Paraphrase the paragraphs in your own words? Transcription miRNA genes are usually
transcribed by RNA polymerase II (Pol II).[50][59] The polymerase often binds to a promoter
found near the DNA sequence, encoding what will become the hairpin loop of the pre-miRNA.
The resulting transcript is capped with a specially modified nucleotide at the 5’ end,
polyadenylated with multiple adenosines (a poly(A) tail),[50][54] and spliced. Animal miRNAs
are initially transcribed as part of one arm of an 80 nucleotide RNA stem-loop that in turn forms
part of a several hundred nucleotide-long miRNA precursor termed a primary miRNA (pri-
miRNA).[50][54] When a stem-loop precursor is found in the 3\' UTR, a transcript may serve as
a pri-miRNA and a mRNA.[54] RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcribes some miRNAs,
especially those with upstream Alu sequences, transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and mammalian wide
interspersed repeat (MWIR) promoter units. [60] Nuclear processing A single pri-miRNA may
contain from one to six miRNA precursors. These hairpin loop structures are composed of about
70 nucleotides each. Each hairpin is flanked by sequences necessary for efficient processing. The
double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) structure of the hairpins in a pri-miRNA is recognized by a
nuclear protein known as DiGeorge Syndrome Critical Region 8 (DGCR8 or \"Pasha\" in
invertebrates), named for its association with DiGeorge Syndrome. DGCR8 associates with the
enzyme Drosha, a protein that cuts RNA, to form the Microprocessor complex.[61][62] In this
complex, DGCR8 orients the catalytic RNase III domain of Drosha to liberate hairpins from pri-
miRNAs by cleaving RNA about eleven nucleotides from the hairpin base (one helical dsRNA
turn into the stem).[63][64] The product resulting has a two-nucleotide overhang at its 3’ end; it
has 3\' hydroxyl and 5\' phosphate groups. It is often termed as a pre-miRNA (precursor-
miRNA). Sequence motifs downstream of the pre-miRNA that are important for efficient
processing have been identified.[65][66][67] Pre-miRNAs that are spliced directly out of introns,
bypassing the Microprocessor complex, are known as \"Mirtrons.\" Originally thought to exist
only in Drosophila and C. elegans, mirtrons have now been found in mammals.[68] As many as
16% of pre-miRNAs may be altered through nuclear RNA editing.[69][70][71] Most commonly,
enzymes known as adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs) catalyze adenosine to
inosine (A to I) transitions. RNA editing can halt nuclear processing (for example, of pri-miR-
142, leading to degradation by the ribonuclease Tudor-SN) and alter downstream processes
including cytoplasmic miRNA processing and target specificity (e.g., by changing the seed
region of miR-376 in the central nervous system).[69] Nuclear export Pre-miRNA hairpins are
exported from the nucleus in a process involving the nucleocytoplasmic shuttler Exportin-5. This
protein, a member of the karyopherin family, recognizes a two-nucleotide overhang left by .
- MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression through base pairing with messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. They are encoded in the genome and are abundant in many human cell types.
- miRNAs play a vital role in genetic regulation and are involved in most biological processes. Aberrant miRNA expression has been implicated in many diseases.
- miRNAs are initially transcribed as long primary transcripts that are processed in the nucleus by the Drosha enzyme into hairpin-shaped precursor miRNAs. These are then exported into the cytoplasm and further processed by the Dicer enzyme into mature miRNAs that can regulate gene expression through pairing with mRNAs.
This document provides information about microRNAs (miRNAs) and their applications. It begins with an introduction to miRNAs, including that they are small noncoding RNA molecules that regulate genes. It then discusses the history of miRNA discovery, including the first two miRNAs discovered: lin-4 and let-7. The document proceeds to explain the biogenesis of miRNAs in detail through multiple steps from transcription to incorporation into the RNA-induced silencing complex. It also discusses applications of miRNAs as biomarkers for various diseases and their role in cancer and diabetes.
Transcription in eukaryotes provides more regulation than in prokaryotes due to the presence of the nucleus. In eukaryotes, transcripts are modified in the nucleus before export to the cytoplasm for translation. RNA interference is an evolutionarily conserved gene regulation mechanism induced by small silencing RNAs in a sequence-specific manner. It involves processing double-stranded RNA into small interfering RNAs or microRNAs that direct gene silencing by RNA-induced silencing complexes. RNA interference plays important roles in post-transcriptional gene regulation, transposon regulation, and antiviral defense.
2016 micro rna in control of gene expression an overview of nuclear functionsAntar
This document summarizes recent research on the nuclear functions of microRNAs (miRNAs). It discusses how miRNAs and miRNA-induced silencing complexes (miRISCs) can shuttle between the cytoplasm and nucleus. While miRNAs primarily regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally in the cytoplasm, growing evidence indicates they also have specific nuclear functions, particularly in transcriptionally controlling gene expression. However, the specific mechanisms by which miRNAs identify and target genes for transcriptional control in the nucleus are still being debated.
This document discusses RNA structure and types. It begins by describing the basic components and functions of RNA, including its role in transcription and as an intermediate molecule in protein synthesis. It then discusses the different forms and structures of RNA, including primary, secondary and tertiary structures. The main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and others like miRNA and siRNA - are then summarized in terms of their roles and characteristics. Applications of RNA interference are also briefly outlined.
MicroRNA and thier role in gene regulationIbad khan
MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. They were first discovered in 1993 and their biogenesis involves two key steps - processing in the nucleus by the Drosha-DGCR8 complex into pre-miRNAs, followed by export to the cytoplasm and further processing by the Dicer enzyme into mature miRNA. The miRNA is then loaded into the RISC complex containing Argonaute proteins and guides it to target mRNAs to repress translation or promote degradation. MicroRNAs play important roles in various cellular functions and diseases by mediating gene silencing through nine different mechanisms.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis. Prokaryotic mRNA is shorter lived than eukaryotic mRNA, undergoes little processing, and translation can begin before transcription is complete. Eukaryotic mRNA is derived from processing of hnRNA precursors, which involves adding a 5' cap, poly-A tail, and splicing out introns. The mRNA carries genetic code as a sequence of codons that are read sequentially to produce proteins based on the universal genetic code.
This document provides an overview of the origins and mechanisms of microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). It discusses how double-stranded RNAs are cut by the enzyme Dicer into short RNA fragments that then base pair with mRNAs to induce degradation or transcriptional silencing. Key players in this RNA interference (RNAi) pathway include Dicer, Argonaute proteins, and the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). The document contrasts siRNAs, which originate from long double-stranded RNA, and miRNAs, which are encoded from single-stranded RNA precursors that form hairpin structures. It examines the processing steps and roles of various proteins in mediating the effects of si
- MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression through base pairing with messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. They are encoded in the genome and are abundant in many human cell types.
- miRNAs play a vital role in genetic regulation and are involved in most biological processes. Aberrant miRNA expression has been implicated in many diseases.
- miRNAs are initially transcribed as long primary transcripts that are processed in the nucleus by the Drosha enzyme into hairpin-shaped precursor miRNAs. These are then exported into the cytoplasm and further processed by the Dicer enzyme into mature miRNAs that can regulate gene expression through pairing with mRNAs.
