This document discusses patterns of inheritance and genetics terminology. It begins by introducing Mendelian genetics and key concepts like dominant and recessive alleles. It then defines genetic terms like genotype, phenotype, generations, and monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. The document also covers Mendel's laws of inheritance, including segregation and independent assortment. It discusses examples like genetic disorders and how traits are passed down. It concludes by noting variations like incomplete dominance, polygenic traits, and sex-linked inheritance.
Lecture given by Leon MUTESA, MD,PhD , a genetician teaching at UR( UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA, HUYE CAMPUS,SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY, DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL MEDICINE AND SURGERY).
Lecture given by Leon MUTESA, MD,PhD , a genetician teaching at UR( UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA, HUYE CAMPUS,SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY, DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL MEDICINE AND SURGERY).
General overview of patterns of transmission of single gene traitsPaul Adepoju
I delivered this presentation to fellow postgraduate students. It's on the various traits, normal and pathological, that are transmitted by single genes.
General overview of patterns of transmission of single gene traitsPaul Adepoju
I delivered this presentation to fellow postgraduate students. It's on the various traits, normal and pathological, that are transmitted by single genes.
Chapter 3 The New GeneticsAlma Villanueva, MACalifornia S.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3:
The New Genetics
Alma Villanueva, MA
California State University, Los Angeles
Overview
Genetic Code
The Beginning of Life
Male & Female
Twins
Genotype & Phenotype
Disorders
Genetic Counseling
Genetic Code
Cells
Basic unit of life
Trillions!
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Thread– like structures made up of DNA & protein
23 pairs
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
2 strands twisted in a double helix
Chemical composition of molecules that contain the genes
Contains all of the information required to build/maintain the cell
3
Genes
Small section of the chromosome
18,000 – 23,000 genes
Each gene provides a unique recipe to make a protein
4 bases
Code for your traits
A - adenine
T - thymine
C - cytosine
G – guanine
Only 4 possible pairs
A-T; T-A; C-G; G-C
http://mybrainnotes.com/brain-dna-behavior.html
4
Allele
A variation of a gene
Example: the gene for eye color has several variations (alleles); an allele for blue eye color or an allele for brown eyes
Everyone inherits alleles from sperm & ovum
Genetic diversity
Distinguishes each person
Allows the human species to adapt to pressures of the environment
Genome
Full set of genes with instructions to make a living organism
Genomes exist for each species
Video about Genes
5
The Beginning of Life
Two Parents, Millions of Gametes
Gamete
Reproductive cell
Sperm or Ovum
Each contains 23 pairs
Zygote
Cell formed with union of Sperm & Ovum
Produce a new individual with 23 chromosomes from each parent
Conception
http://predictingbabygender.info/tag/intercourse-timing/
Matching genes
Genotype
Organism’s entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.
Homozygous (same zygote)
Two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code
Heterozygous
Two genes of one pair that differ in some way
Usually not an issue
Male of Female?
Humans usually possess
46 chromosomes
44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes
SEX chromosome = 23rd pair
Female – XX
Male – XY
Mother’s contain X
Father’s may have X or Y
X chrom. Is larger & more genes
Y contain SRY,
making male hormones & organs
It's a girl!
Uncertain Sex
“ambiguous genitals,” = child's sex is not abundantly clear
a quick analysis of the chromosomes is needed, to make sure there are exactly 46 and to see whether the 23rd pair is XY or XX
shown here a baby boy (left) and girl (right).
Too Many Boys?
Is sex selection the parents’ right or a social wrong?
Preference for boys in many areas of world
Ways to prevent female birth
Inactivating X sperm before conception
In vitro fertilization (IVF)
Aborting XX fetuses
My Strength, My Daughter
slogan these girls in New Delhi are shouting at a demonstration against abortion of female fetuses in India
The current sex ratio of children in India suggests that this campaign has not convinced every couple.
New Cells
Within hours of conception
23 pairs of chromosomes carrying all the genes duplicate, forming two complete sets of the genome
Two sets.
Chapter 3 The New GeneticsAlma Villanueva, MACalifornia S.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 3:
The New Genetics
Alma Villanueva, MA
California State University, Los Angeles
Overview
Genetic Code
The Beginning of Life
Male & Female
Twins
Genotype & Phenotype
Disorders
Genetic Counseling
Genetic Code
Cells
Basic unit of life
Trillions!
