This document presents two procedures for solving mixed-variables programming problems. The key steps are:
1. The problem is partitioned into two subproblems - a programming problem defined on the set S, and a linear programming problem defined in Rp.
2. A partitioning theorem shows that solving the programming problem on S determines whether the original problem is feasible, feasible but not optimal, or determines an optimal solution and reduces the original problem to a linear programming problem.
3. To efficiently solve the programming problem on S without computing the entire constraint set, the problem is decomposed into subproblems where only constraints determining optimality need to be identified.
This document provides an analytic-combinatoric proof of Pólya's recurrence theorem for simple random walks on lattices Zd. It introduces generating functions to represent combinatorial classes of random walks. The generating function for simple random walks yields a formula for the probability of being at a given position at a given time. Laplace's method is then used to estimate these probabilities asymptotically, showing the random walk is recurrent if d = 1, 2 and transient if d ≥ 3, proving Pólya's theorem.
Existence of Solutions of Fractional Neutral Integrodifferential Equations wi...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Convergence Theorems for Implicit Iteration Scheme With Errors For A Finite F...inventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
The paper reports on an iteration algorithm to compute asymptotic solutions at any order for a wide class of nonlinear
singularly perturbed difference equations.
Existence Theory for Second Order Nonlinear Functional Random Differential Eq...IOSR Journals
This document presents an existence theory for solutions to second order nonlinear functional random differential equations in Banach algebras. It begins by introducing the type of random differential equation being studied and defining relevant function spaces. It then states several theorems and lemmas from previous works that will be used to prove the main results. The paper goes on to prove that under certain Lipschitz conditions and boundedness assumptions on the operators defining the equation, the random differential equation has at least one random solution in the given function space. It also shows that the set of such random solutions is compact. The results generalize previous existence theorems to the random case.
A common fixed point theorem in cone metric spacesAlexander Decker
This academic article summarizes a common fixed point theorem for continuous and asymptotically regular self-mappings on complete cone metric spaces. The theorem extends previous results to cone metric spaces, which generalize metric spaces by replacing real numbers with an ordered Banach space. It proves that under certain contractive conditions, the self-mapping has a unique fixed point. The proof constructs a Cauchy sequence that converges to the fixed point.
Existance Theory for First Order Nonlinear Random Dfferential Equartioninventionjournals
In this paper, the existence of a solution of nonlinear random differential equation of first order is proved under Caratheodory condition by using suitable fixed point theorem. 2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 34F05, 47H10, 47H4
Generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mapping in fuzzy 2 metric spa...Alexander Decker
This document discusses generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mappings in fuzzy 2-metric spaces. It begins with introductions and preliminaries on fixed point theory, fuzzy metric spaces, and compatible mappings. It then provides new definitions of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in fuzzy-2 metric spaces. The main results extend, generalize, and improve previous theorems by proving common fixed point theorems for four mappings under the condition of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in complete fuzzy-2 metric spaces.
This document provides an analytic-combinatoric proof of Pólya's recurrence theorem for simple random walks on lattices Zd. It introduces generating functions to represent combinatorial classes of random walks. The generating function for simple random walks yields a formula for the probability of being at a given position at a given time. Laplace's method is then used to estimate these probabilities asymptotically, showing the random walk is recurrent if d = 1, 2 and transient if d ≥ 3, proving Pólya's theorem.
Existence of Solutions of Fractional Neutral Integrodifferential Equations wi...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Convergence Theorems for Implicit Iteration Scheme With Errors For A Finite F...inventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
The paper reports on an iteration algorithm to compute asymptotic solutions at any order for a wide class of nonlinear
singularly perturbed difference equations.
Existence Theory for Second Order Nonlinear Functional Random Differential Eq...IOSR Journals
This document presents an existence theory for solutions to second order nonlinear functional random differential equations in Banach algebras. It begins by introducing the type of random differential equation being studied and defining relevant function spaces. It then states several theorems and lemmas from previous works that will be used to prove the main results. The paper goes on to prove that under certain Lipschitz conditions and boundedness assumptions on the operators defining the equation, the random differential equation has at least one random solution in the given function space. It also shows that the set of such random solutions is compact. The results generalize previous existence theorems to the random case.
A common fixed point theorem in cone metric spacesAlexander Decker
This academic article summarizes a common fixed point theorem for continuous and asymptotically regular self-mappings on complete cone metric spaces. The theorem extends previous results to cone metric spaces, which generalize metric spaces by replacing real numbers with an ordered Banach space. It proves that under certain contractive conditions, the self-mapping has a unique fixed point. The proof constructs a Cauchy sequence that converges to the fixed point.
Existance Theory for First Order Nonlinear Random Dfferential Equartioninventionjournals
In this paper, the existence of a solution of nonlinear random differential equation of first order is proved under Caratheodory condition by using suitable fixed point theorem. 2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 34F05, 47H10, 47H4
Generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mapping in fuzzy 2 metric spa...Alexander Decker
This document discusses generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mappings in fuzzy 2-metric spaces. It begins with introductions and preliminaries on fixed point theory, fuzzy metric spaces, and compatible mappings. It then provides new definitions of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in fuzzy-2 metric spaces. The main results extend, generalize, and improve previous theorems by proving common fixed point theorems for four mappings under the condition of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in complete fuzzy-2 metric spaces.
This document provides an overview of key calculus concepts including:
- Functions and function notation which are fundamental to calculus
- Limits which allow defining new points from sequences and are essential to calculus concepts like derivatives and integrals
- Derivatives which measure how one quantity changes in response to changes in another related quantity
- Types of infinity and limits involving infinite quantities or areas
The document defines functions, limits, derivatives, and infinity, and provides examples to illustrate these core calculus topics. It lays the groundwork for further calculus concepts to be covered like integrals, derivatives of more complex functions, and applications of limits, derivatives, and infinity.
An Overview of Separation Axioms by Nearly Open Sets in Topology.IJERA Editor
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to exhibit the research on separation axioms in terms of nearly open sets viz
p-open, s-open, α-open & β-open sets. It contains the topological property carried by respective ℘ -Tk spaces (℘
= p, s, α & β; k = 0,1,2) under the suitable nearly open mappings . This paper also projects ℘ -R0 & ℘ -R1
spaces where ℘ = p, s, α & β and related properties at a glance. In general, the ℘ -symmetry of a topological
space for ℘ = p, s, α & β has been included with interesting examples & results.
This document provides an introduction to the author's work on developing a unified treatment of elliptic, hyperbolic, and partly elliptic-hyperbolic differential equations using symmetric positive linear operators. The author aims to show that these types of equations can be treated within a single framework by formulating the equations as systems of first-order equations and imposing admissible boundary conditions. Specifically:
1) The author introduces symmetric positive linear differential operators that satisfy certain algebraic properties and uses these to formulate differential equations as systems of first-order equations.
2) Admissible boundary conditions are defined that depend only on the nature of the operator coefficients on the boundary.
3) It is shown that under these conditions, the boundary value problems
Generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mapping in fuzzy 3 metric spa...Alexander Decker
This document discusses generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mappings in fuzzy 3-metric spaces. It begins with introductions and preliminaries on fixed point theory, fuzzy metric spaces, and compatible mappings. It then provides new definitions of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in fuzzy 3-metric spaces. The main results extend, generalize, and improve previous theorems by proving common fixed point theorems for four mappings under the conditions of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in complete fuzzy 3-metric spaces.
A Note on Hessen berg of Trapezoidal Fuzzy Number MatricesIOSRJM
This document discusses Hessenberg matrices of trapezoidal fuzzy number matrices. It begins with background on fuzzy sets and fuzzy numbers, including definitions of trapezoidal fuzzy numbers and operations on them. It then defines trapezoidal fuzzy matrices and operations on those matrices, such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication. The main topic of the document is introduced - Hessenberg matrices of trapezoidal fuzzy numbers. Some properties of Hessenberg trapezoidal fuzzy matrices are presented. The document provides necessary preliminaries on fuzzy sets and numbers before defining the key concepts and discussing properties.