This document provides information about microRNAs (miRNAs) and their applications. It begins with an introduction to miRNAs, including that they are small noncoding RNA molecules that regulate genes. It then discusses the history of miRNA discovery, including the first two miRNAs discovered: lin-4 and let-7. The document proceeds to explain the biogenesis of miRNAs in detail through multiple steps from transcription to incorporation into the RNA-induced silencing complex. It also discusses applications of miRNAs as biomarkers for various diseases and their role in cancer and diabetes.
Transcription in eukaryotes provides more regulation than in prokaryotes due to the presence of the nucleus. In eukaryotes, transcripts are modified in the nucleus before export to the cytoplasm for translation. RNA interference is an evolutionarily conserved gene regulation mechanism induced by small silencing RNAs in a sequence-specific manner. It involves processing double-stranded RNA into small interfering RNAs or microRNAs that direct gene silencing by RNA-induced silencing complexes. RNA interference plays important roles in post-transcriptional gene regulation, transposon regulation, and antiviral defense.
2016 micro rna in control of gene expression an overview of nuclear functionsAntar
This document summarizes recent research on the nuclear functions of microRNAs (miRNAs). It discusses how miRNAs and miRNA-induced silencing complexes (miRISCs) can shuttle between the cytoplasm and nucleus. While miRNAs primarily regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally in the cytoplasm, growing evidence indicates they also have specific nuclear functions, particularly in transcriptionally controlling gene expression. However, the specific mechanisms by which miRNAs identify and target genes for transcriptional control in the nucleus are still being debated.
This document discusses RNA structure and types. It begins by describing the basic components and functions of RNA, including its role in transcription and as an intermediate molecule in protein synthesis. It then discusses the different forms and structures of RNA, including primary, secondary and tertiary structures. The main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and others like miRNA and siRNA - are then summarized in terms of their roles and characteristics. Applications of RNA interference are also briefly outlined.
MicroRNA and thier role in gene regulationIbad khan
MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. They were first discovered in 1993 and their biogenesis involves two key steps - processing in the nucleus by the Drosha-DGCR8 complex into pre-miRNAs, followed by export to the cytoplasm and further processing by the Dicer enzyme into mature miRNA. The miRNA is then loaded into the RISC complex containing Argonaute proteins and guides it to target mRNAs to repress translation or promote degradation. MicroRNAs play important roles in various cellular functions and diseases by mediating gene silencing through nine different mechanisms.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis. Prokaryotic mRNA is shorter lived than eukaryotic mRNA, undergoes little processing, and translation can begin before transcription is complete. Eukaryotic mRNA is derived from processing of hnRNA precursors, which involves adding a 5' cap, poly-A tail, and splicing out introns. The mRNA carries genetic code as a sequence of codons that are read sequentially to produce proteins based on the universal genetic code.
This document provides an overview of the origins and mechanisms of microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). It discusses how double-stranded RNAs are cut by the enzyme Dicer into short RNA fragments that then base pair with mRNAs to induce degradation or transcriptional silencing. Key players in this RNA interference (RNAi) pathway include Dicer, Argonaute proteins, and the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). The document contrasts siRNAs, which originate from long double-stranded RNA, and miRNAs, which are encoded from single-stranded RNA precursors that form hairpin structures. It examines the processing steps and roles of various proteins in mediating the effects of si
1. Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) by RNA polymerase. This involves three phases - initiation, elongation, and termination.
2. Eukaryotic transcription is more complex than prokaryotic transcription due to multiple RNA polymerases, nucleosomes, separation of transcription and translation, and intron-exon structure of genes.
3. Following transcription, eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing including capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before being translated into protein by ribosomes.
1. The document discusses RNA synthesis and processing, including the different types of RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA), the process of transcription, initiation, elongation, and termination.
2. It also covers RNA processing after transcription, including 5' capping, polyadenylation, splicing, and modifications to tRNA, rRNA and other non-coding RNAs.
3. The clinical applications of understanding RNA synthesis and processing are discussed, such as targets for antibiotics, implications for genetic diseases, and miRNA roles in various human health conditions.
The three main processing steps for eukaryotic messenger RNAs are:
1. Capping at the 5' end, which involves adding a methylated guanosine nucleotide linked by triphosphates rather than a phosphodiester bond.
2. Addition of a poly(A) tail of about 200 adenine nucleotides to the 3' end, which aids in translation and stability.
3. Splicing to remove introns by a spliceosome complex that recognizes splice junction sequences to correctly cut out introns and join exons.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that play important gene regulatory roles. The first miRNA, lin-4, was discovered in C. elegans in 1993. MiRNAs are transcribed and then undergo a multi-step maturation process involving cleavage by Drosha and Dicer enzymes to produce the mature miRNA which is incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) and guides it to target mRNAs. Deregulation of miRNAs has been associated with diseases like chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
RNA and DNA are nucleic acids that differ in their chemical structure and functions. RNA is typically single-stranded and can form hairpin loops, while DNA is double-stranded. There are various types of RNA that serve different cellular roles. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transports amino acids to the ribosome during protein assembly according to the mRNA sequence. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a core component of ribosomes and plays a key role in protein translation.
The document discusses several key concepts in molecular biology including DNA, RNA, transcription, translation, and protein synthesis. It explains that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into proteins. It describes the central dogma of molecular biology and provides more details on processes like transcription, splicing, and translation. It also discusses topics like alternative splicing, RNA editing, and RNA interference.
Non-coding RNA (ncRNA) is a functional RNA molecule that is not translated into a protein. There are several types of ncRNAs including transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and microRNAs. tRNA transfers amino acids to sites of protein synthesis during translation. rRNA forms ribosomes and catalyzes peptide bond formation. ncRNAs are involved in many cellular processes like translation, splicing, and gene regulation. Dysregulation of ncRNAs can cause diseases like cancer.
This document provides an overview of post-transcriptional gene control mechanisms. It discusses processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing. Splicing involves spliceosome complexes containing small nuclear RNAs. The document also covers regulation of alternative splicing and mechanisms of gene repression by microRNAs and short interfering RNAs.
This document provides an overview of post-transcriptional gene control mechanisms. It discusses processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing. Splicing involves spliceosome complexes containing small nuclear RNAs. The document also covers regulation of alternative splicing and mechanisms of gene repression by microRNAs and short interfering RNAs.
miRNA and siRNA and their application in crop improvement is a report submitted to Dr. Arna Das that discusses the history, biosynthesis, and mechanisms of gene silencing by miRNA and siRNA. It notes that miRNA is partially complementary to mRNA and downregulates gene expression, while siRNA is fully complementary and leads to mRNA degradation. The document outlines several applications of miRNA and siRNA in crop improvement, including increasing photosynthesis and yield in rice by modifying plant architecture, reducing lignin in plants, enhancing disease resistance, and prolonging fruit shelf life.
Posttranscriptional modification of RNA involves cleavage of primary transcripts by ribonucleases. Ribosomal RNA of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are generated from long pre-rRNA precursors that are cleaved and trimmed to produce mature rRNA. Transfer RNA precursors are also modified, having introns removed and ends trimmed before bases are modified. Eukaryotic messenger RNA undergoes extensive processing, including 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, splicing of introns, and alternative splicing of exons to produce diverse proteins from genes.
RNA differs from DNA in several key ways. RNA is typically single-stranded, contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose, and contains uracil instead of thymine. There are multiple types of RNA that serve different cellular functions, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries coding information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis. tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosome during protein assembly according to the mRNA codon sequence. rRNA is a core component of ribosomes and facilitates protein translation.
