seen as symptomatic of the general state of economic
depression at the site
 The buildings themselves tell a different story. Newly interpreted
evidence points to a post earthquake plan for the Forum, a design
whose hallmarks are the unification and monumentalizatiion of the
urban centre. These goals were achieved by blocking off the streets,
linking facades, upgrading building materials and emphasizing the
entrance that now provided major access to the Forum. It is possible
that such a program was beyond the means of the Pompeian
treasury. It is possible that assistance was given by Rome as there is
ample evidence that this was the policy. The current perspective due
to the work of the Forum Project is that rather than being a symbol
of economic depression its vigorous post earthquake building
program revealed a desire to build on a grand scale.”
Penelope Allison

33. Private Buildings
If I were a gambler this would be a good bet!!!!
 Remember any description of houses and their use is highly interprative.Zarmati
describes the “domus as a microcosm of the public world of business, politics and civic
duty”
 Based on Wallace Hadrill’s classification, Houses can be divided into 4 groups:
 Shops & workshops with 1 or 2 roomed residences behind or above
 Larger workshop residences of 2-7 rooms, some with an atrium & even
richly decorated
 Average house: 8 -13 rooms, most with an integrated workshop or shop,
symmetrical plan & common architectural features eg atrium & gardens
 Largest houses ( villa urbana) designed for hospitality & large-scale
admission of visitors, separate space for slaves; 2 atria; ornamental
gardens, peristyles; decorated
 Villa Rustica

34. Concepts you must know!
 FAUCES,
 ATRIUM
 TABLINUM
 TRICLINIUM
 CUBICULUM
 SALUTATIO
 PATERFAMILIA
 IMPLUVIUM/COMPLUVIUM

35. Characteristics and room
function( specific examples)
 Houses represent 1/3 of all buildings in Pompeii. Windows looked
inward
 Key feature in design for the elite is the long axis running from street
entry to the garden. The axis ties the fauces, atrium, tablinum and
peristyle areas where vision was often framed by the placement of
columns, usually Ionic or Corinthian. These were the more publically
visible areas ( salutatio ). According to Cicero in his De Officiis, a
man of rank needed housing to fit his social standing
 To the side were the more private leisure areas of Tricliniums and
Cubiculums, although client access was sometimes acceptable.
Wallace Hadrill states “Romans lacked our distinction of place of
work from place of leisure.” ( OTIUM/NEGOTUM)
 The most private areas, unseen and undecorated were the slave
quarters and kitchen areas, located towards the back or side of houses.

36.  Public and private architecture merged when
allusions to forum architecture was included in
the layout of tablinums
 Gymnasia and porticoe architecture was also
integrated in the outdoor garden and pool
construction
 “The villas of the Roman elite provided conscious
models for the houses of Pompeian shopkeepers,
let alone those of the heavily Roman focused
local elite” Hadrill
 “The use of water in Roman private houses has
been identified as a highly visible status symbol”
Rick Jones

37. Evolution of the Domus
Romanus

38. Decoration
 ‘The function of mythological paintings in
the houses pf P&H was to represent the
status of the house to the exterior world.’
~ Rachel Goff

39. House Feature
House of the Surgeon, House of
the Samnite
Age, Use of Tufa blocks and size and number of rooms
House and Workshop of
Verecundus
Workshop of fullers and dyers incorporated at the front of a
basic residence. Noted for its many paintings of the
commercial activities
House of Laureius Tiburtinus: : tried to adopt country villa feel, quite close to
amphitheatre, many swimming pools and trellised gardens
House of the Vestals Shows continuous change over time from 2nd century AD.
Complex water system
House of the Faun 2 atriums, 2 tablinums, clerestory windows and Corintian
columns
Influence of Hellenistic art; Mozaic of Alexander
House of the Bicentenery Division into apartments with external access and multiple
larariums
House of Julia Felix Rooms for rent and private bath complex
Villa of Mysteries Art work on four walls showing Dionysiac cult 60 rooms
and views to the sea

40. House Contents-P Allison
 Evidence for Cloth production: loom weights, spindles needles
in Casa De Princeps de Napoli; 50 loom weights were needed
for 2 rooms and as spinning was a Roman activity this cannot
be evidence for commercial use. Looms were not found in
service areas ~ Penelope Alison
 Consumption of food: popular images of food in still life
paintings; braziers were found in Casa del Menandro, used for
cooking, heating, warming; red slip pottery largest and smallest
sizes used for cooking; size 4 bowls showed olive, fig and plum
residue ~ Penelope Alison
 Toilet and Medical items: spatulums, probes, cosmetic
containers, strigils, tweezers (>10cm=forceps function;
<10cm=domestic use); not all medical items indicate doctors:
“this is one example of how we bring our own personal bias of
interpretation to the study of Pompeian households.”~Penelope
Alison