The document discusses Chebyshev polynomials. It defines Chebyshev polynomials as orthogonal polynomials related to de Moivre's formula that can be defined recursively. It provides key properties of Chebyshev polynomials including that they are the extremal polynomials for many properties and important in approximation theory. The document also provides formulas for generating Chebyshev polynomials, their orthogonality properties, and their use in representing functions through orthogonal series expansions.
This document discusses equations of motion for higher-order Legendre transforms in quantum field theory. It begins by introducing Legendre transforms and their use in expressing potentials in terms of Green's functions. It then:
1) Derives Schwinger's equation and constraint equations for the generating functional of Green's functions. These determine the Green's functions uniquely.
2) Shows that iterating the equations expresses the generating functional as the sum of all vacuum loops, demonstrating the connected Green's functions are generated.
3) Notes that generalizing this proof to higher-order Legendre transforms would demonstrate their m-irreducibility properties, in line with previous work.
Numerical method for pricing american options under regime Alexander Decker
This document presents a numerical method for pricing American options under regime-switching jump-diffusion models. It begins with an abstract that describes using a cubic spline collocation method to solve a set of coupled partial integro-differential equations (PIDEs) with the free boundary feature. The document then provides background on regime-switching Lévy processes and derives the PIDEs that describe the American option price under different regimes. It presents the time and spatial discretization methods, using Crank-Nicolson for time stepping and cubic spline collocation for the spatial variable. The method is shown to exhibit second order convergence in space and time.
This document introduces predicates and quantifiers in predicate logic. It defines predicates as functions that take objects and return propositions. Predicates allow reasoning about whole classes of entities. Quantifiers like "for all" (universal quantifier ∀) and "there exists" (existential quantifier ∃) are used to make general statements about predicates over a universe of discourse. Examples demonstrate how predicates and quantifiers can express properties and relationships for objects. Laws of quantifier equivalence are also presented.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document is the preface and contents for a set of notes on complex analysis. It was prepared by Charudatt Kadolkar for MSc students at IIT Guwahati in 2000 and 2001. The notes cover topics such as complex numbers, functions of complex variables, analytic functions, integrals, series, and the theory of residues and its applications. The contents section provides an outline of the chapters and topics to be covered.
An implicit partial pivoting gauss elimination algorithm for linear system of...Alexander Decker
This document proposes a new method for solving fully fuzzy linear systems of equations (FFLS) using Gauss elimination with implicit partial pivoting. It begins by introducing concepts of fuzzy sets theory and arithmetic operations on fuzzy numbers. It then presents the FFLS problem and shows how it can be reduced to a crisp linear system. The key steps of the proposed Gauss elimination method with implicit partial pivoting are outlined. Finally, the method is illustrated on a numerical example, showing the steps to obtain solutions for the variables x, y and z.
Stability criterion of periodic oscillations in a (2)Alexander Decker
This document introduces and investigates the properties of contra ω-quotient functions, contra ω-closed functions, and contra ω-open functions using ω-closed sets. It defines these types of functions and explores their basic properties and relationships. Some examples are provided to illustrate that the composition of contra ω-closed mappings is not always contra ω-closed. Several theorems are also presented regarding the compositions of these types of mappings.
Common Fixed Theorems Using Random Implicit Iterative Schemesinventy
This document summarizes research on common fixed point theorems using random implicit iterative schemes. It defines random Mann, Ishikawa, and SP iterative schemes. It also defines modified implicit random iterative schemes associated with families of random asymptotically nonexpansive operators. The paper proves the convergence of two random implicit iterative schemes to a random common fixed point. This generalizes previous results and provides new convergence theorems for random operators in Banach spaces.
The EM algorithm is used to find maximum likelihood estimates for problems with latent variables. It works by alternating between an E-step (computing expected values of the latent variables) and an M-step (maximizing the likelihood with respect to the parameters). For mixture of Gaussians, the E-step computes the posterior probabilities that each data point belongs to each component. The M-step then updates the mixture weights, means, and covariances by taking weighted averages/sums of the data using these posteriors.
On Zα-Open Sets and Decompositions of ContinuityIJERA Editor
In this paper, we introduce and study the notion of Zα-open sets and some properties of this class of sets are investigated. Also, we introduce the class of A *L-sets via Zα-open sets. Further, by using these sets, a new decompositions of continuous functions are presented. (2000) AMS Subject Classifications: 54D10; 54C05; 54C08.
This document contains multiple choice questions related to numerical methods. The questions cover topics like regular falsi method, Newton-Raphson method, numerical integration techniques like trapezoidal rule and Simpson's rule, and numerical differentiation techniques like forward and backward difference formulas. Numerical methods for solving differential equations like Euler's method and Runge-Kutta methods are also addressed.
An Approach For Solving Nonlinear Programming ProblemsMary Montoya
This document presents an approach for solving nonlinear programming problems using measure theory. It begins by transforming a nonlinear programming problem into an optimal control problem by treating the variables as time-varying and integrating the objective and constraint functions. It then solves the optimal control problem using measure theory by representing the control-trajectory pair as a positive Radon measure on the space of trajectories and controls. Finally, it shows that the optimal solution to the transformed optimal control problem provides an approximate optimal solution to the original nonlinear programming problem.
I am Charles S. I am a Design & Analysis of Algorithms Assignments Expert at computernetworkassignmenthelp.com. I hold a Master's in Computer Science from, York University, Canada. I have been helping students with their assignments for the past 15 years. I solve assignments related to the Design & Analysis Of Algorithms.
Visit computernetworkassignmenthelp.com or email support@computernetworkassignmenthelp.com.
You can also call on +1 678 648 4277 for any assistance with the Design & Analysis Of Algorithms Assignments.
This document provides an overview of key calculus concepts including:
- Functions and function notation which are fundamental to calculus
- Limits which allow defining new points from sequences and are essential to calculus concepts like derivatives and integrals
- Derivatives which measure how one quantity changes in response to changes in another related quantity
- Types of infinity and limits involving infinite quantities or areas
The document defines functions, limits, derivatives, and infinity, and provides examples to illustrate these core calculus topics. It lays the groundwork for further calculus concepts to be covered like integrals, derivatives of more complex functions, and applications of limits, derivatives, and infinity.
An Overview of Separation Axioms by Nearly Open Sets in Topology.IJERA Editor
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to exhibit the research on separation axioms in terms of nearly open sets viz
p-open, s-open, α-open & β-open sets. It contains the topological property carried by respective ℘ -Tk spaces (℘
= p, s, α & β; k = 0,1,2) under the suitable nearly open mappings . This paper also projects ℘ -R0 & ℘ -R1
spaces where ℘ = p, s, α & β and related properties at a glance. In general, the ℘ -symmetry of a topological
space for ℘ = p, s, α & β has been included with interesting examples & results.
This document provides an introduction to the author's work on developing a unified treatment of elliptic, hyperbolic, and partly elliptic-hyperbolic differential equations using symmetric positive linear operators. The author aims to show that these types of equations can be treated within a single framework by formulating the equations as systems of first-order equations and imposing admissible boundary conditions. Specifically:
1) The author introduces symmetric positive linear differential operators that satisfy certain algebraic properties and uses these to formulate differential equations as systems of first-order equations.
2) Admissible boundary conditions are defined that depend only on the nature of the operator coefficients on the boundary.
3) It is shown that under these conditions, the boundary value problems
Generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mapping in fuzzy 3 metric spa...Alexander Decker
This document discusses generalized fixed point theorems for compatible mappings in fuzzy 3-metric spaces. It begins with introductions and preliminaries on fixed point theory, fuzzy metric spaces, and compatible mappings. It then provides new definitions of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in fuzzy 3-metric spaces. The main results extend, generalize, and improve previous theorems by proving common fixed point theorems for four mappings under the conditions of compatible mappings of types (I) and (II) in complete fuzzy 3-metric spaces.