Translation is the process by which the genetic code stored in mRNA is used to synthesize proteins. It occurs on ribosomes using transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to add amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain. There are three sites on the ribosome - the A site binds incoming tRNA, the P site holds tRNA with the polypeptide chain, and the E site releases tRNA. Through the repetitive binding of tRNA to mRNA codons and formation of peptide bonds, proteins specified by the mRNA are assembled from amino acids based on the genetic code.
microRNA/miRNA,Biochemistry-definition,who discovered it and how,types of miRNA,functions of microRNA,processing in nucleus and cytoplasm,applications,RISC
RNA interference is a process where gene expression can be silenced by small RNA molecules like microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Both miRNAs and siRNAs are formed from larger precursor molecules that are cleaved by the enzyme Dicer. The mature RNAs are then incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) which uses the RNA to identify and degrade or silence messenger RNAs (mRNAs) with complementary base sequences, thereby preventing translation and gene expression. While siRNAs induce cleavage of specific mRNA targets, miRNAs typically inhibit multiple targets imperfectly by interfering with translation. This gene regulation process was initially discovered in plants and nematodes but also functions endogenously in mammals.
The molecular genetics of gene expression by : CHRISTONE JAY NOVIDACj Novida
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used to produce a functional gene product like a protein. It involves transcription of DNA to mRNA, RNA processing, translation of mRNA to proteins, and post-translational modifications. Transcription is catalyzed by RNA polymerase and involves initiation, promoter clearance, elongation, and termination. Translation follows transcription and uses the genetic code to convert mRNA into a polypeptide chain based on the sequence of codons.
CRISPR is a powerful new tool for genome editing that allows targeted modifications to genes. It utilizes the Cas9 enzyme to cut DNA at a specific site guided by a short RNA molecule. This summary will discuss the history and mechanisms of CRISPR/Cas9 and its applications in biotechnology and agriculture. CRISPR represents a major breakthrough that will revolutionize genetic engineering by enabling precise edits to genomes. However, further refinement is needed to address issues such as off-target effects. Overall, CRISPR technology holds tremendous promise for developing improved crop traits.
This document discusses RNA interference (RNAi) mediated gene silencing in plants. It describes how small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) are central to RNAi and can direct the degradation of messenger RNA (mRNA) to decrease gene expression. The document outlines the key stages of the RNAi mechanism and roles of proteins involved like Dicer and RISC complexes. It provides examples of how RNAi has been used to increase crop traits like shelf life, virus resistance, and fruit development.
RNA is a single-stranded polymer composed of ribonucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds. It contains the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil and the sugar ribose. There are three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA) which transfers genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms the structural scaffold of ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA) which delivers amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and contains a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail which aid in its stability and transport. tRNA folds into a cloverleaf structure and carries amino acids to the ribosome
In ferns, some leaves are “fertile” in that they bear sporangia. Wha.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
In ferns, some leaves are “fertile” in that they bear sporangia. What are the analogous structures
to such fertile fronds in angiosperms? (Select all that apply.)carpelspetalsstamenssepalsIn ferns,
some leaves are “fertile” in that they bear sporangia. What are the analogous structures to such
fertile fronds in angiosperms? (Select all that apply.)carpelspetalsstamenssepals
Solution
c). Stamens
d). Sepals
The fertile leaves in ferns bearing sporangia are the analogous to the stamens and sepals of the
angiosperms. In the flower structure, the third whorl contains the male parts that contain the
pollen grains, these are called stamens..
Identify all of the following that are computer hardware. All others .pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Identify all of the following that are computer hardware. All others are computer software. web
browser memory printer operating system mpl.cpp monitor central processing unit editor
compiler disk drive
Solution
Answer:
Computer hardwares:
1. Memory
2. Printer
3. Monitor
4. Central Processing Unit
5. Disk Drive
Compter Softwares:
1. compiler
2. editor
3. mp1.cpp
4. operating system
5. web browser.
More Related Content
Similar to Paraphrase the paragraphs in your own words Transcription miRNA gen.pdf
1. Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) by RNA polymerase. This involves three phases - initiation, elongation, and termination.
2. Eukaryotic transcription is more complex than prokaryotic transcription due to multiple RNA polymerases, nucleosomes, separation of transcription and translation, and intron-exon structure of genes.
3. Following transcription, eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing including capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before being translated into protein by ribosomes.
1. The document discusses RNA synthesis and processing, including the different types of RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA), the process of transcription, initiation, elongation, and termination.
2. It also covers RNA processing after transcription, including 5' capping, polyadenylation, splicing, and modifications to tRNA, rRNA and other non-coding RNAs.
3. The clinical applications of understanding RNA synthesis and processing are discussed, such as targets for antibiotics, implications for genetic diseases, and miRNA roles in various human health conditions.
The three main processing steps for eukaryotic messenger RNAs are:
1. Capping at the 5' end, which involves adding a methylated guanosine nucleotide linked by triphosphates rather than a phosphodiester bond.
2. Addition of a poly(A) tail of about 200 adenine nucleotides to the 3' end, which aids in translation and stability.
3. Splicing to remove introns by a spliceosome complex that recognizes splice junction sequences to correctly cut out introns and join exons.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that play important gene regulatory roles. The first miRNA, lin-4, was discovered in C. elegans in 1993. MiRNAs are transcribed and then undergo a multi-step maturation process involving cleavage by Drosha and Dicer enzymes to produce the mature miRNA which is incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) and guides it to target mRNAs. Deregulation of miRNAs has been associated with diseases like chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
RNA and DNA are nucleic acids that differ in their chemical structure and functions. RNA is typically single-stranded and can form hairpin loops, while DNA is double-stranded. There are various types of RNA that serve different cellular roles. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transports amino acids to the ribosome during protein assembly according to the mRNA sequence. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a core component of ribosomes and plays a key role in protein translation.
The document discusses several key concepts in molecular biology including DNA, RNA, transcription, translation, and protein synthesis. It explains that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into proteins. It describes the central dogma of molecular biology and provides more details on processes like transcription, splicing, and translation. It also discusses topics like alternative splicing, RNA editing, and RNA interference.
Non-coding RNA (ncRNA) is a functional RNA molecule that is not translated into a protein. There are several types of ncRNAs including transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and microRNAs. tRNA transfers amino acids to sites of protein synthesis during translation. rRNA forms ribosomes and catalyzes peptide bond formation. ncRNAs are involved in many cellular processes like translation, splicing, and gene regulation. Dysregulation of ncRNAs can cause diseases like cancer.
This document provides an overview of post-transcriptional gene control mechanisms. It discusses processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing. Splicing involves spliceosome complexes containing small nuclear RNAs. The document also covers regulation of alternative splicing and mechanisms of gene repression by microRNAs and short interfering RNAs.
This document provides an overview of post-transcriptional gene control mechanisms. It discusses processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing. Splicing involves spliceosome complexes containing small nuclear RNAs. The document also covers regulation of alternative splicing and mechanisms of gene repression by microRNAs and short interfering RNAs.
miRNA and siRNA and their application in crop improvement is a report submitted to Dr. Arna Das that discusses the history, biosynthesis, and mechanisms of gene silencing by miRNA and siRNA. It notes that miRNA is partially complementary to mRNA and downregulates gene expression, while siRNA is fully complementary and leads to mRNA degradation. The document outlines several applications of miRNA and siRNA in crop improvement, including increasing photosynthesis and yield in rice by modifying plant architecture, reducing lignin in plants, enhancing disease resistance, and prolonging fruit shelf life.