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Thread– like structures made up of DNA & protein
23 pairs
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
2 strands twisted in a double helix
Chemical composition of molecules that contain the genes
Contains all of the information required to build/maintain the cell
3
Genes
Small section of the chromosome
18,000 – 23,000 genes
Each gene provides a unique recipe to make a protein
4 bases
Code for your traits
A - adenine
T - thymine
C - cytosine
G – guanine
Only 4 possible pairs
A-T; T-A; C-G; G-C
http://mybrainnotes.com/brain-dna-behavior.html
4
Allele
A variation of a gene
Example: the gene for eye color has several variations (alleles); an allele for blue eye color or an allele for brown eyes
Everyone inherits alleles from sperm & ovum
Genetic diversity
Distinguishes each person
Allows the human species to adapt to pressures of the environment
Genome
Full set of genes with instructions to make a living organism
Genomes exist for each species
Video about Genes
5
The Beginning of Life
Two Parents, Millions of Gametes
Gamete
Reproductive cell
Sperm or Ovum
Each contains 23 pairs
Zygote
Cell formed with union of Sperm & Ovum
Produce a new individual with 23 chromosomes from each parent
Conception
http://predictingbabygender.info/tag/intercourse-timing/
Matching genes
Genotype
Organism’s entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.
Homozygous (same zygote)
Two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code
Heterozygous
Two genes of one pair that differ in some way
Usually not an issue
Male of Female?
Humans usually possess
46 chromosomes
44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes
SEX chromosome = 23rd pair
Female – XX
Male – XY
Mother’s contain X
Father’s may have X or Y
X chrom. Is larger & more genes
Y contain SRY,
making male hormones & organs
It's a girl!
Uncertain Sex
“ambiguous genitals,” = child's sex is not abundantly clear
a quick analysis of the chromosomes is needed, to make sure there are exactly 46 and to see whether the 23rd pair is XY or XX
shown here a baby boy (left) and girl (right).
Too Many Boys?
Is sex selection the parents’ right or a social wrong?
Preference for boys in many areas of world
Ways to prevent female birth
Inactivating X sperm before conception
In vitro fertilization (IVF)
Aborting XX fetuses
My Strength, My Daughter
slogan these girls in New Delhi are shouting at a demonstration against abortion of female fetuses in India
The current sex ratio of children in India suggests that this campaign has not convinced every couple.
New Cells
Within hours of conception
23 pairs of chromosomes carrying all the genes duplicate, forming two complete sets of the genome
Two sets ...
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
3. Genetics
• Study of the patterns of inheritance
• Mendelian Genetics
– Gregor Mendel
– Pea plant experiments
• Grow easily
• Distinguishable characteristics
– Round/Wrinkly, Yellow/Green, Tall/Short
• Can control mating
4. Terminology
• Allele—Alternate forms of a gene
• Dominant Allele—trait that exerts its effects
whenever present
– Symbolized by capitol letter (B)
– Ex. Dwarfism, Huntington’s disease
• Recessive Allele—trait that is masked if a
dominant trait is present
– Symbolized by lower case letter (b)
– Ex. Blue eyes
5. Terminology
• Genotype—Genetic makeup of an organisms
– Homozygous—2 alleles that are the same (BB or bb)
– Heterozygous—2 different alleles (Bb)
• Phenotype—Observable characteristics
– Brown eyes, brown hair, tall, short
• Generation—group of organisms born around the
same time
– P Generation—Parental
– F1—offspring of parent, first filial generation
– F2—1st generation of offspring
6. Genetic Terminology
Term Definition
Generations
P First (parental) generation
F1 children (Latin filii) of
generation P
F2 children of generation F1
Chromosomes and Genes
chromosome macromolecules found in
cells, consisting of DNA,
protein and RNA
gene the unit of heredity of a living
organism
locus specific location of a gene,
DNA sequence, or position on
a chromosome
allele one of a number of
alternative forms of the same
gene or genetic locus
Term Definition
Dominant and recessive
dominant allele an allele that is always expressed if present
recessive allele an allele that is only expressed if the dominant
allele is not present
Genotypes and Phenotypes
genotype the genetic makeup of a cell, an organism, or
an individual
homozygous contains two of the same allele of a gene
heterozygous contains two different alleles of a gene
phenotype an organism's observable characteristics or
traits
true breeding pure-bred, is an organism that always passes
down a certain phenotypic trait to its offspring
wild type most common phenotype in nature
mutant physical or genetic difference from a mutation
in a gene
7. Tracking Inheritance
• Monohybrid Cross—Mating between individuals
that are BOTH heterozygous
• Dihybrid Cross—Mating between individuals that
are heterozygous for 2 traits (genes)
• Punnett Square—diagram showing genotypes in
a monohybrid cross
– Test cross—a Punnett square done to figure out the
genotype of an unknown
• Always use a homozygous recessive individual with unknown
9. y y
Y
y
Y
Malegametes
y
Y
y
y
Malegametes
y
If plant is homozygous dominant (YY):
YY
Female gametes
Yellow seeds (Yy): 100% chanceYy
Yy
Yy
Yy
yy
If plant is heterozygous (Yy):
Yy
Female gametes
Yellow seeds (Yy): 50% chance
Green seeds (yy): 50% chance
Yy yy
yyYy
10.