A Note on Hessen berg of Trapezoidal Fuzzy Number MatricesIOSRJM
This document discusses Hessenberg matrices of trapezoidal fuzzy number matrices. It begins with background on fuzzy sets and fuzzy numbers, including definitions of trapezoidal fuzzy numbers and operations on them. It then defines trapezoidal fuzzy matrices and operations on those matrices, such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication. The main topic of the document is introduced - Hessenberg matrices of trapezoidal fuzzy numbers. Some properties of Hessenberg trapezoidal fuzzy matrices are presented. The document provides necessary preliminaries on fuzzy sets and numbers before defining the key concepts and discussing properties.
The document discusses Chebyshev polynomials. It defines Chebyshev polynomials as orthogonal polynomials related to de Moivre's formula that can be defined recursively. It provides key properties of Chebyshev polynomials including that they are the extremal polynomials for many properties and important in approximation theory. The document also provides formulas for generating Chebyshev polynomials, their orthogonality properties, and their use in representing functions through orthogonal series expansions.
This document discusses equations of motion for higher-order Legendre transforms in quantum field theory. It begins by introducing Legendre transforms and their use in expressing potentials in terms of Green's functions. It then:
1) Derives Schwinger's equation and constraint equations for the generating functional of Green's functions. These determine the Green's functions uniquely.
2) Shows that iterating the equations expresses the generating functional as the sum of all vacuum loops, demonstrating the connected Green's functions are generated.
3) Notes that generalizing this proof to higher-order Legendre transforms would demonstrate their m-irreducibility properties, in line with previous work.
Numerical method for pricing american options under regime Alexander Decker
This document presents a numerical method for pricing American options under regime-switching jump-diffusion models. It begins with an abstract that describes using a cubic spline collocation method to solve a set of coupled partial integro-differential equations (PIDEs) with the free boundary feature. The document then provides background on regime-switching Lévy processes and derives the PIDEs that describe the American option price under different regimes. It presents the time and spatial discretization methods, using Crank-Nicolson for time stepping and cubic spline collocation for the spatial variable. The method is shown to exhibit second order convergence in space and time.
This document introduces predicates and quantifiers in predicate logic. It defines predicates as functions that take objects and return propositions. Predicates allow reasoning about whole classes of entities. Quantifiers like "for all" (universal quantifier ∀) and "there exists" (existential quantifier ∃) are used to make general statements about predicates over a universe of discourse. Examples demonstrate how predicates and quantifiers can express properties and relationships for objects. Laws of quantifier equivalence are also presented.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document is the preface and contents for a set of notes on complex analysis. It was prepared by Charudatt Kadolkar for MSc students at IIT Guwahati in 2000 and 2001. The notes cover topics such as complex numbers, functions of complex variables, analytic functions, integrals, series, and the theory of residues and its applications. The contents section provides an outline of the chapters and topics to be covered.
An implicit partial pivoting gauss elimination algorithm for linear system of...Alexander Decker
This document proposes a new method for solving fully fuzzy linear systems of equations (FFLS) using Gauss elimination with implicit partial pivoting. It begins by introducing concepts of fuzzy sets theory and arithmetic operations on fuzzy numbers. It then presents the FFLS problem and shows how it can be reduced to a crisp linear system. The key steps of the proposed Gauss elimination method with implicit partial pivoting are outlined. Finally, the method is illustrated on a numerical example, showing the steps to obtain solutions for the variables x, y and z.
Stability criterion of periodic oscillations in a (2)Alexander Decker
This document introduces and investigates the properties of contra ω-quotient functions, contra ω-closed functions, and contra ω-open functions using ω-closed sets. It defines these types of functions and explores their basic properties and relationships. Some examples are provided to illustrate that the composition of contra ω-closed mappings is not always contra ω-closed. Several theorems are also presented regarding the compositions of these types of mappings.
Common Fixed Theorems Using Random Implicit Iterative Schemesinventy
This document summarizes research on common fixed point theorems using random implicit iterative schemes. It defines random Mann, Ishikawa, and SP iterative schemes. It also defines modified implicit random iterative schemes associated with families of random asymptotically nonexpansive operators. The paper proves the convergence of two random implicit iterative schemes to a random common fixed point. This generalizes previous results and provides new convergence theorems for random operators in Banach spaces.
The EM algorithm is used to find maximum likelihood estimates for problems with latent variables. It works by alternating between an E-step (computing expected values of the latent variables) and an M-step (maximizing the likelihood with respect to the parameters). For mixture of Gaussians, the E-step computes the posterior probabilities that each data point belongs to each component. The M-step then updates the mixture weights, means, and covariances by taking weighted averages/sums of the data using these posteriors.
On Zα-Open Sets and Decompositions of ContinuityIJERA Editor
In this paper, we introduce and study the notion of Zα-open sets and some properties of this class of sets are investigated. Also, we introduce the class of A *L-sets via Zα-open sets. Further, by using these sets, a new decompositions of continuous functions are presented. (2000) AMS Subject Classifications: 54D10; 54C05; 54C08.
This document contains multiple choice questions related to numerical methods. The questions cover topics like regular falsi method, Newton-Raphson method, numerical integration techniques like trapezoidal rule and Simpson's rule, and numerical differentiation techniques like forward and backward difference formulas. Numerical methods for solving differential equations like Euler's method and Runge-Kutta methods are also addressed.
An Approach For Solving Nonlinear Programming ProblemsMary Montoya
This document presents an approach for solving nonlinear programming problems using measure theory. It begins by transforming a nonlinear programming problem into an optimal control problem by treating the variables as time-varying and integrating the objective and constraint functions. It then solves the optimal control problem using measure theory by representing the control-trajectory pair as a positive Radon measure on the space of trajectories and controls. Finally, it shows that the optimal solution to the transformed optimal control problem provides an approximate optimal solution to the original nonlinear programming problem.
I am Charles S. I am a Design & Analysis of Algorithms Assignments Expert at computernetworkassignmenthelp.com. I hold a Master's in Computer Science from, York University, Canada. I have been helping students with their assignments for the past 15 years. I solve assignments related to the Design & Analysis Of Algorithms.
Visit computernetworkassignmenthelp.com or email support@computernetworkassignmenthelp.com.
You can also call on +1 678 648 4277 for any assistance with the Design & Analysis Of Algorithms Assignments.
Redundancy in robot manipulators and multi robot systemsSpringer
This document summarizes how variational methods have been used to analyze three classes of snakelike robots: (1) hyper-redundant manipulators guided by backbone curves, (2) flexible steerable needles, and (3) concentric tube continuum robots. For hyper-redundant manipulators, variational methods are used to constrain degrees of freedom and provide redundancy resolution. For steerable needles, they generate optimal open-loop plans and model needle-tissue interactions. For concentric tube robots, they determine equilibrium conformations dictated by elastic mechanics principles. The document reviews these applications and illustrates how variational methods provide a natural analysis tool for various snakelike robots.
This document discusses the existence and uniqueness of renormalized solutions to a nonlinear multivalued elliptic problem with homogeneous Neumann boundary conditions and L1 data. Specifically, it considers the problem β(u) - div a(x, Du) ∋ f in Ω, with a(x, Du).η = 0 on ∂Ω, where f is an L1 function. It provides definitions of renormalized solutions and entropy solutions. The main result is the existence and uniqueness of renormalized solutions to this problem, which is proved using a priori estimates and a compactness argument with doubling of variables.
This document discusses the existence and uniqueness of renormalized solutions to a nonlinear multivalued elliptic problem with homogeneous Neumann boundary conditions and L1 data. Specifically, it considers the problem β(u) - div a(x, Du) ∋ f in Ω, with a(x, Du).η = 0 on ∂Ω. It defines renormalized solutions and entropy solutions for this problem. The main result is that under certain assumptions on the data, there exists a unique renormalized solution to the problem. The proof uses approximate methods, showing existence and uniqueness for a penalized approximation problem, and passing to the limit.
Average Polynomial Time Complexity Of Some NP-Complete ProblemsAudrey Britton
This document discusses the average polynomial time complexity of some NP-complete problems. Specifically:
- It proves that when N(n) = [n^e] for 0 < e < 2, the CLIQUEN(n) problem (finding a clique of size k in a graph with n vertices and at most N(n) edges) is NP-complete, yet can be solved in average and almost everywhere polynomial time.
