This document discusses the volcanic exhalative process of mineral deposit formation. The volcanic exhalative process involves the exhalation of sulfide-rich magmas at the Earth's surface, usually under marine conditions. This forms volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits. Black smokers are hydrothermal vents on the sea floor where hot, sulfide-rich fluids emerge and interact with cold seawater, precipitating chimneys and mounds of ore-grade sulfides. Zoning occurs within the chimneys and mounds due to decreasing temperature and changes in mineral deposition. Over time, this process can form economically viable sulfide ore deposits.
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
Minerals are formed by changes in chemical energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. In nature, minerals are formed by crystallisation or precipitation from concentrated solutions. These solutions are called as ore-bearing fluids. Ore-bearing fluids are characterised by high concentration of certain metallic or other elements.
Fluids are the most effective agents for the transport of material in the mantle and the Earth's crust.
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
This is my presentation on the tectonic control of sediments.
It includes the effects of tectonics either direct or indirect on sediments and sedimentation.
Sedimentation along various plate boundaries.
Few examples as evidence from Pakistan (the Siwalik Group) and Argentina (Fiambala Basin)
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
Minerals are formed by changes in chemical energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. In nature, minerals are formed by crystallisation or precipitation from concentrated solutions. These solutions are called as ore-bearing fluids. Ore-bearing fluids are characterised by high concentration of certain metallic or other elements.
Fluids are the most effective agents for the transport of material in the mantle and the Earth's crust.
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
This is my presentation on the tectonic control of sediments.
It includes the effects of tectonics either direct or indirect on sediments and sedimentation.
Sedimentation along various plate boundaries.
Few examples as evidence from Pakistan (the Siwalik Group) and Argentina (Fiambala Basin)
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
Gives a short discussion about ore, terms like precipitation, hydothermal solution and the four different types of hydrothermal ore deposits including vein type, disseminated, massive sulfide, and stratabound deposits. Hope you'll enjoy and understand it!
Faults and Folds Geology Visual Quiz, Earth Science PowerPoint with Answerswww.sciencepowerpoint.com
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Geology Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 6000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 14 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 12 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, 6 PowerPoint review Game, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus within The Geology Topics Unit: -Plate Tectonics, Evidence for Plate Tectonics, Pangea, Energy Waves, Layers of the Earth, Heat Transfer, Types of Crust, Plate Boundaries, Hot Spots, Volcanoes, Positives and Negatives of Volcanoes, Types of Volcanoes, Parts of a Volcano, Magma, Types of Lava, Viscosity, Earthquakes, Faults, Folds, Seismograph, Richter Scale, Seismograph, Tsunami's, Rocks, Minerals, Crystals, Uses of Minerals, Types of Crystals, Physical Properties of Minerals, Rock Cycle, Common Igneous Rocks, Common Sedimentary Rocks, Common Metamorphic Rocks.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Exhumation of Hypogene Mineral DepositsGeoffrey Batt
Brief presentation of a pilot study investigating the application of modern thermochronometric techniques to evaluation of post-mineralisation exhumation of orogenic gold deposits in the Austrakian Yilgarn terrane.
An exploration of the nature and practicalities of studying and developing a career in geoscience. Aimed at senior high school students contemplating their study and career options.
Geology and Mineral Investment Opportunities in South SudanMining On Top
Geology and Mineral Investment Opportunities in South Sudan
Hosted by Dr Andu Ezbon Adde, Under Secretary Mining,
South Sudan
Mining On Top: Africa - London Summit
25-26 Jun 2013 | London
The six minerals amphibole, feldspar, mica, olivine, pyroxene, and quartz are the most common rock-forming minerals and are used as important tools in classifying rocks, particularly igneous rocks. This document provides an overview of the six commonest rock-forming minerals.
HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES; Causes of deposition; Origin of Hydrothermal Fluids (or The Main Sources of Water in Hydrothermal System); The Main Steps in Hydrothermal Processes; Classification of Hydrothermal Deposits; Different Types of Hydrothermal Vein; Different styles of Hydrothermal ore deposits; Orogenic Hydrothermal Ore Deposits; Hypozonal: Orogenic, hydrothermal ore deposits; Epizonal:; Mesozonal
1. ORIGIN OF THE MINERAL
DEPOSITS
VOLCANIC EXHALATIVE PROCESS
Group No 03
2. Ore is solid naturally occurring body metallic ferrous mineral or aggregate with
metallic ferrous mineral more or less mixed with gangue mineral and it should
mine economically extract.