11. Law of Segregation
• Two alleles of each gene are packed into
separate gametes
– Alleles move apart during meiosis
– Occurs during meiosis 1—Metaphase
• Homologous chromosome move to opposite ends of
poles
12. Law of Segregation
Every individual contains a
pair of alleles for each
particular trait which
segregate or separate
during cell division
(assuming diploidy) for
any particular trait and
that each parent passes a
randomly selected copy
(allele) to its offspring.
Gametes will be paired
randomly with gametes
from the other parent.
14. Genetics Problem
The ability to curl your tongue up on the sides (T, tongue
rolling) is dominant to not being able to roll your tongue.
A woman who can roll her tongue marries a man who
cannot. Their first child has his father’s phenotype. What
are the genotypes of the mother, father, and child? What
is the probability that their second child will be a tongue
roller?
15. Law of Independent Assortment
• The segregation of alleles of one gene does
not influence the alleles for another gene
– Alleles are RANDOMLY packaged in gametes
• Since we have SO MANY genes, can’t keep
doing punnett square.
– Use Product Rule—The chance that 2
independent events will both occur = the product
of individual chances that each event will occur
19. About 70% of Americans perceive a bitter taste from the
chemical phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). The ability to taste
this chemical results from a dominant allele (T) and not
being able to taste PTC is the result of having two
recessive alleles (t). Albinism is also a single locus trait
with normal pigment being dominant (A) and the lack of
pigment being recessive (a). A normally pigmented
woman who cannot taste PTC has a father who is an
albino taster. She marries a homozygous, normally
pigmented man who is a taster but who has a mother
that does not taste PTC. What percentage of the children
will be albinos? What percentage of the children will be
non-taster of PTC?
Law of Independent Assortment and
Dihybrid Crosses
20. Recessive Disorders
• Recessive Disorder—
disorder is ONLY
expressed when both
alleles are recessive
– Can be “carried”
– Heterozygous individuals
can carry gene but not
express disease
Dd Hearing carrier father
Dd
Hearing
carrier
mother
D d
D DD
Hearing
Dd
Hearing
(carrier)
d Dd
Hearing
(carrier)
dd
Deaf
22. Dominant Disorders
• Dominant Disorder
– Condition is expressed when
an individual has at least
one dominant allele
Achondroplasia
23. Autosomal Disorders
Disorder Likelihood Symptoms
Recessive Disorders
Albinism approximately 1
in 17,000
Most people with albinism appear white or very pale. Because individuals with
albinism have skin that entirely lacks melanin, their skin can burn more easily from
overexposure
Galactosemia approximately 1
in 60,000
(Caucasians)
In galactosemic patients, galactitol accumulates in body tissues. This can result in an
enlarged liver, cirrhosis, renal failure, cataracts, brain damage, and ovarian failure.
Without treatment, mortality in infants with galactosemia is about 75%.
Phenylketonuria
(PKU)
approximately 1
in 15,000 (US)
Abnormally high levels of phenylalanine accumulate in the blood and are toxic to the
brain. Complications intellectual disability, brain function abnormalities, mood
disorders, irregular motor functioning, and behavioral problems.
Sickle-cell disease approximately 1
in 5,000 (US)
Sickle-cell disease may lead to various acute and chronic complications, several of
which have a high mortality rate. Sickle-cell anaemia can lead to various
complications, including: increased risk of infection, stroke, and chronic pain.