- It considers the CLIQUE problem under different non-uniform distributions on the input graphs, showing the problem can be solved in average polynomial time for certain values of the distribution parameter p.
- The main result shows that a family of subproblems of CLIQUE that remain
The document discusses solving linear differential equations with variable coefficients using power series representations. It begins by introducing series solution methods and properties of infinite series. It then discusses the Method of Frobenius for solving equations with variable coefficients that arise in cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems. The method involves finding the indicial equation to determine the index c, and then using the recurrence relation to determine the series coefficients an. An example is provided to illustrate the method where the roots of the indicial equation are distinct and not differing by an integer.
The existence of common fixed point theorems of generalized contractive mappi...Alexander Decker
The document presents a common fixed point theorem for a sequence of self maps satisfying a generalized contractive condition in a non-normal cone metric space. It begins with introducing concepts such as cone metric spaces, normal and non-normal cones, and generalized contraction mappings. It then proves the main theorem: if a sequence of self maps {Tn} on a complete cone metric space X satisfies a generalized contractive condition with constants α, β, γ, δ, η, μ ∈ [0,1] such that their sum is less than 1, and x0 ∈ X with xn = Tnxn-1, then the sequence {xn} converges to a unique common fixed point v of the maps
The document discusses key concepts in calculus including:
- Differential calculus examines how quantities change by looking at their rates of change, represented by derivatives.
- Integration is used to determine quantities like material needs or structure weights by calculating the area under a curve.
- Calculus has various applications in fields like engineering, physics, and robotics where quantities change continuously over time.
- The document provides examples of how differential and integral calculus are used in applications such as space travel planning, architecture, and robotics.
Higher-order (F, α, β, ρ, d)-convexity is considered. A multiobjective programming problem (MP) is considered. Mond-Weir and Wolfe type duals are considered for multiobjective programming problem. Duality results are established for multiobjective programming problem under higher-order (F, α, β, ρ, d)- convexity assumptions. The results are also applied for multiobjective fractional programming problem.
On fixed point theorems in fuzzy 2 metric spaces and fuzzy 3-metric spacesAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses fixed point theorems for mappings in fuzzy 2-metric and fuzzy 3-metric spaces.
2) It defines concepts like fuzzy metric spaces, Cauchy sequences, compatible mappings, and proves some fixed point theorems for compatible mappings.
3) The theorems show that under certain contractive conditions on the mappings, there exists a unique common fixed point for the mappings in a complete fuzzy 2-metric or fuzzy 3-metric space.
International journal of engineering and mathematical modelling vol2 no3_2015_2IJEMM
The document presents a mixed finite element approximation for modeling reaction front propagation in porous media. The model couples equations for motion, temperature, and concentration. The semi-discrete problem is formulated using mixed finite element spaces. Existence and uniqueness of the semi-discrete solution is proven. Error estimates show that the temperature, concentration, velocity, and pressure errors converge with order h^σ, where h is the mesh size and σ is the solution regularity. Stability conditions on the time step and parameters are required.
The document discusses using Plücker coordinates to determine if a set of homogeneous polynomials generate the vector space of higher degree polynomials when projected onto a quotient ring. It begins by defining Plücker coordinates and showing that for two quadratic generators, the cubic vector space has zero image if the Plücker quantity P1P3 - P22 is non-zero. It then aims to generalize this to three cubic generators and the quartic vector space.
1) The document discusses the existence of solutions for a nonlinear fractional differential equation with an integral boundary condition. It considers equations defined on the interval [0,T] with values in the space of continuous functions C[0,T].
2) It introduces relevant definitions, lemmas, and theorems for fractional calculus and fixed point theory. It then proves that solutions exist based on the Ascoli-Arzela theorem and Schauder-Tychonoff fixed point theorem.
3) The main result provides an explicit formula for the solution in terms of integrals involving the functions defining the fractional differential equation and the boundary conditions. Existence is established by showing the solution map is a contraction.
This document provides an overview of preliminary topological concepts needed for applied mathematics. It defines topological spaces and metric spaces, and introduces key topological notions like open and closed sets, bases for topologies, convergence of sequences, accumulation points, interior and closure of sets, and dense sets. Metric spaces are shown to induce a natural topological structure, though not all topologies come from a metric. Examples are provided to illustrate various definitions and properties.
Fixed point theorems for four mappings in fuzzy metric space using implicit r...Alexander Decker
This document presents theorems proving the existence and uniqueness of common fixed points for four mappings (A, B, S, T) in a fuzzy metric space using an implicit relation.
It begins with definitions of key concepts like fuzzy metric spaces, Cauchy sequences, completeness, compatibility, and occasionally weak compatibility of mappings.
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Partitioning procedures for solving mixed-variables programming problems
1. Numerische Mathematik 4, 238--252 (1962)
Partitioning procedures for solving mixed-variables
programming problems*
By
J. F. BENDERS**
I. Introduction
In this paper two slightly different procedures are presented for solving
mixed-variables programming problems of the type
max {cr x + [ (y) I A x + F(y) ~ b, x C Rp, y ~ S}, (t .I)
where x C Rp (the p-dimensional Euclidean space), y ~Rq, and S is an arbitrary
subset of Rq. Furthermore, A is an (m, p) matrix, /(y) is a scalar function and
F(y) an m-component vector function both defined on S, and b and c are fixed
vectors in R~ and Rp, respectively.
An example is the mixed-integer programming problem in which certain
variables may assume any value on a given interval, whereas others are re-
stricted to integral values only. In this case S is a set of vectors in Rq with
integral-valued components. Various methods for solving this problem have
been proposed b y BEALE [I], GOMORY[9] and LAND and DOIG [11]. The use
of integer variables, in particular for incorporating in the programming problem
a choice from a set of alternative discrete decisions, has been discussed by
DANTZIG [43 .
Other examples are those in which certain variables occur in a linear and
others in a non-linear fashion in the formulation of the problem (see e.g. GRIFFITH
and STEWART[7~). In such cases /(y) or some of the components of F(y) are
non-linear functions defined on a suitable subset S of Rq.
Obviously, after an arbitrary partitioning of the variables into two mutually
exclusive subsets, any linear programming problem can be considered as being
of type (t .t). This may be advantageous if the structure of the problem indicates
a natural partitioning of the variables. This happens, for instance, if the problem
is actually a combination of a general linear program:ruing and a transportation
problem. Or, if the matrix shows a block structure, the blocks being linked only
b y some columns, to which also many other block structures can easily be
reduced. A method of solution for linear programming problems efficiently
utilizing such block structures, has been designed by DANTZlG and WOLFE [5~.
The basic idea behind the procedures to be described in this report is a
partitioning of the given problem (t.t) into two sub problems; a programming
* Paper presented to the 8th International Meeting of the Institute of Management
Sciences, Brussels, August 23-- 26, t 96t.
** Koninklijke/Shell-Laboratorium, Amsterdam (Shell Internationale Research
Maatschappij N.V.).
2. Solving mixed-variables programming problems 239
problem (which may be linear, non-linear, discrete, etc.) defined on S, and a
linear programming problem defined in Rp. Then, in order to avoid the very
laborious calculation of a complete set of constraints for the feasible region in
the first problem, two multi-step procedures have been designed both leading,
in a finite number of steps, to a set of constraints determining an optimum
solution of problem (t.t). Each step involves the solution of a general program-
ming problem. The two procedures differ only in the way the linear programming
problem is solved.
Earlier versions of these procedures constitute part of the author's doctoral
dissertation [2]. This paper, however, contains a more detailed description of
the computational aspects.
II. Preliminaries
We assume the reader to be familiar with the theory of convex polyhedral
sets and with the computational aspects of solving a linear programming problem
by the simplex method; see e.g. TUCKER [13], GOLDMAN[8] and GASS [6].
Throughout this paper u, v and z denote vectors in Rm; u0, x o and zo are
scalars.
For typographical convenience the partitioned column vectors
(i~ (:t /lxl
, , (z ,
ox and
(:t
0
are written in the form (xo, x, y), (x, y), (x, z0), (x, z) and (u0, u), respectively.