Posttranscriptional modification of RNA involves cleavage of primary transcripts by ribonucleases. Ribosomal RNA of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are generated from long pre-rRNA precursors that are cleaved and trimmed to produce mature rRNA. Transfer RNA precursors are also modified, having introns removed and ends trimmed before bases are modified. Eukaryotic messenger RNA undergoes extensive processing, including 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, splicing of introns, and alternative splicing of exons to produce diverse proteins from genes.
RNA differs from DNA in several key ways. RNA is typically single-stranded, contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose, and contains uracil instead of thymine. There are multiple types of RNA that serve different cellular functions, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries coding information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis. tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosome during protein assembly according to the mRNA codon sequence. rRNA is a core component of ribosomes and facilitates protein translation.
Translation is the process by which the genetic code stored in mRNA is used to synthesize proteins. It occurs on ribosomes using transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to add amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain. There are three sites on the ribosome - the A site binds incoming tRNA, the P site holds tRNA with the polypeptide chain, and the E site releases tRNA. Through the repetitive binding of tRNA to mRNA codons and formation of peptide bonds, proteins specified by the mRNA are assembled from amino acids based on the genetic code.
microRNA/miRNA,Biochemistry-definition,who discovered it and how,types of miRNA,functions of microRNA,processing in nucleus and cytoplasm,applications,RISC
RNA interference is a process where gene expression can be silenced by small RNA molecules like microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Both miRNAs and siRNAs are formed from larger precursor molecules that are cleaved by the enzyme Dicer. The mature RNAs are then incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) which uses the RNA to identify and degrade or silence messenger RNAs (mRNAs) with complementary base sequences, thereby preventing translation and gene expression. While siRNAs induce cleavage of specific mRNA targets, miRNAs typically inhibit multiple targets imperfectly by interfering with translation. This gene regulation process was initially discovered in plants and nematodes but also functions endogenously in mammals.
The molecular genetics of gene expression by : CHRISTONE JAY NOVIDACj Novida
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used to produce a functional gene product like a protein. It involves transcription of DNA to mRNA, RNA processing, translation of mRNA to proteins, and post-translational modifications. Transcription is catalyzed by RNA polymerase and involves initiation, promoter clearance, elongation, and termination. Translation follows transcription and uses the genetic code to convert mRNA into a polypeptide chain based on the sequence of codons.
CRISPR is a powerful new tool for genome editing that allows targeted modifications to genes. It utilizes the Cas9 enzyme to cut DNA at a specific site guided by a short RNA molecule. This summary will discuss the history and mechanisms of CRISPR/Cas9 and its applications in biotechnology and agriculture. CRISPR represents a major breakthrough that will revolutionize genetic engineering by enabling precise edits to genomes. However, further refinement is needed to address issues such as off-target effects. Overall, CRISPR technology holds tremendous promise for developing improved crop traits.
This document discusses RNA interference (RNAi) mediated gene silencing in plants. It describes how small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) are central to RNAi and can direct the degradation of messenger RNA (mRNA) to decrease gene expression. The document outlines the key stages of the RNAi mechanism and roles of proteins involved like Dicer and RISC complexes. It provides examples of how RNAi has been used to increase crop traits like shelf life, virus resistance, and fruit development.
RNA is a single-stranded polymer composed of ribonucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds. It contains the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil and the sugar ribose. There are three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA) which transfers genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms the structural scaffold of ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA) which delivers amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and contains a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail which aid in its stability and transport. tRNA folds into a cloverleaf structure and carries amino acids to the ribosome
Similar to Paraphrase the paragraphs in your own words Transcription miRNA gen.pdf (20)
In ferns, some leaves are “fertile” in that they bear sporangia. Wha.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
In ferns, some leaves are “fertile” in that they bear sporangia. What are the analogous structures
to such fertile fronds in angiosperms? (Select all that apply.)carpelspetalsstamenssepalsIn ferns,
some leaves are “fertile” in that they bear sporangia. What are the analogous structures to such
fertile fronds in angiosperms? (Select all that apply.)carpelspetalsstamenssepals
Solution
c). Stamens
d). Sepals
The fertile leaves in ferns bearing sporangia are the analogous to the stamens and sepals of the
angiosperms. In the flower structure, the third whorl contains the male parts that contain the
pollen grains, these are called stamens..
Identify all of the following that are computer hardware. All others .pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Identify all of the following that are computer hardware. All others are computer software. web
browser memory printer operating system mpl.cpp monitor central processing unit editor
compiler disk drive
Solution
Answer:
Computer hardwares:
1. Memory
2. Printer
3. Monitor
4. Central Processing Unit
5. Disk Drive
Compter Softwares:
1. compiler
2. editor
3. mp1.cpp
4. operating system
5. web browser.
i poste it befoure three days until now i did not get the answer, to.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
i poste it befoure three days until now i did not get the answer, today is adu i need the ASAP
Web Article Resource- http://testdog.com/knowhow/Sorting%20Out%20SDLC.html
… This short article, Sorting Out SDLC Terminology, attempts to clarify some of the confusion
surrounding SDLC terminology used today in the field of project management. In several
paragraphs, explain (1) what, if anything, the article helped clarify for you; and (2) what you
might like to explore further based on the information provided ...
the article
http://testdog.com/knowhow/Sorting%20Out%20SDLC.html
Acronym for system development life cycle. SDLC is the process of developing information
systems through investigation, analysis, design, implementation and maintenance. SDLC is also
known asinformation systems development or application development. SDLC is a systems
approach to problem solving and is made up of several phases, each comprised of multiple steps:
The software concept - identifies and defines a need for the new system
A requirements analysis - analyzes the information needs of the end users
The architectural design - creates a blueprint for the design with the necessary specifications for
the hardware, software, people and data resources
Coding and debugging - creates and programs the final system
System testing - evaluates the system\'s actual functionality in relation to expected or intended
functionality.
Sorting Out SDLC Terminology
We’ve probably all seen the job postings with a “required skills” line item that reads something
like the following:
Must be expert in a variety of software development methodologies including SDLC, RUP, XP,
PMP, Agile, Waterfall, Spiral, SEI, PMI, CMMI, PIMBOC, and Scrum.
To which, you might reply, “What are they talking about?”
Clearly, there are people in HR and recruiting (and I know some in development) who are
confused about software development methodologies, their names, acronyms, meanings, and
relationships to one another. Let’s try to sort this out a bit.
Untangling the terminology
To begin, many of the terms listed above are not SDLCs. The term SDLC is an acronym that
stands for Software Development Life Cycle (as well as System Design Life Cycle, System
Development Life Cycle and Synchronous Data Link Control). SDLC is used as a generic
umbrella term for any number of software development methodologies.
SDLC by itself is not a methodology. When the term SDLC shows up in a list of methodologies,
it is a clear indicator that the person who wrote this is confused about what it really means.