When concerning the processes of formation of ore bodies, it can be subdivided
into two main processes as
1. Primary Processes
2. Secondary Processes
So these processes can be subdivided further more as follows.
Theories of ore formation
Primary Processes Secondary Processes
INTERNAL PROCESSES EXTERNAL PROCESSES
Magmatic Crystallization Mechanical Accumulation
Magmatic segregation Sedimentary Precipitation
Lateral Segregation Residual Process
Hydrothermal Process Secondary ore supergene
Metamorphic Process Enrichment
Volcanic Exhalative process
More than one above processes is responsible in forming of an ore body. Today we
have to discuss about the Volcanic Exhalative (Sedimentary Exhalative) Process.
3. VOLCANIC EXHALATIVE PROCESS(SEDIMENTARY EXHALATIVE
PROCESS
This is exhalations of sulfide rich magmas at the surface, usually under marine
conditions. The deposits form from this process can be known as volcanic
exhalative Deposits. These are group of deposits which are known as exhalities
including massive sulfide ores. These ores frequently shows a spatial relationship
to volcanic rocks. These Volcanic associated types principle constituent is Pyrite
with varying amount of copper, Lead, Zinc & Barite together with other minerals
may be present. For many decades they were concern as epigenetic replacement
hydrothermal ore bodies which, a deposit introduced into the host rocks at some
time after they were deposited .But later they were concern as syngenetic which A
deposit formed at the same time as the rocks in which it occurs.
But all the ores are not spatially related with volcanic rocks .As an example
Sullivan deposit in Canada is sediment hosted and the related similar deposits
coming under this type known Sedex (Sedimentary Exhalative Deposits) which are
conformable and frequently banded. Sedex deposits are a major source of minerals
including copper, silver, gold and tungsten- and the single most important source
of lead and zinc.
The above mentioned submarine Exhalative, sedimentary ore bodies and deposits
can be observed in the process of formation of hydrothermal vents (Black
Smokers) at large number of places along sea floor.
Black smokers are plums of hot and black which black smoke is colored by a high
content of fine grained metallic sulphide particles. Some times they are white
which colored by Ca, Ba & Sulphates .They issue hydrothermal fluid from
chimney like vents which connect the fractures in the sea floor. Chimneys which
less than 6m high and 2m across stand on mound of ore grade sulphides.
4. Black Smoker-Snake Fit Sulfide Deposit Mid Atlantic Ridge at 23 degrees North
The ores with volcanic affiliation show a progression of types. They are
1) CYPRUS TYPE
Associated with basic volcanic
In the form of ophiolites.
Formed at oceanic or black arc spreading ridges
Essentially cupriferous pyrite bodies
Ex- Deposits of Toodos Massif in Cyprus, Ordovician Bay of Island
Complex in New Found.
2) BESSHI TYPE DEPOSITS-
Occurs in successions of mafic volcanic which characterized by thick
gery wack sequences.
Commonlu Zn,Cu deposits.
Ex –Paleozoic sanbagawa dposits in Japan,Ordovicial deposits in
Folldal in Norway.
5. 3) KUROKO TYPE DEPOSITS-
More Flesic volcanic,developed at island arc evolution.
Cu-Zn-Pb ores often carrying gold and silver
Large amount of Barite,Quartz and Gypsum are associated with them.
FORMATION OF CHIMNEYS AND SULFIDE MOUNDS ON SEA FLOOR
Chimneys are started to grow up with the precipitation of anhydrate from cold sea
water around the hot ascending plume. So it forms a porous wall that continuous to
grow upward during the life of the plume. Small amount of hydrothermal fluid
flows through the porous anhydrite wall while large amount is flows up the
chimney, discharge as a plume in to the surrounding sea water.
In this process the hydrothermal fluid meet sea water penetrating the chimney from
the outside which achieve closes conditions similar to normal sea water by,
Become a high temperature( >300 Celsius)
Become acidic (PH=4.5)
Oxidized (H2S >>>SO2)
6. Because of anhydrate chimney grows upward the wall of lower part thicken by
precipitation of sulphides in the interior portion, anhydrite on the out side. This
process leads to a concentric zoning which,
On the inside with Chalcopyrite
Intermediate zone of Pyrite ,Sphalerite ,Wurzite and anhydrite
Outer zone of anhydrite with minor sulphide, amorphous silica, barite.