The letter e will always stand for a vector of appropriate dimension with
all components equal to one.
If A is the (m, p) matrix and c the vector in Rp both occurring in the for-
mulation of problem (IA), we will define
(a) the convex polyhedral cone C in Rm+ by 1
C = {(Uo, u) l A r u - - c Uo >= O, u >= O, Uo >= 0}, (2.1)
(b) the convex polyhedral cone Co in R m by
Co=(u]ATu>=O, u~O), (2.2)
(c) the convex polyhedron P (which may be empty) in R~ by
p=(.IA~u_->c, . > o ) . (2.3)
III. A partitioning theorem
Introducing a scalar variable Xo, we write problem (1.t) first in the equi-
valent form
max{xo]Xo--cTx--/(y)<=O, Ax+F(y)<~b, x>--O, yCS}, (3.t)
i.e. (Xo, 2, ~) is an optimum solution of problem (3.t) if and only if ~,o=CTTc+](~)
and (~, :~) is an optimum solution of problem (t.t).
3. 240 J . F . BENDERS:
To any point (u o, u) C C we adjoin the region in Rq+ 1, defined by
((Xo, y)[~0 x0 + : F ( y ) -- ~0 /(Y) ----< b, y ~ S}.
: (3.2)
G will denote the intersection (which may be empty) of all these regions:
G =c,~ y)I ~o Xo+ ~ ( y ) - u 0 / ( y ) = < : ~, y e s } . (3-3)
Since C is a pointed convex polyhedral cone, it is the convex hull of finitely
many extreme hairlines. It follows that there are H points (u~, uh), h = 1. . . . . H
in C so that
G = k<H.{(x0, Y)lU~oXo+ (uh)TF(y) -- U~/(Y)----< ( u h : b, y E S ) .
O (3-4)
Theorem 3.1. (Partitioning theorem for mixed-variables programming
problems).
(1) Problem (1.t) is not feasible if and only if the programming problem
max(xol (Xo,y)C G} (3.5)
is not feasible, i.e if and only if the set G is empty.
(2) Problem (1.t) is feasible without having an optimum solution, if and
only if problem (3.5) is feasible without having an optimum solution.
(3) If (~,~) is an optimum solution of problem (t.t) and ~0----cr~:+/(~),
then (Xo,Y) is an optimum solution of problem (3.5) and ~ is an optimum solution
of the linear programming problem
max{c T x I A x <= b - - F ( y ) , x ~ 0). (3.6)
(4) If (~0,Y) is an optimum solution of problem (3-5), then problem (3.6)
is feasible and the optimum value of the objective function in this problem is
equal to Xo--/(Y)" If ~ is an optimum solution of problem (3.6), then (~,y)
is an optimum solution of problem (1 .t), with optimum value Xo for the objective
function.
Proo/. If x~' is an arbitrary number and y* is an arbitrary point in S, it
follows from the theorem of FARKAS (see TUCKER [13]) that the linear system
A x <= b - - F ( y * )
- : x < _ _ - x*+/(y*), x>=o
is feasible if and only if
u o x~ + u r F ( y *) - - u o / (y*) ~ u T b
for any point (uo, u) C C.
Hence if (x*, x*, y*) is a feasible solution of problem (3./), (x*, y*) is a feasible
solution of problem (3-5)- Conversely, if (x*, y*) is a feasible solution of problem
(3-5), there is a vector x* ERp so that (x*, x*, y*) is a feasible solution of problem
(3A). Since the problems (tA) and (3.t) are equivalent, this proves items (t)
and (2) of theorem 3.1. Moreover it follows that if (~, ~) is an optimum solution
of problem (t.1) and ~ o = c T ~ + / ( ~ ) , then (xo,y) is an optimum solution of
problem (3.5). Finally, if (xo, Y) is an optimum solution of problem (3.5), there
is a vector ~CRp, so that (Xo,x,Y) is an optimum solution of problem (3A)-
4. Solving mixed-variables programming problems 241
Then 2 0-- c r Y + / (~) and since cT x -k [ (y) ~ "~0 for any feasible solution (x, 37) of
problem (1.I) (~ fixed!) it follows that ~ is an optimum solution of problem
(3.6). This completes the proof of theorem 3.t.
The partitioning theorem does not require any further specification of the
subset S and of the functions /(y) and F(y) defined on S. In actual practice,
however, S, [(y) and F(y) must have such properties that problem (3.5) can
be solved by existing methods, in other words, we must be able to detect whether
this problem is not feasible or feasible without having an optimum solution,
or we must be able to find an optimum solution if one exists (for special cases,
see section 6). If these assumptions are satisfied, theorem 3.t asserts that problem
(t.1) can be solved by a two-step procedure. The first step involves the solution
of problem (3.5), leading to the conclusion that problem (1.1) is not feasible,
or that it is feasible without having an optimum solution, or to the optimum
value of the objective function in problem (1.1) and to an optimum vector
in S. In the latter case a second step is required for calculating an optimum
vector ~ in Rp, which is obtained b y solving the linear programming problem (3.6).
The solution of problem (3.5) must be considered in more detail. For, even
if a procedure is available for solving problems of this type, a direct solution
of problem (3.5) would require the calculation in advance of a complete set of
constraints, determining the set G. According to (3.4) this could be done b y
calculating all extreme half lines of the convex polyhedral cone C, but this is
practically impossible because of the enormous calculating effort required. How-
ever, since we are interested in an optimum solution of problem (3.5) rather
than in the set G itself, it would suffice to calculate only those constraints of
G which determine an optimum solution. In the next section we will derive
an efficient procedure for calculating such constraints.
IV. A computational procedure for solving mixed-variables
p r o g r a m m i n g problems
In this section we assume that the set S is closed and bounded, and that
](y) and the components of F(y) are continuous functions on a subset S of Rq
containing S. These assumptions are satisfied in most applications and they
rule out complications caused b y feasible programming problems which have
no solution. It m a y happen that S is not bounded explicitly in the formulation
of problem (1.1). In that case we can add bounds for the components of the
vector y which are so large that either it is known beforehand that there is an
optimum solution satisfying these bounds or that components of y exceeding
these bounds have no realistic interpretation.
L e m m a 4.1. If problem (3.5) is feasible and S is bounded, then x 0 has no
upper bound on G if and only if the polyhedron P is empty.
Proo/. By assumption, there is at least one point (z0*, y*)CG. However,
if P is empty, then u 0 = 0 for any point (uo, u) C C. Hence G assumes the form
= Nc0((x0, y) lurF(y) <--_ ~ b, y C S),
u (4.1)
and it follows that (x o, y*)C G for any v~tlue of x o.
Numer. Math. Bd. 4 17
5. 242 J.F. BENDERS:
If P is not empty, there is at least one point (t, ~7)~ C. Hence, for any feasible
solution (x0, y) of problem (3.5) we have, by the assumptions imposed on the
set S and on the functions F(y) and / (y) :
x 0 __<max {gr b -- ~rF(y) + 1 (y)} < o~. (4.2)
yES
Let Q be a non-empty subset of C and let the subset G (Q) of R~+I be defined by:
G(Q) =l,,o,Qeo{(Xo, y)]UoXo+ urF(y) -- uo/(y ) <=urb, yES}. (4.3)
We consider the programming problem
max{xo] (Xo, Y)C G (Q)}. (4.4)
If problem (2 g) is not feasible, then, since G(G(Q), problem (3.5) is not
feasible. On the other hand, if (x0, Y) is an optimum solution of problem (4.4)
we have to answer the question whether (x0, Y) is also an optimum solution
of problem (3.5) and, if not, how a "better" subset Q of C can be obtained.
L e m m a 4.2. If (~o, Y) is an optimum solution of problem (4.4), it is also
an optimum solution of problem (3.5) if and only if
min {(b -- F(y)) r u Iu C P} = ~o -- / (9). (4.5)
Pro@ Since the maximum value of x0 on the set G(Q) is assumed to be
finite, if follows from lemma 4.t that Q contains at least one point (uo, u) for
which Uo> O. Hence the polyhedron P is not empty, i.e. the linear programming
problem
min {(b -- F(y)) r u l u C P} (4.6)
is feasible.