The internet American Heritage dictionary gives us the following definition for methodology:
-A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline or engage in
an inquiry; a set of working methods: the methodology of genetic studies; a poll marred by faulty
methodology.
Some of the SDLCs listed above do not claim to be methodologies. To be more accurate, an
SDLC is anapproach to managing a software deve.
Give the inputs I_o to I_3 so that a 4-to-1 MUX will implement the fo.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Give the inputs I_o to I_3 so that a 4-to-1 MUX will implement the following function when
connecting A and C to S_1 and S_0 respectively. (Don\'t put any spaces in your answers.) F(A,
B, C, D) = S(1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 12) I_0 = I_1 = I_2 = I_3 =
Solution
I0can take values 0001 or 0101
I1 can take values 0010 or 0011 or 0110
I2can take values 1000 or 1100
I3 has no value.
Endocrine glands will... a. Produce their products through the holoc.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Endocrine glands will... a. Produce their products through the holocrine method b. Open into a
body cavity c. Expel their contents through apoptosis d. Expel their products directly into the
blood stream One distinct characteristic of muscle tissue is that it... a. Gets shorter b. Gets
longer c. Swells up d. Transmits signals Sweat glands are a type of what? a. Holocrine
exocrine glands b. Merocrine exocrine glands c. Apocrine endocrine glands d. Eccrine
endocrine glands What is the function of connective tissue? a. Protection b. Absorption c.
Support d. Contraction Which of the following is not connective tissue? a. Blood b. Fat c.
Bone d. All the above are connective tissue What it the matrix of connective tissue? a. It is the
network of fibers that help support connective tissue b. it is the living cells that support the
connective tissue c. It is the non-living substance in which fibers and cells live d. A & C e. A &
B Which of the following
Solution
7. Endocrine glands will produce their product through Holocrine method. it involves the death
of the cell and the content of the cell become secretory product. example- sebaceous gland act by
this.
as endocrine gland lack ducts the produt is released across cell membrane into interstitial space.
8. one distinct characteristic of muscle tissue is that gets shorter. when muscle tissue contracts
and become shorter and thicker this cause movement.
9. sweat glands are a type of exocrine gland. it is of two types-
a. Eccrine- it is found all over the body , its function is mainly cooling the body.
b.Apocrine- it is mainly found inaxillae, nipple of breast, perianal area. in the junction of dermis
and subcutaneous fat it is formed by coiled secretory portion.
10. the function of connective tissue is support. example- in haematopoetic and lymphatic tissue
reticular fiber provides support..
describe how the composition of the population changed Solution.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
describe how the composition of the population changed ?
Solution
The major reason for population changes, whether in an individual country or for the whole
world, is the change in birth and death rates. The birth rate is the number of live babies born in a
year for every 1000 people in the total population. Death rates are number of people dying per
1000 people. When birth rates are higher than death rates the population of an area will increase.
migration are the number of people migrate from one country or society to the other. BIRTH
RATE: when babies are born, it results in a population change, The fertility rate in a country
refers simply to the number of children born. This is different from the fecundity rate, which is
the number of children who could be born in a given society. In other words, fecundity is the
biological capacity of humans to produce children.The fecundity rate is greater than the fertility
rate in most cases. Birth rates vary by society for a number of reasons, including personal choice
and social and political factors. Factors such as poverty level, access to contraception, maternal
and infant care, and availability of nutrition all impact the birth rate in a society. DEATH RATE:
As the growth rates increases the death rate also increases. when babies are born, when members
of a society die it changes the population. butthis is refered as the mortality rate, which is simply
the number of deaths that occur in a society. This is usually calculated by looking at the number
of deaths per 1,000 individuals. In the United States, for example, the death rate is 8/1000
people. Just like birth rate, the death rate in a country depends on things such as availability of
quality medical care, disease, war, or famine. MORTALITY: The most important factor that
accounts for a change in population is migration. Generally migration refers to movement; it\'s
the flow or circulation of people in societies. There are two kinds of migration: emigration and
immigration. Emigration means to leave one\'s own country for another. Immigration means to
enter into a country other than one\'s own. Both of these process impact population change. The
composition also depends upon age structure. Age structure varies according to age distribution
of an individual, therefore the population size is expected to double or even triple before
stabilizing for many developing countries with fairly large populations and large numbers of
people under age 15..
could you please write reading review aboutDewey, The Quest for C.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
could you please write reading review about
*Dewey, The Quest for Certainty, Ch. 1
Veblen, \"Why is Economics Not an Evolutionary Science\"
consisting 500 words, my homework due is today at 10:00 p.m.
Solution
\"Why is Economics Not an Evolutionary Science\" was written in1898. According to veblin the
only rational approach is to assume economies evolve because he argued that we can describe
the economy and have not any effective theory of change and development. Veblen classes the
assumption that that economies ‘normally’ tend towards equilibrium—as no more rational that
the spiritually-based notion that there is a final cause or teleological pull towards some natural
outcome due to natural law; that is, “a preconception regarding the ends to which, in the nature
of things, all things tend (P.392) .Veblen is insistent, however, that we cannot understand
economics without paying attention to human learning.Veblen does not see evolution as
something that happens primarily to individuals but as a collective change to societies, and
collections of institutions.According to him evolution is a dispassionate cumulative
causation..Most of the people including me likes this paper because it reminds us that most of
what we think has been thought before, just not acted upon; because it seems to sow the seeds for
much of what followed in terms of complexity and evolutionary economics.Veblen in his paper
has sheer command of language and he touches on most of the challenges that economist ever
since have raised about.
Consider the following binary tree shown below.List the nodes of t.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Consider the following binary tree shown below.
List the nodes of this binary tree in an in-Order sequence.
List the nodes of this binary tree in a Pre-order sequence.
List the nodes of this binary tree in a Post-order sequence.
Solution
Pre order- A B C D E F G order is( center - left - right)
In order - D C B E A F G order is (left - center - right )
Post - order : D C E B G F A order is (left - right - center ).
Capture-Recapture The bear population in a certain wildlife reserve.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Capture-Recapture: The bear population in a certain wildlife reserve was estimated as follows:
35 bears were captured, tagged and released. After some time 50 bears were captured and of
these 22 were found to be tagged. The total bear population N was calculated then from the
equation: 35/n = 22/50 ; yielding N to be approximately 80? mathematically explain how this
works?
Solution.
C++ Briefly explain what is bad, though syntactically correct, about.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
C++ Briefly explain what is bad, though syntactically correct, about the design of the following
code to get input from a user by way of a keyboard. Class CUserInput () {public: CUserInput
(); void AcceptUserlnputFromKeyboard(); starting GetUserlnput() const; private: string
m_sUser;
Solution
1) The code for getting input to be included.
2) If possible it is recommended to get input from the constructor.
3)No need of extra two functions for same functionality..
b. What are the three types of structures formed when amphipathic mo.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
b. What are the three types of structures formed when amphipathic molecules are place in water?
c. Draw the schematic representation of a Micelle and a Bilayer and what is their biological
significance?
Solution
Answer:
The three types of structures formed when amphipathic molecules are place in water are
phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids..
A mother with blood type A has a child with blood type A. Give all p.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
A mother with blood type A has a child with blood type A. Give all possible blood types for the
father of this child.
A.)O
B.)B, AB
C.)A, AB
D.)A, B, O
E.)A, B, AB, O
Solution
Answer is (A).