41. Changing Methods of
Archaeology and Technology
Methods Technology
•Previous treasure hunt, only interested in Roman, classical
architecture, sculptures
•Fiorelli, Inspector in 1863
•Numbered and named houses and buildings. Divided Pompeii into
9 regions each containing up to 22 insulae. Buildings identified by 3
numbers. Also named streets and gates
•Systematic excavation. Removed debris of earlier excavations and
used top down excavation rather than from the side. Minimised
damage to wall structures
•Plaster casts, preserved impressions of body positions, animals,
furniture and clothing
•Mau; Divided art into 4 styles
•Vittorio Spinazzola; 1911-24 ; careful and systematic excavated
streetscapes and external face of buildings
•Used photography to record excavations
•Amedeo Mauri; 1924-61; WW2 bombing.Excavated Via Dell
Abondanza. Interested in pre Roman period. Excavated wall and
established stages of construction. Villa of Mysteries and Julia Felix
•Fausto Zevi halted excavations
•Guzzo 1995; obtained gate entry to fund conservation. Brought
international teams of experts
Salvador Nappo; Plaster replaced with clear apoxy resin( didn’t
shrink). Could be Xrayed
Sigurdsson; stratigraphical analyses established sequence of
eruption
Jaye Pont, ceramic analyses identified local potters and imported
ware but showed importance of local craftsmen.
Forensic Evidence; Bisel ( disproved the idea that only the old or
the invalids were left behind)and Lazer; pugilistic poses proved
exposure to high heat. Herculaneum died from fulminant shock
Findings showed good level of health
Capasso examined diseases like Brucellosis from meat and
tuberculosis from wood fires and poor ventilation
Jashemski pollen analyses identified 184 plant types. Reinterpreted
land use within the city limits
CAD IMAGING; Kirk Martini disproves theory of urban decay
after 62 earthquake
Multi Spectral Imaging by Brigham University converts burned
scrolls to clear images

42. Conservation issues;
Italian and International
Efforts
“To dig is to Destroy” Sir Mortimer Wheeler
“Just when Pompeii was being discovered it
began to die its second death” Blanquat

43. Issue Italian International
FINANCE
310 million dollars needed
Italian law of Cultural Assets allowing Superintendent
to keep tourist gate entry
Pompeii Archaeological Management Office headed by
Guzzo
1996 UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE LIST cities
on endangered list. Additional funds from
European Union
Weeds Blanquat identified 31 types of
destructive ivy
Gardeners hired to clear weeds Jashemski; planting out of natural gardens to
reduce weeds
Pigeons ( protected species) Herculaneum Conservation Society, funded by
Hewlett Packard. Trained falcons to hunt birds
Many people from a range of disciplines were
brought together & given a different task to help
preserve the site. ~ Sarah Court
Instability of walls Scaffolding
Rising Water Drains and pumps University of Carolina 3D scanning of Suburban
Baths
Faded and weathered paintings from sunlight
and acid rain
Moratorium on further excavation
Via Dell Abondanza project
Kress Foundation financing restoration of
paintings
Theft 2003
1997 14 frescoes from House of Gladiators
2 frescoes cut out of walls in House of Chaste
Lovers
Guards International Legislation and prosecution for
traffiking in cultural property
Tourism-wear &tear, flash photography,
contact, body oils
2.5 million tourists a day,
Redistribute areas opened to tourists.1997 only 34/167
hectares open for inspection . Half of what was open in
1950
Education of public. Tourist guides
Friends of Herculaneum aim is to educate public
through newsletters
Pompeii Trust
Preservation “Fortuna Visiva Project” an archive of texts and images
in 2002
DIAPREM- restoring and protecting paintings and
graffiti ( perspex coverings)
Pompeii Forum Project
Rick Jones and Anglo American Project working
on House of Vestals
Philodemus Project using multi spectral imaging
on scrolls. Images then saved in digital data bases.
ICCROM –RESTORATION OF CULTURAL
PROPERTY

44. TOURISM
negatives
NUMBERS
NEED TO PROVIDE
SPECIAL AMENITIES
FOOD/TOILETS/GAR
BAGE
WEAR AND
TEAR
By feet and backpacks
brushing against walls
BODY OILS
FLASH
PHOTOGRAPHY
THEFT &
VANDALISM
Frescoes stolen
from House of
Chaste Lovers
FERAL
DOGS

45. Ethical Issues
 Over the last 50 years attitudes towards the display of human remains have
changed, particularly influenced by reconciliation with indigenous
communities
 Since the commencement of excavation human remains have been viewed,
firstly as objects for display and more recently as resources for research.
 Skeletons and casts have been displayed in Pompeii either in the houses in
which they were found or in other protected buildings. Some have been
displayed in museums, most recently in travelling exhibitions
 In more recent years the problem has been addressed by the use of casts,
used to create replicas of human remains, which can be displayed on site,
while the original material Can be studied and stored appropriately.

46.  The ICOM Code of Ethics does not ban the display
of human remains, rather it encourages sensitivity to
community reactions.
 The debate about whether human remains are
primarily of scientific or cultural significance is an
ongoing debate. Advances in medical and forensic
technology adds pressure to the debate since bodies
can now yield so much more information than in the
past.
 “The bodies of Pompeii are still in the public eye,
thanks to Giuseppe Fiorelli. The public display of
these human remains reveals the fragility and pathos
of the figures and there is little evidence of the tact,
respect or feelings of human dignity required by the
ICOM Code of Ethics relating to the display of
human remains” ~ Alan Wheatland

47. Ownership and Excavation
Future The question of whether a site , geographically located inside a country,
having international significance and supported internationally, must be
owned exclusively by one country, is open to debate
 Many great museums, such as the British Museum and the Louvre are
full of priceless objects from foreign countries. Some were given as
gifts, purchased legally during Imperial times and some were stolen.
Like many countries Italy has passed laws banning the trade in stolen
antiquities. Some countries also seek the return of artefacts held in
foreign countries.
 The question of whether to continue excavation or leave it for future ,
more technologically advanced generations applies to the Villa of
Papyri where it is widely believed a twin library of Roman texts exists
beneath the rubble. The discovery of a lower terrace and the possibility
of a further eruption which could rebury the two towns gives the
question more immediacy. Hewlett Packard has offered the funds for its
excavation.