Now we observe first that an optimum solution (xo, Y) of problem (4.4.) is
also an optimum solution of problem (3.5) if and only if (Xo,Y) C G. The necessity
of this condition is obvious. Moreover, since Q ( C , we have
max {Xo[ (xo, y) < G (Q)} -> max {Xol (xo, y) <G}, (4..7)
hence the condition is also sufficient.
By the definition of G, the point (Xo,Y)C G if and only if
(b -- F(p))r u + (-- ~o + 1 (9)) u0 => 0 (4.8)
for any point (uo, u) C C. This happens if and only if
(b - - F ( p ) ) r u > 0 for any uCC o
and
(b --F(~))ru__>~0--/(~) for any u E P ,
i.e. if and only if
min{(b -- F(~)) T r [~g ~ p} => ~0 -- / (9). (4.9)
By the duality theorem for linear programming problems, it follows that
the linear programming problem
max{c T x[ A x =< b -- F(y), x > 0} (4.t0)
6. Solving mixed-variables programming problems 243
has a finite optimum solution ~ for which
c r ~ = min{(b -- F(~)) T u I u ~ P } . (4.t 1)
Since (~,~) is a feasible solution of problem (1.1) it follows from theorem 3.t
and GCG(Q) that
cr ~ + ] (~) ~ max {xo I (x0, Y) ~ G} =< max {x0] (x0, y) C G (Q)} = 20. (4.12)
Finally, it follows from a combination of the relations (4.9), (4.tt) and (4.12)
that the inequality (4.9) can be replaced by the equality (4.5). This completes
the proof of lemma 4.2.
If the linear programming problem (4.6) has a finite optimum solution, at
least one of the vertices of the polyhedron P is contained in the set of optimum
solutions. It is well-known that, in this case, the simplex method leads to an
optimum vertex ~ of P.
According to lemma 4.2, if ( b - - F ( ~ ) ) T ~ = ~ o - - / ( ~ ) , we have found an opti-
mum solution (Xo, :Y) of problem (3.5). Furthermore, the simplex method provides
us, at the same time, with an optimum solution ~ of the dual linear programming
problem (4.10) and it follows from theorem 3.1 that (~, ~) is an optimum solution
of problem (1.1).
If
(b -- F(~))r u < x o -- I(Y), (4.t3)
the point (I,~) of C does not belong to Q. In this case we form a new subset
Q* of C by adding the point (l,g) to Q.
If the linear programming problem (4.6) has no finite optimum solution,
the simplex method leads to a vertex ~ of P and to a direction vector ~ of one
of the extreme halflines of Co so that the value of the objective function (b -- F(~)) r u
tends to infinity along the halfline
Moreover we have the inequality
(b - - F(~))T~ < O, (4A4)
from which it follows that the point (0, ~) of C does not belong to Q. In this
case we form a new subset Q* of C by adding the point (o, ~) to Q.
In any case, let (x*, y*) be an optimum solution of the programming problem
max {xo ] (Xo, y) C G (Q*)}. (4.t 5)
Then, in the first case we have
(b -- F (y*) ) r ~ >= x* - - / ( y * ) , (4.t6)
and in the second case
(b -- F(y*)) r V ~ O. (4.t 7)
From this in combination with (4.13) and (4.t4) it follows that
(xo*, y*) =4=(-~o,Y). (4.t8)
t7"
7. 244 J . F . BENDERS:
Furthermore, since Q*)Q, we have G (Q*) (G (Q), hence
x* G T0. (4.t9)
In case the linear programming problem (4.6) has no finite solution, it may
be that the above-mentioned vertex ~ satisfies the inequality (4.13). Then,
both the point (I, ~) and (o, ~) do not belong to Q and the new subset Q* of
C may be obtained by adding both points to O. It is also important to note
that the constrained set G(Q*) is obtained from G(Q) by adding the constraint
Xo+ ~T F(y) -- ](y) ~ ~T b
and/or the constraint
~r F(y ) <=~T b
to the set of constraints determining this set G (Q).
We are now prepared for the derivation of a finite multi-step procedure for
solving mixed-variables programming problems of type (1.t).
Procedure 4.1. The procedure starts from a given finite subset Q0(C.
Initial step. If u0> 0 for at least one point (Uo, u) E Q0, go to the first part
of the iterative step.
If % = 0 for any point (Uo, u)CQ ~ put Xo~ take for y0 an arbitrary
point of G(Q~ and go to the second part of the iterative step.
If G(Q ~ is empty, the procedure terminates: problem (t.1) is not feasible.
Iterative step, first part. If the v-th step has to be performed, solve the
programming problem
max {Xo] (x0, y)C G (Q~)}. (4.20)
If problem (4.20) is not feasible, the procedure terminates: problem (iA)
is not feasible.
If (x~, y') is found to be an optimum solution of problem (4.20), go to the
second part of the iterative step.
Iterative step, second part. Solve the linear programming problem
min{(b - - F ( S ) ) r u l A r u > c, u--> 0}. (4.21)
If problem (4.21) is not feasible, problem (1.t) is either not feasible, or it
has no finite optimum solution. (This situation can only be encountered in the
first iterative step l)
If problem (4.21) has a finite optimum solution u" and
(b -- F(y")) T u" = x~ -- /(y"), (4.22)
the procedure terminates. In this case, if x" is the optimum solution for the
dual problem of problem (4.21), then (x', y') is an optimum solution of problem
(1.t) and x~ is the optimum value of the objective function in this problem.
Then if
(b -- F(y'))T U" < X~o-- /(Y"), (4.23)
form the set
Q,+I = Q, ~ {(1, u')}, (4.24)
replace the step counter v by vq- 1 and repeat the first part of the iterative step.
8. Solving mixed-variables programming problems 245
If the value of the objective function in problem (4.2t) tends to infinity
along the halfline
{ u l u = u ~ + ~ v ~, ~_-->0},
u ~ being a vertex of P and v~ the direction of an extreme halfline of Co, while
(b - - / ( y ' ) ) T u v ~ X~O [(y'),
- (4.25)
form the set
Q'+~ = Q~ ~ {(0, v~)}. (4.26)
However, if (4.25) is not satisfied, i.e. if
(b -- F(yV)) T u ~ < x~ --/(y~), (4.27)
form the set
Q'+~ = Q" ~ {(1, u'), (0, v')}. (4.28)
In either case replace the step counter v by v + I and repeat the first part of the
iterative step.
This procedure terminates, within a finite number of steps, either with the
conclusion that problem (1.1) is not feasible, or that this problem is feasible
without a finite optimum solution, or because an optimum solution of problem
(t.t) has been obtained.
This procedure is finite, since at each step where it does not terminate the
preceding subset Q~ is extended by the direction vector of at least one extreme
halfline of the polyhedral cone C, which does not belong already to Q'. Hence,
within a finite number of steps either the procedure would terminate or a complete
set of constraints determining the set G would have been obtained and by
theorem 3.1 the procedure would stop after the next step.
The termination rules are justified by:
(t) G(Q~)CG in combination with theorem (3.t), item (1): problem (t.t) is
not feasible.
(2) Lemma (4.1) and theorem (3.1), item (2): problem (t.1) has no finite
optimum solution.
(3) Lemma (4.2) and theorem (3.t), item (4): optimum solution for problem
(i .t).
Since
G(Q v) ) G ( Q v+x) ) G ,
the sequence {x~} is non-decreasing and
max{xo](Xo, y) C G ) ~ x ~ f o r a n y v>=O. (4.29)
If problem (4.2t) has an optimum solution u ~, then its dual problem
max {cT x I A x <= b -- F(yV), x >-- O} (4.30)
has an optimum solution xL while
(b - viy'/) = d x (4.3t)
Since (x', y~) is a feasible solution of problem (1.1), it follows from theorem (3.t),
item (3) that
(b -- F ( y ' ) ) r u ' + / ( y ' ) --_ max{xol (xo, y) C G}. (4.32)
9. 246 J.F. BENDERS:
Hence, at the end of each step, we have upper and lower bounds for the maximum
value of x o on the set G, or what is the same, for the maximum value of the
objective function in problem (t.t):
max~(b -- F(yk))r u k + /(y~)} < max {x0 ](Xo, y) C G} ~ x~. (4.33)
k<v "
Here, (b--F(yk))Tuk=--oo if problem (4.2t) in the k-th iterative step has no
finite optimum solution; otherwise it is the optimum value of the objective
function in this problem.