Because blood group O is recessive alleles where as the remaining groups are codominant hence
even a single copy is sufficient for their expression.
So except A all are not possible..
Assume f has period 2pi. Sketch the graph of f in the interval [-4pi.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Assume f has period 2pi. Sketch the graph of f in the interval [-4pi,4pi].
Is this function an even function? Explain.
Is this function an odd function? Explain
3 3
Solution
let theta theta = t
from the graph y = f(t) = 3 + 2sin(t)
f(-t) = 3 + 2sin(-t) = 3 - 2sint
therefore f(t) not equal to f(-t)
then f(t) is odd function.
1.S. cerevisiae can switch mating types. Which of the following stat.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
1.S. cerevisiae can switch mating types. Which of the following statements correctly summarizes
where the information comes from for it to do this?
Solution
Saccharomyces cerevisiae occurs in two forms, the haploid and diploid. The haploid cells
undergo mitosis, which die under the conditions of higher stress. The preferential form of the
yeast is diploid, which undergoes growth by mitosis.
In cerevisiae, the cells of opposite mating type are present in the same ascus. They are produced
by a single meiosis and mate with each other. Means, the organism can switch mating types. The
mating locus contains two-mating loci in inactive state, which provide the information to replace
the inactive copy at the mating locus with the active copy..
You produce an interference pattern by projecting a blue laser with .pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
You produce an interference pattern by projecting a blue laser with a wavelength of 405 nm
through the double slits you used in the today’s experiment. The lens is placed 51.2 cm from the
screen. What is the distance between two adjacent bright spots? Show all work.
Solution
Let\'s assume separation between the slits is, d = 0.10mm = 10-4 m
Wavelength of light, Lembda = 405 x 10-9 m
Distance of screen, D = 51.2 x 10-2 m
Distance between two adjacent bright spots = D x Lemda / d
= [51.2 x 10-2 x 405 x 10-9 ] / 10-4 = 2.07 mm.
You are working with the file directory of a Windows XP computer fro.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
You are working with the file directory of a Windows XP computer from the command line, and
you use the md command to create a new directory in your My Documents directory. What
command switch can you issue to confirm that the new directory was created?
A. Just use the dir command to view all of the directories and files in the My Documents and
look for the name of directory you just created
B. dir /new
C. dir /bn
D. dir /ad
Solution
D. Using the dir command with the /ad switch will show just directories in the current working
directory, such as My Documents, making it easier to spot the newly created directory. If the list
is very long, you can also add the /p switch to pause and scroll through each screen, such as
dir/ad /p..
You deposit $1,000 in a fund earning 5.75. How long will it take to .pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
You deposit $1,000 in a fund earning 5.75%. How long will it take to double your money?
Solution
Let us suppose that it will take n years to get double. Hence,
1000(1+0.0575)^n=2000
or,log1000+nlog(1.0575)=log2000
or, 3+0.024280n=3.30102
or, n=0.301029/0.024280=12.3
Hence it will take almost 12.3years to get double.
Will’s Widget Company (WWC) incorporated near the end of 2017. Opera.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Will’s Widget Company (WWC) incorporated near the end of 2017. Operations began in January
of 2018. WWC prepares adjusting entries and financial statements at the end of each month.
Balances in the accounts at the end of January are as follows:
Account Title
Dr
Cr
Cash
21,170
Accounts Receivable
12,200
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts
1,750
Inventory (45 units)
3,825
Unearned Revenue (40 units)
5,200
Accounts Payable (Jan Rent)
3,000
Notes Payable
14,500
Contributed Capital
6,700
Retained Earnings – Feb 1, 2012
6,045
Additional Information you need to know about WWC:
•
WWC establishes a policy that it will sell inventory at $165 per unit.
•
In January, WWC received a $5,200 advance for 40 units, as reflected in Unearned Revenue.
•
WWC’s February 1 inventory balance consisted of 45 units at a total cost of $3,825.
•
WWC’s note payable accrues interest at a 12% annual rate.
•
WWC will use the FIFO inventory method and record COGS on a perpetual basis.
Below are transactions for February 2018:
Record Journal Entries for following transactions:
02/01
Included in WWC’s February 1 Accounts Receivable balance is a $1,500 account due from Kit
Kat, a WWC customer. Kit Kat is having cash flow problems and cannot pay its balance at this
time. WWC arranges with Kit Kat to convert the $1,500 balance to a note, and Kit Kat signs a 6-
month note, at 9% annual interest. The principal and all interest will be due and payable to
WWC on August 1, 2012.
02/02
WWC paid a $900 insurance premium covering the month of February. The amount paid is
recorded directly as an expense.
02/05
An additional 150 units of inventory are purchased on account by WWC for $11,250 – terms
2/15, n30.
02/05
WWC paid Federal Express $450 to have the 150 units of inventory delivered overnight.
Delivery occurred on 02/06. (Hint--Recall company uses perpetual inventory system, record
transportation fees as part of inventory costs—debit to inventory)
02/10
Sales of 120 units of inventory occurred during the period of 02/07 – 02/10. The sales terms are
2/10, net 30. (Hint --Recall company follows FIFO. What are the COGS of 120 sold units?)
02/15
The 40 units that were paid for in advance and recorded in January are delivered to the customer.
(Hint --Recall WWC follows FIFO. What are the COGS of 40 sold units?)
02/15
10 units of the inventory that had been sold on 2/10 are returned to WWC. The units are not
damaged and can be resold. Therefore, they are returned to inventory. Assume the units returned
are from the 2/05 purchase.
02/16
WWC pays the first 2 weeks wages to the employees. The total paid is $2,500.
02/17
Paid in full the amount owed for the 2/05 purchase of inventory. WWC records purchase
discounts as a reduction of inventory costs (credit to inventory).
02/18
Wrote off a customer’s account in the amount of $1,850.
02/19
$6,000 of rent for January and February was paid. Because all of the rent will soon expire, the
February portion of the payment is charged directly to expense.
02.
Which of the following would be useful and good sources of surveybou.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Which of the following would be useful and good sources of survey/boundary data? recorded
survey plats assessor maps subdivision plats utility rights-of-way plans highway department
plans deeds title insurance policies
Solution
Answer:- These are useful and good sources of survey/ boundary data:-
(i) Recorded survey maps
(ii) Sub division plats
(iii) Utility right of way plans
(iv) Highway department plans
By help of above we can do survey very easily. By help of above sources of information , we can
do accurate survey..
Which of the following statements is true about the interaction of e.pdfabhinavbhatnagar201
Which of the following statements is true about the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with
matter?
1) Photoelectric absorption involves the interaction of a photon with the nucleus of an atom.
2) Rayleigh scattering involves an inelastic collision of a photon with an outer-shell electron with
negligible binding energy, after which that electron is ejected from the atom.
3) The main phenomena associated with X-ray imaging are Rayleigh scattering at low photon
energies and pair production at high photon energies.
4) The main phenomena associated with X-ray imaging are photoelectric absorption at low
photon energies and Compton scattering at high photon energies.
5)None of these statements are true.
Please explain why.
Solution
1) The statement is true.
The photons with atom particles are by chance, a given photon has a finite probability of passing
completely through the medium it is traversing. The probability that a photon will pass
completely through a medium depends on numerous factors including the photon’s energy and
the medium’s composition and thickness. The more densely packed a medium’s atoms, the more
likely the photon will encounter an atomic particle.