This zoning occurs mainly because of temperature decreases across the wall than
the other factors. The growing chimneys (8-30 cm a day), become unstable &
Collapse with forming a mound of chimney debris mixed. This mound is grows
both by accumulation of chimney debris on its upper surface and by precipitation
of sulphides within the mound.
The covering of chimney debris performs the same role as the vertical porous
anhydrite chimney walls producing sulphide and silica precipitation in the outer
part of the mound. This decreases the permeability of the mound .It forms a crust
that constrains fluid escape and leads to considerable circulation of high
temperature solutions within the mound. The isotherms within the mound then rise.
It leads to the replacement of lower temperature mineral assemblages by higher
temperature ones, thus producing a similar zoning to that in the chimneys .Because
of that of volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits found on land.
This is how the black smokers are formed. A most surprising feature of modem
submarine hydrothermal vents is, it associated prolific biota and their food chain
based on chemosynthetic bacteria.
There is a model which indicates the formation of volcanic-associated massive
sulphide deposits.
Volcanic Associated Massive Sulfide Deposits
Volcanic-associated massive sulphide (VMS) deposits may have the mound shape
of modem massive sulphide deposits or they may be bowl shaped. The latter type
probably developed when hydrothermal solutions, more saline (denser) than the
surrounding sea water, vented into a submarine depression. Many Cyprus-type
deposits appear to have developed in this way.
7. Stages of VMS development
At the First stage,
Fine-grained sphalerite, galena, pyrite, tetrahedrite, baryte with minor chalcopyrite
are precipitated by the mixing of relatively cool (~200'C) hydrothermal solutions
with cold sea water.
Then the second stage,
Recrystallization and grain growth of these minerals at the base of the evolving
mound by hotter (~250'C) solutions, together with deposition of more sphalerite,
etc.
At third stage,
Influx of hotter (~300'C) copper-rich solutions which replace the earlier deposited
minerals with chalcopyrite in the lower part of the deposit (yellow ore).
Redeposition of these replaced minerals at a higher level.
8. In stage four,
Dissolving of Still hotter, copper unsaturated solutions with some chalcopyrite to
form pyrite-rich bases in the deposits.
At the last stage,
Deposition of chert-hematite exhalites above and around the sulphide deposit.
Similar exhalities will also have formed during previous stages.
VMS FLUID CIRCULATION
This is the diagram showing how sea water circulation through oceanic crust might
give rise to the formation of an exhalative volcanic-associated massive sulphide
deposit.
Sketch of development of massive sulfide deposits on the sea floor
(a) A ponded hydrothermal solution whose density is greater than that of the
surrounding sea water collects in a depression to form a bowl-shaped deposit.
(b) A solution less dense than sea water forms a sulphide mound and rises
buoyantly above it to form a hydrothermal plume. From this, oxide and
sulphide pal1icles and silica rain down on the surrounding rocks to deposit
9. ferromanganese oxide rocks, cherts with or without pyrite and other
hydrothermal sedimentilry ilccumuliltions thilt ilre cill1ed exhalites.
DISTRIBUTION & EXAMPLES
1. Base metal deposits of Meggen, Germany
2. Sullivan, Canada
Sullivan Mine, Cominco World's Largest Underground Lead Zinc Mine
3. Mt Isa,Australia
10. 4. Rio Tinto, Spain
5. Kuroku Deposits of Japan
6. Black smoker deposits of modern ocean
12. REFERENCES
1) An Introduction to Economic Geology and Its Environmental Impact, Anthony
M. Evans,Blackwell Publishing,1997
2) http://www.geol-amu.org/notes/b3-3-2.html
3)almed.edu.co/rrodriguez/Earth%20Resources/Black%20Smokers.html
4) Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals and Introduction, Anthony M.
Evans,Blackwell Publishing,3rd edition
Group Members
K.K.A.D.Kumar UWU/MRT/13/0018
A.M.I.U.Kumara UWU/MRT/13/0019
M.M.T.D.M.Kumari UWU/MRT/13/0020
S.Y.Mahagodage UWU/MRT/13/0021
M.D.R.M.Manathunge UWU/MRT/13/0022
M.M.T.I.Megasooriya UWU/MRT/13/0023
R.P.M.Mohotty UWU/MRT/13/0024
K.A.N.S.Pramula UWU/MRT/13/0025