The determination of an initial set Q0 will depend much on the actual problem
to be solved. In any case one may start from the set Q0 containing only the
origin of R,~+I, which always belongs to the cone C. The procedure then starts
with the second part of the iterative step from an arbitrary point y~C S, while
xo is put equal to + oo.
~
V. An alternative version of procedure 4.1
In actual practice it is often more convenient to solve the dual problem
max{cT x l A x<= b --F(y"), x>_ 0} (5.1)
of problem (4.21), rather than this problem itself. In this section an efficient
way is described of obtaining all information for the performance of procedure
4.1 by solving problem (5.t) instead of problem (4.2t)
First we observe that problem (5.1) may not be feasible since problem (4.21)
may have an infinite optimum solution. In order to avoid infeasibility, we
replace the convex polyhedron P by the bounded convex polyhedron
P(M) = {ulATu>= c, e T u ~ M , u~= 0}, (5.2)
the number M being so large that all vertices of the polyhedron P (if not empty)
are contained in the region
{uleTu>=M, u>--0}. (5.3)
Problem (5.t) is then replaced by the problem
max{cTx--MzolAx--zoe<=b--F(y~), xo>-->_O,Zo>=0}, (5.4)
which is always feasible.
If M is sufficiently large (see below), then:
(1) Problem (4.2t) is not feasible if and only if problem (5.4) has an infinite
optimum solution.
(2) If (x', z~) is an optimum solution found for problem (5.4), and z~=0,
then (x', y') is a feasible solution of problem (t.t). For the optimum solution
u ~(M) found at the same time for the dual problem
min{(b -- F(yV))r u[ AT u ~> c, eT u <~_M, u ~ 0} (5.5)
we have the relation
(b -- F(y'))T u'(M) = cr xL (5.6)
Since u~(M) is also a feasible solution of problem (4.2i), it follows from
(5.6) and the duality theorem for linear programming problems that it is also
10. Solving mixed-variables programming problems 247
an o p t i m u m solution of p r o b l e m (4.21). Then, a p p l y i n g l e m m a 4.2 a n d t h e o r e m
3.1 we find t h a t (x ~, y~) is an o p t i m u m solution of p r o b l e m (1.1) if a n d only if
cr x~ + /(y~) = X~o9 (5.7)
If z~ = 0, b u t relation (5.6) is n o t satisfied, or if z~ > 0, we consider t h e o p t i m u m
solution u ~(M) in more detail.
I t is well-known t h a t t h e components of u ~(M) are equal to t h e c o m p o n e n t s
of t h e "d-row" (known also as t h e "z i - ci row", see GASS [61) in t h e o p t i m u m
simplex tableau, corresponding to t h e initial slack variables. I t follows from
the definition of t h e "d-row" t h a t it is a linear form in M, i.e.
d r (M) = d 1,~ + M d 2,~ (5.8)
with d ~ , ~ 0 (otherwise t h e n u m b e r M would be too small, see below).
I t follows t h a t u ~ is also a linear form in M :
u" (M) ----u 1' ~ + M u 2' ~. (5.9)
T h e vectors d 1'~ and d 2'~, hence also the vectors u 1'~ a n d u 2'~ are o b t a i n e d
b y replacing t h e o b j e c t i v e function CTX--Mz o in the o p t i m u m simplex t a b l e a u
b y cTx a n d - - z o, respectively a n d recalculating t h e n t h e "d-row". W e will
refer to d 1'~ a n d d 2'~ as to t h e "M-components" of t h e d-row; similarly u 1'~
and u ~'~ are t h e "M-components" of t h e o p t i m u m solution of t h e d u a l problem.
F o r a n y given o p t i m u m simplex t a b l e a u t h e M - c o m p o n e n t s are i n d e p e n d e n t
of M.
B y v i r t u e of t h e construction of t h e p o l y h e d r o n P(M), a n y v e r t e x of P is
a v e r t e x of P(M). F u r t h e r m o r e , as p r o v e d b y GOLDMAN ([8], corollary I A)
we h a v e t h a t a n y v e r t e x of P(M) is of t h e form
u(M) = ~ + ~ , (5.1o)
where ~ is a v e r t e x of P , ~ is either zero or it is t h e direction vector of an e x t r e m e
halfline of C o a n d ;t is some n o n - n e g a t i v e number. Conversely, if ~ is such a
direction vector, t h e r e is at least one v e r t e x ~ of P so t h a t
u(M) =~-~ M--eTu-
err v (Stl)
is a v e r t e x of P(M).
Hence, the v e r t e x (5.9) of P(M) can be w r i t t e n in the form
u"(M) = u"+ 2~v~ (5.12)
where u ~ is a v e r t e x of P a n d v~ is t h e direction of an e x t r e m e halfline of C 0.
The o n l y p r o b l e m is to calculate u ~ a n d v~ from t h e M - c o m p o n e n t s u 1'~ a n d
u ~'~ of u ~(M).
Obviously
v ~ = u 2'~. (5.13)
If
u2'~=0, then u ~ - : u 1'~, (5.14)
11. 248 J.F. BENDERS:
and, if u2'rq= O, u ~ is that point on the halfline
{ u [ u = u X " + M u ~'~, M>=0} (5.t5)
which also belongs to P and corresponds to the smallest value of M for which
this happens.
It is a well-known property of the "d-row" of the optimum simplex tableau
of problem (5.4) that this is the minimum value Mini~ of M for which d r ( M ) =
d1'r+ Md2'~>=O. Hence
o,o= max{-- d~,~> o~. (5.16)
By the duality theorem we have also the relation
(b - - F ( y V ) ) T u ~' ~-~ c T x" -- Mmin za.
Now we get the following modification of procedure 4.t.
Procedure 5.1. This procedure starts again from a given finite subset Q0 (C.
Moreover a suitable value of M must be known (see below).
Initial step. The same as in procedure 4.1.
Iterative step,/irst part. The same as in procedure 4.t.
Iterative step, second part. Solve the linear programming problem
max{cTx--Mzo{Ax--zoe<=b--F(yr), x>=O, z0>=0 }. (5.t7)
If problem (5.17) has an infinite optimum solution, problem (t.1) is either not
feasible or it has no finite solution. (This situation can only be encountered
during the first iterative step.) If problem (5.17) has a finite optimum solution
(xr, z~) then if z ~ = 0 and cTx~+/(y~)=X~, (Xr, y~) is an optimum solution of
problem (t.1) with x~ equal to the optimum value of the objective function;
if z~--0 but cTx'+](y~)<X~, or if z~>0, determine the M-components d l'r
and d~'r of the "d-row" in the optimum simplex tableau and the M-components
u 1'' and u 2'~ of the optimum solution of the dual problem.
If
u ~'~=0, put u ~ = u l'r and v~ = 0 . (5.18)
If
u 2,~q= o, calculate
d~,~
Mmt~ = max {-- di~7,~I d~'r> 0 } (5.19)
and put
Uv = ul, v _~_ Mmin u s, ,, (5.20)
vv ~ ~2, v. (5.2t)
Then, if cr x" -- MminZ~< x~ -- / (y~), form the set
O r+l = 0 r ~ {(t, r (o, vr)} (5.22)
and if crxr--Mmi, Z~&X~--/(yr), form the set
Q~+I = Q, ~ {(0, v~/}. (5.23)
12. Solving mixed-variables programming problems 249
Finally, replace the step counter v by v + 1 and repeat the first part of the
iterative step.
This procedure terminates in a finite number of steps, with the conclusion
that problem (1 .t) is not feasible or that it is feasible without a finite optimum
solution, or because an optimum solution of problem (!,1) has been obtained.