2)False
The photons doest not excite the atom when it interacts with the one or more bounded electrons.
The energy is same at the end of the process, that is energy of photon is equal to the interacting
atom. Therefore, it is elastic scattering.
3)
This statement is true.
Rayliegh scattering involves in deflection of the incoming particle, but not absorption.hence it
occurs for low photon energies. Whereas the pair productionrequires very high energy as the
photon interacts with the electron or nucleaus and forms postiron electron pairs. The photon must
have atleast 1.022 MeV energy to interact.
4)
The statement is false.
As the photoelectric absorption involves in absorption of photons by atoms which have
considerably high energy as discussed in first point.
So statements 1 and 3 are true..
Communicating effectively and consistently with students can help them feel at ease during their learning experience and provide the instructor with a communication trail to track the course's progress. This workshop will take you through constructing an engaging course container to facilitate effective communication.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Paraphrase the paragraphs in your own words Transcription miRNA gen.pdf
1. Paraphrase the paragraphs in your own words? Transcription miRNA genes are usually
transcribed by RNA polymerase II (Pol II).[50][59] The polymerase often binds to a promoter
found near the DNA sequence, encoding what will become the hairpin loop of the pre-miRNA.
The resulting transcript is capped with a specially modified nucleotide at the 5’ end,
polyadenylated with multiple adenosines (a poly(A) tail),[50][54] and spliced. Animal miRNAs
are initially transcribed as part of one arm of an 80 nucleotide RNA stem-loop that in turn forms
part of a several hundred nucleotide-long miRNA precursor termed a primary miRNA (pri-
miRNA).[50][54] When a stem-loop precursor is found in the 3' UTR, a transcript may serve as
a pri-miRNA and a mRNA.[54] RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcribes some miRNAs,
especially those with upstream Alu sequences, transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and mammalian wide
interspersed repeat (MWIR) promoter units. [60] Nuclear processing A single pri-miRNA may
contain from one to six miRNA precursors. These hairpin loop structures are composed of about
70 nucleotides each. Each hairpin is flanked by sequences necessary for efficient processing. The
double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) structure of the hairpins in a pri-miRNA is recognized by a
nuclear protein known as DiGeorge Syndrome Critical Region 8 (DGCR8 or "Pasha" in
invertebrates), named for its association with DiGeorge Syndrome. DGCR8 associates with the
enzyme Drosha, a protein that cuts RNA, to form the Microprocessor complex.[61][62] In this
complex, DGCR8 orients the catalytic RNase III domain of Drosha to liberate hairpins from pri-
miRNAs by cleaving RNA about eleven nucleotides from the hairpin base (one helical dsRNA
turn into the stem).[63][64] The product resulting has a two-nucleotide overhang at its 3’ end; it
has 3' hydroxyl and 5' phosphate groups. It is often termed as a pre-miRNA (precursor-
miRNA). Sequence motifs downstream of the pre-miRNA that are important for efficient
processing have been identified.[65][66][67] Pre-miRNAs that are spliced directly out of introns,
bypassing the Microprocessor complex, are known as "Mirtrons." Originally thought to exist
only in Drosophila and C. elegans, mirtrons have now been found in mammals.[68] As many as
16% of pre-miRNAs may be altered through nuclear RNA editing.[69][70][71] Most commonly,
enzymes known as adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs) catalyze adenosine to
inosine (A to I) transitions. RNA editing can halt nuclear processing (for example, of pri-miR-
142, leading to degradation by the ribonuclease Tudor-SN) and alter downstream processes
including cytoplasmic miRNA processing and target specificity (e.g., by changing the seed
region of miR-376 in the central nervous system).[69] Nuclear export Pre-miRNA hairpins are
exported from the nucleus in a process involving the nucleocytoplasmic shuttler Exportin-5. This
protein, a member of the karyopherin family, recognizes a two-nucleotide overhang left by the
RNase III enzyme Drosha at the 3' end of the pre-miRNA hairpin. Exportin-5-mediated
transport to the cytoplasm is energy-dependent, using GTP bound to the Ran protein.[72]
2. Cytoplasmic processing In the cytoplasm, the pre-miRNA hairpin is cleaved by the RNase III
enzyme Dicer.[73] This endoribonuclease interacts with 5' and 3' ends of the hairpin[74] and
cuts away the loop joining the 3' and 5' arms, yielding an imperfect miRNA:miRNA* duplex
about 22 nucleotides in length.[73] Overall hairpin length and loop size influence the efficiency
of Dicer processing. The imperfect nature of the miRNA:miRNA* pairing also affects
cleavage.[73][75] Some of the G-rich pre-miRNAs can potentially adopt the G-quadruplex
structure as an alternative to the canonical stem-loop structure. For example, human pre-miRNA
92b adopts a G-quadruplex structure which is resistant to the Dicer mediated cleavage in the
cytoplasm.[76] Although either strand of the duplex may potentially act as a functional miRNA,
only one strand is usually incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) where
the miRNA and its mRNA target interact. The mature miRNA is part of an active RNA-induced
silencing complex (RISC) containing Dicer and many associated proteins.[78] RISC is also
known as a microRNA ribonucleoprotein complex (miRNP);[79] RISC with incorporated
miRNA is sometimes referred to as "miRISC." Dicer processing of the pre-miRNA is thought
to be coupled with unwinding of the duplex. Generally, only one strand is incorporated into the
miRISC, selected on the basis of its thermodynamic instability and weaker base-pairing on the 5'
end relative to the other strand.[80][81][82] The position of the stem-loop may also influence
strand choice.[83] The other strand, called the passenger strand due to its lower levels in the
steady state, is denoted with an asterisk (*) and is normally degraded. In some cases, both strands
of the duplex are viable and become functional miRNA that target different mRNA
populations.[84] Members of the Argonaute (Ago) protein family are central to RISC function.
Argonautes are needed for miRNA-induced silencing and contain two conserved RNA binding
domains: a PAZ domain that can bind the single stranded 3’ end of the mature miRNA and a
PIWI domain that structurally resembles ribonuclease-H and functions to interact with the 5’ end
of the guide strand. They bind the mature miRNA and orient it for interaction with a target
mRNA. Some argonautes, for example human Ago2, cleave target transcripts directly;
argonautes may also recruit additional proteins to achieve translational repression.[85] The
human genome encodes eight argonaute proteins divided by sequence similarities into two
families: AGO (with four members present in all mammalian cells and called E1F2C/hAgo in
humans), and PIWI (found in the germ line and hematopoietic stem cells).[79][85] Additional
RISC components include TRBP [human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transactivating
response RNA (TAR) binding protein],[86] PACT (protein activator of the interferon-induced
protein kinase), the SMN complex, fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), Tudor
staphylococcal nuclease-domain-containing protein (Tudor-SN), the putative DNA helicase
MOV10, and the RNA recognition motif containing protein TNRC6B.[72][87][88] Mode of
silencing and regulatory loops Gene silencing may occur either via mRNA degradation or
3. preventing mRNA from being translated. For example, miR16 contains a sequence
complementary to the AU-rich element found in the 3'UTR of many unstable mRNAs, such as
TNF alpha or GM-CSF.[89] It has been demonstrated that given complete complementarity
between the miRNA and target mRNA sequence, Ago2 can cleave the mRNA and lead to direct
mRNA degradation. Absent complementarity, silencing is achieved by preventing
translation.[43] The relation of miRNA and its target mRNA(s) can be based on the simple
negative regulation of a target mRNA, but it seems that a common scenario is the use of a
“coherent feed-forward loop” (Fig. 1C), “mutual negative feedback loop” (also termed double
negative loop) and “positive feedback/feed-forward loop” Some miRNAs work as buffers of
random gene expression changes arising due to stochastic events in transcription, translation and
protein stability. Such regulation is typically achieved by the virtue of negative feedback loops or
incoherent feed-forward loop uncoupling protein output from mRNA transcription.[46] miRNA
turnover Turnover of mature miRNA is needed for rapid changes in miRNA expression profiles.