Tay–Sachs disease approximately 1
in 3,500
(Ashkenazi Jews)
Tay–Sachs disease is typically first noticed in infants around 6 months old displaying
an abnormally strong response to sudden noises or other stimulus, known as the
“startle response.” There may also be listlessness or muscle stiffness (hypertonia).
Dominant Disorders
Alzheimer’s disease unknown dementia; memory loss and mental decay; not all cases are the result of genetics
Huntington’s disease approximately
5–10 in 100,000
a neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and leads to
cognitive decline and behavioral symptoms. It typically becomes noticeable in mid-
adult life.
Hypercholesterolemia unknown the presence of high levels of cholesterol in the blood; can lead to atherosclerosis and
other heart problems; can be caused by genetics or lifestyle
26. Variations on Mendel’s Laws
• Pleiotropy
– One gene has many
effects
Sickle-cells can cause many problems
in a person’s life, including organ
damage, chronic illness, and pain.
28. Variations on Mendel’s Laws
Polygenic Inheritance—Many genes control one
phenotype
Read more here:
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:d
oi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0000069
34. X-Linked Disorders
Disorder Genetics Characteristics
X-Linked Recessive Inheritance
Duchenne muscular dystrophy mutation in the dystrophin gene early life muscle degeneration and eventual death
Fragile X syndrome expansion of the CGG trinucleotide
repeat on the X chromosome
most widespread single-gene cause of autism and
inherited cause of intellectual disability, especially
among boys
Hemophilia A mutant allele; ~70% of the time it is
an X-linked recessive trait, but ~30%
of cases arise from mutations
deficiency in clotting factor VIII, which causes
increased bleeding and usually affects males
Red–green color blindness absence or mutation of the genes
for red or green color receptors
difficulty with discriminating red and green hues
Rett syndrome mutations in the gene MECP2
located on the X chromosome
typically have no verbal skills, and about 50% of
individuals affected do not walk. Scoliosis, growth
failure, and constipation are very common and can
be problematic.
X-Linked Dominant Inheritance
Hypertrichosis unknown abnormal amount of hair growth over the body
X-linked hypophosphatemia mutation in the PHEX gene
sequence (Xp.22) and subsequent
inactivity of the PHEX protein
It can cause bone deformity including short stature
and genu varum (bow leggedness).
Retinitis pigmentosa (some
forms)
unknown degenerative eye disease that causes severe vision
impairment and often blindness
Image from Boundless
****Use this slide to replace slides 8 and 9*****
Image from Boundless
“Law of Segregation” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance#Law_of_Segregation
“Mendelian Inheritance” by Magnus Manske. Released into public domain by the copyright holder. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mendelian_inheritance.svg
“Rolled Tongue Flickr” by Gideon Tsang. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 2.5 Generic license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rolled_tongue_flikr.jpg
Image from Boundless
Image from Boundless
Image from Boundless
“Cystic Fibrosis Manifestations” by Madhero88. Released into public domain by the copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cystic_fibrosis_manifestations.svg
“2007 Disney Weekends #4: Warwick Davis” by Official Star Wars Blog. Licensed under a CC-BY 2.0 Generic license. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Warwick_Davis_interviewed_2.jpg
“Mendelian Inhertiance 1 2 1” by Magnus Manske. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mendelian_inheritance_1_2_1.png
Left: “Example of Genome-wide QTL-Scan” by Syrkarsodttir U, Cazier JB, Kong A, Rolfsson O, Larsen H, et al. Licensed under a CC-BY 2.5 Generic license. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Example_of_a_Genome-wide_QTL-Scan_from_PLoS_Biology.jpg
Right: “Example of QTL-Scan on a single Chromosome” by Syrkarsodttir U, Cazier JB, Kong A, Rolfsson O, Larsen H, et al. Licensed under a CC-BY 2.5 Generic license. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Example_of_QTL-Scan_on_a_single_Chromosom_from_PLoS_Biology.jpg
“Drosphila XY sex-determination” by YassineMrabet. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 4.0 International license. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drosophila_XY_sex-determination.svg
Image from Boundless
Image from Boundless
Images from the US National Library of Medicine. (Public Domain).
Left: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xlink_dominant_mother.jpg
Right: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:X-link_dominant_father.jpg