The inequalities (4.33), expressing upper and lower bounds for the ultimate
optimum value of x 0, now assume the form:
m<a x {-c r x ~ + / ( y k ) l Z k o = O } < = m a x { x o l ( X o , y) q G } < = x ; .
k v
(5.24)
It has been assumed that a suitable value of M, i.e. a value of M so large
that all vertices of P are contained in the region
(.l . -_<M, .__>o},
is known in advance. Such a value certainly exists, but need not to be known
in actual applications. In any case one can start the second part of the iterative
step with M = + oo, which actually means that this part is done in two phases.
In the first phase one maximizes the objective function - - z 0. Then, in the
second phase, the objective function c r x is maximized under the side conditions
that - - z o retains the m a x i m u m value it reached during the first phase.
The procedure m a y be expected to be more efficient, however, if M is not
too large. One can start with any positive value of M. If, for fixed M , an
optimum solution of problem (5.4) is obtained, but some components of d 2'" are
still negative, the value of M must be increased until at least one of the corres-
ponding components of d " becomes negative. Then the simplex calculations are
continued with this new value of M. If one attains an infinite solution, the
components of d ~'~, corresponding to columns with no positive elements in the
actual simplex tableau, must be checked. If all these components are positive,
the value of M must be increased until the corresponding components of d" (M)
become positive and then the simplex calculations are continued. If at least
one of these components of d ~'~ is negative, or equal to zero but the correspond-
ing component of d 1'" is negative, an increase in the value of M does not change
this situation and the conclusion that problem (4.2/) is not feasible is justified.
In this way, in a finite number of simplex iterations a sufficiently large value
of M is obtained.
An important modification of procedure 5.t is obtained if we replace the
upper bound inequality eru<= M in (5.2) b y the vector inequality u <--<_ e . Then
M
problem (5.4) assumes the form
m a x {cr x -- M er zl A x -- z <= b -- F(y~), x >= O, z >= O}, (5.25
i.e. the single variable zo in (5.4) is replaced by the vector z. The justification
of this modification is slightly more complicated than for procedure 5.1 but
easily accomplished. From a computational point of view problem (5.25) is
somewhat more flexible than problem (5.4).
In m a n y applications the system of inequalities
A x + F ( y ) <= b (5.26)
13. 250 J.F. BENDERS:
assumes the form
A 1 x ~ b1 (5.27)
A S x + F2(y) ~ b2,
i.e. the vector y does not occur explicitly in some of the constraints determining
the feasible region in problem (1.t). In this case problem (5.25) may be replaced
conveniently by
max{cT x - - M eT z]Al x~bl, A~x-- z<=b2-- F2(y~), x>=O, z~>0}. (5.28)
This means that an auxiliary variable zi has to be introduced only if the
vector y occurs explicitly in the corresponding inequality of the system (5.26).
Problem (5.28) may be not feasible because the system of inequalities A 1x ~ b1,
x ~ 0 may be not feasible. This will be detected however during the first step
of procedure (5.1). The procedure can then be terminated, since this means
that the original problem (t.1) is not feasible.
VI. Applications
The crucial point in the application of the procedures 4.t and 5.1 to the
solution of actual problems is the existence of efficient procedures for solving
the programming problem (4.20). We will consider in this section several special
cases where this requirement is fulfiled.
(a) If S=Rq (or a convex polyhedron in Rq), F(y)=By, B being an (m, q)
matrix and /(y)=rTy, r=Rq, problem (4.20) becomes a linear programming
problem which can be solved b y the simplex method. Since in each step new
constraints are added to the feasible region of problem (4.20) in the preceding
step, the dual simplex procedure seems to be most suitable. Another possibility
is to apply the primal simplex method to its dual problem. The procedures 4.t
and 5.1 are now special versions of the well-known decomposition procedure
for linear programming problems, developed by DANTZIG and WOLFE [5].
(b) If S=Rq a n d / ( y ) and the components of F(y) are convex and differen-
tiable functions defined on S, problem (4.20) becomes a convex programming
problem that can be solved by well-known methods e.g. by KELLEY'S cutting
plane technique [101, by ROSEN'S gradient projection [12] or by ZOUTENDIJK'S
methods of feasible directions [141 .
(c) If S is the set of all vectors in R e with non-negative integral-valued
components, F(y)= B y, B being an (m, q) matrix a n d / ( y ) =rTy, r CRq, problem
(1.t) is the well-known mixed-integer linear programming problem. Problem
(4.20) now becomes an integer programming problem of a special type. Since
the feasible region in problem (4.20) in the (v+ I)-th step is obtained b y adding
cutting planes to the feasible region in this problem in the v-th step the cutting
plane technique of GOMORY [9J seems to be very suitable for solving the integer
sub-problems.
Of particular importance for applications is the case where S constitutes
the set of vertices of the unit cube, i.e. where the components of the vector y
14. Solving mixed-variables programming problems 251
m a y assume the values zero and one only. For these problems a slight modi-
fication of the combinatorial procedure for solving pure "zero-one" problems,
developed b y BENDERS, CATCHPOLE and I~UIKEN [3] can be applied for solving
problem (4.20). The computational effort for solving pure "zero-one" problems
in this way depends exponentially on the number of integer variables involved,
so that this procedure is only of limited use. From a number of experiments
on a Ferranti Mark I* computer, it has been found that the calculating time
is within reasonable bounds provided the number of "zero-one" variables does
not exceed 30 to 40, for present day computing equipment available. This
requirement is satisfied, however, in m a n y applications.
When evaluating the procedures 4.1 and 5.t for practical purposes one is
interested also in the number of steps required for reaching an optimum solution
and in the calculating time for each separate step. Since useful theoretical
estimates do not yet exist, experiments with actual problems are necessary for
getting pertinent information.
Our experimental work is mainly restricted to the mixed-integer linear
programming problem with all integer variables of the "zero-one" type. In
the small number of test cases considered up to now we have used procedure 5. t,
with problem (5.17) replaced by the more flexible problem (5.25). The integer
sub-problems have been solved exclusively by the above mentioned combina-
torial procedure.
A typical test case involved 29 "continuous" variables, 27 integer variables
and 34 linear constraints. The total number of steps required for reaching an
optimum solution was eleven. The Table shows the upper and lower bounds
for the ultimate optimum value of x 0 obtained in each step. In all our experi-
ments these bounds were very instructive for estimating the "rate of convergence".
The number of steps
required for reaching an Table. Successive upper and lower bounds for the
ultimate optimum value o/ x o
optimum solution was en-
couragingly small in all test U p p e r b o u n d L o w e r b o u n d C cle U p p e r b o u n d L o w e r b o u n d
Cycle Y for x o for x o
f o r Xo for Xo
cases. The calculating time
per step was mainly used 0 +oo --OO 6 183.5o 176.t9
for solving the linear program- 1 233.37 152.58 7 1 8 2 . 9 5 179.45
ming sub-problem. 2 191.37 t 52.58 8 t8o.53 179.45
A reduction of the total 3 190.45 176.19 9 t8o.47 t79.45
4 185.75 176.19 1o 18o.25 179.45
number of steps and hence 5 t84.15 t76.19 11 t79.75 t79.75
of the total calculating time
m a y be obtained by adding more than one or two new constraints per
step to the integer sub-problem (4.20). Procedure 4.t Eor application of the
dual simplex method for solving the problem (5.17) or (5.25) in procedure 5.1]
seems to be most suitable for doing this since, when solving the linear programming
problem (4.2t), at the end of each simplex iteration a basic feasible solution is
available corresponding to an extreme half line of the polyhedral cone C. Hence
at the end of each simplex iteration a constraint for the region G can be calcu-
lated. An efficient way of doing this, while avoiding the addition of redundant
constraints for determining the set G as much as possible, has not yet been
worked out completely.
15. 252 J . F . BENDERS: Solving mixed-variables programming problems
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Koninklijke/Shell-Laboratorium, Amsterdam
Badhuisweg 3
Amsterdam-Noord
(Received February 26, 1962)