During miRNA maturation in the cytoplasm, uptake by the Argonaute protein is thought to
stabilize the guide strand, while the opposite (* or "passenger") strand is preferentially
destroyed. In what has been called a "Use it or lose it" strategy, Argonaute may preferentially
retain miRNAs with many targets over miRNAs with few or no targets, leading to degradation of
the non-targeting molecules.[90] Decay of mature miRNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans is
mediated by the 5´-to-3´ exoribonuclease XRN2, also known as Rat1p.[91] In plants, SDN
(small RNA degrading nuclease) family members degrade miRNAs in the opposite (3'-to-5')
direction. Similar enzymes are encoded in animal genomes, but their roles have not been
described.[90] Several miRNA modifications affect miRNA stability. As indicated by work in
the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress), mature plant miRNAs appear to be
stabilized by the addition of methyl moieties at the 3' end. The 2'-O-conjugated methyl groups
block the addition of uracil (U) residues by uridyltransferase enzymes, a modification that may
be associated with miRNA degradation. However, uridylation may also protect some miRNAs;
the consequences of this modification are incompletely understood. Uridylation of some animal
miRNAs has been reported. Both plant and animal miRNAs may be altered by addition of
adenine (A) residues to the 3' end of the miRNA. An extra A added to the end of mammalian
miR-122, a liver-enriched miRNA important in hepatitis C, stabilizes the molecule and plant
miRNAs ending with an adenine residue have slower decay rates.[90] MiRNAs Function The
function of miRNAs appears to be in gene regulation. For that purpose, a miRNA is
complementary to a part of one or more messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Animal miRNAs are
usually complementary to a site in the 3' UTR whereas plant miRNAs are usually
complementary to coding regions of mRNAs.[93] Perfect or near perfect base pairing with the
target RNA promotes cleavage of the RNA.[94] This is the primary mode of plant miRNAs.[95]
4. In animals the match-ups are imperfect. For partially complementary microRNAs to recognise
their targets, nucleotides 2–7 of the miRNA (its 'seed region'[10][20]) must be perfectly
complementary.[96] Animal miRNAs inhibit protein translation of the target mRNA[97] (this is
present but less common in plants).[95] Partially complementary microRNAs can also speed up
deadenylation, causing mRNAs to be degraded sooner.[98] While degradation of miRNA-
targeted mRNA is well documented, whether or not translational repression is accomplished
through mRNA degradation, translational inhibition, or a combination of the two is hotly
debated. Recent work on miR-430 in zebrafish, as well as on bantam-miRNA and miR-9 in
Drosophila cultured cells, shows that translational repression is caused by the disruption of
translation initiation, independent of mRNA deadenylation.[99][100] miRNAs occasionally also
cause histone modification and DNA methylation of promoter sites, which affects the expression
of target genes.[101][102] Nine mechanisms of miRNA action are described and assembled in a
unified mathematical model:[92] • Cap-40S initiation inhibition; • 60S Ribosomal unit joining
inhibition; • Elongation inhibition; • Ribosome drop-off (premature termination); • Co-
translational nascent protein degradation; • Sequestration in P-bodies; • mRNA decay
(destabilisation); • mRNA cleavage; • Transcriptional inhibition through microRNA-mediated
chromatin reorganization followed by gene silencing. It is often impossible to discern these
mechanisms using experimental data about stationary reaction rates. Nevertheless, they are
differentiated in dynamics and have different kinetic signatures.[92] Unlike plant microRNAs,
the animal microRNAs target diverse genes.[20] However, genes involved in functions common
to all cells, such as gene expression, have relatively fewer microRNA target sites and seem to be
under selection to avoid targeting by microRNAs.[103] dsRNA can also activate gene
expression, a mechanism that has been termed "small RNA-induced gene activation" or RNAa.
dsRNAs targeting gene promoters can induce potent transcriptional activation of associated
genes. This was demonstrated in human cells using synthetic dsRNAs termed small activating
RNAs (saRNAs),[104] but has also been demonstrated for endogenous microRNA.[105]
Interactions between microRNAs and complementary sequences on genes and even pseudogenes
that share sequence homology are thought to be a back channel of communication regulating
expression levels between paralogous genes. Given the name "competing endogenous RNAs"
(ceRNAs), these microRNAs bind to "microRNA response elements" on genes and
pseudogenes and may provide another explanation for the persistence of non-coding DNA.[106]
Solution
Discussing about the trascription of miRNA genes.This process is carried out by the help of
RNA poymerase II.As a normal process the polymerase get bound to the promotor region of the
5. DNA sequence and and transcription goes on.As a result of this the transcript has special
sequence of neucleotides at the 5'end and poly A tail in the 3'end.The pri-miRNA which is the
precursor contains hundrerds of nucleotides which are transcibed initially as in animals from an
arm of 80 neucleotides RNA stem loop.When this stem loop is found at 3'end then the precursor
can do or it can act as pri-miRNA and mRNA.Now here comes the chance of RNA polymerase
III.This comes to the field and transcibes MWIR (mammalian wide interspersed repeat promotor
units),t RNAs, some miRNAs espically which have Alu sequencezs in their upstream.During the
nuclear processing we came to know that one pri-miRNA contains atleast 1-6 precusors of
miRNA.The hairpin loop contains 70 neucleotides each.The DiGeorge Syndrome Critical region
8(DGCR8) a nuclear protein is the indication of the hairpin loop oe we can say we can recognise
the sequence in the pri-miRNA of dsRNA.nOW This DGCR8 combines with an enzyme called
as DORSA and form a protein which cuts RNA and forms microprocessor complex.Now this
complex with the help of RNA III cuts RNA at 11 neucleotides from the hairpin base and
releases hairpins from the pri-miRNAs.Now at the 3' end it has 3'hydroxyl and 5'phosphate
group which came from the release of hairpins.It is known as precursor miRNA. Mitrons are the
sequences/pri-miRNAs which are directly spliced from the introns from microprocessor
complex.By the process of nuclear RNA editing 16% of pri-miRNAs.can be altered.Enzymes
known as ADARs can catalyse tansitions.Nuclear processing and downstream processing can be
halted by RNA editing.The enzyme called Exportin-5 an energy dependent protein helps in
transporting pri-miRNAs from nucleus to cytoplasm.Now in cytoplasm the pri-miRNA hairpin
are cleaved by the RNA III dicer. Dicer processing efficeincy is effected by the length and size
of the loop of hairpin.It cuts away the loop and joins 3' and 5' arms.Some pri-miRNAs adopt G-
quaduplex srtucture which is resistant to dicer mechanism.