Sustainable Selection of Material and Assembly (SMA) constitutes a importants strategy in building design and
construction. Current sustainable SMA methods fail to provide adequate solutions for finding the optimum
improvement strategies and choosing the best alternative in a decision environment. To assist the decision-making
process, this study suggests the Multi objective Optimization (MO) approach utilization. However, process
improvements cannot be based only on environmental considerations, other factors like socio-economic must be
also being considered in parallel. As well, the study indicates that MO coupled with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
provides a tool for balancing process environmental and economic performance. The value of this approach in
environmental process analysis rests in providing an optimal option for process improvements which may be
optimal and suitable for a particular situation. A decision-aid tool – optimum Life Cycle Assessment Performance
(OLCAP) – is recommended. OLCAP is tested and demonstrated by application to case studies of an existing
traditional construction method and contemporary construction method of low cost housing projects. The MO
value in process analysis lies in allowing for an alternative option for process betterments, therefore able the
selection of the Best Available Technique not Entailing Excessive Cost (BATEEC) and Best Practicable
Environmental Option (BPEO).
The judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize
costs) and enhance competitive positions”
The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to reduce energy requirements per unit of output while holding constant or reducing total costs of producing the output from these systems”
Analysis of energy efficiency aspects in energy man agement model of bunse in...eSAT Journals
Abstract Correct energy management and its efficiency have been emphasized in industrial and manufacturing firms’ policy makings for different reasons. Different studies focus on available potentials of these firms in the field of their energy efficiency. From among them just the fewest numbers of manufacturing enterprises could exploit them. Therefore the researcher intends to study some aspects of energy management model of Bunse in manufacture. Also by finding the differences and gaps between theories and available circumstance of the industry, this study encourages the Mobarakeh Steel Complex to execute energy efficiency management correctly. The results of the statistical analysis show that although there is not significant gap between industry’s requirements and scientific literatures, based on the comparison of the present case and ideal circumstance of managers’ point of view and because of the complex approximately proper condition, this complex has differences with worlds and scientific ideal standards. Keywords: Energy Management, Key Performance Indicator, Benchmarking, Control and monitoring, Conceptual Framework, Energy Efficient Measurement.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize
costs) and enhance competitive positions”
The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to reduce energy requirements per unit of output while holding constant or reducing total costs of producing the output from these systems”
Analysis of energy efficiency aspects in energy man agement model of bunse in...eSAT Journals
Abstract Correct energy management and its efficiency have been emphasized in industrial and manufacturing firms’ policy makings for different reasons. Different studies focus on available potentials of these firms in the field of their energy efficiency. From among them just the fewest numbers of manufacturing enterprises could exploit them. Therefore the researcher intends to study some aspects of energy management model of Bunse in manufacture. Also by finding the differences and gaps between theories and available circumstance of the industry, this study encourages the Mobarakeh Steel Complex to execute energy efficiency management correctly. The results of the statistical analysis show that although there is not significant gap between industry’s requirements and scientific literatures, based on the comparison of the present case and ideal circumstance of managers’ point of view and because of the complex approximately proper condition, this complex has differences with worlds and scientific ideal standards. Keywords: Energy Management, Key Performance Indicator, Benchmarking, Control and monitoring, Conceptual Framework, Energy Efficient Measurement.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Basic concepts of resource management, class of
labour, Wages & statutory requirement, Labour Production rate or Productivity,Factors affecting labour output or productivity.
Construction Equipments: classification of construction equipment, estimation
of productivity for: excavator, dozer, compactors, graders and dumpers.
Estimation of ownership cost, operational and maintenance cost of construction equipments. Selection of construction equipment and basic concept on equipment maintenance.
Materials: material management functions, inventory management.
Modelling Production Performance of Small Scale Production PlantIJAEMSJORNAL
This paper is about development of a model to evaluate capacity utilization (CU) of small scale production plants. The model employed short term production function with key independent variables of: plant operators, capital, R&D, energy and machinery maintenance expenditure. CU of small scale plant is the output and dependent variable for this study. The developed model is tested on a small scalewater production plant. The output results show that the average CU is 74% for six months of operations. The model test results revealed that all the inputs are positively correlated (R>0.893) to CU, with major inputs are significantly contributing to CU. About 80% (R2=0.797) of the inputs are consumed to achieve CU of production process. The model estimated value was found to be close to actual recorded outputs (<2% difference). The model is found to be statistically significant at 95% confidence level with p-value less than 0.05. The developed model is useful for small scale plants in evaluating the production performance to achieve technical and economical sustainability. For further research in this topic, this study suggests building a model to optimize the contribution of inputs to CU of small scale production plants.
1. What is Energy
2. Type of Energy
3. What is Energy Audit
4. Definition of Energy Audit
5. The Need for Energy Audit
6. Why Energy Audit
7. Preliminary Energy Audit
8. Targeted Energy Audit
9. Energy Pyramid
10. Energy Costs in Indian Scenario
The purpose of uploading this presentation is to share an example that how an internal energy team with basic resources can present the energy audit report to management.
Basic concepts of resource management, class of
labour, Wages & statutory requirement, Labour Production rate or Productivity,Factors affecting labour output or productivity.
Construction Equipments: classification of construction equipment, estimation
of productivity for: excavator, dozer, compactors, graders and dumpers.
Estimation of ownership cost, operational and maintenance cost of construction equipments. Selection of construction equipment and basic concept on equipment maintenance.
Materials: material management functions, inventory management.
Modelling Production Performance of Small Scale Production PlantIJAEMSJORNAL
This paper is about development of a model to evaluate capacity utilization (CU) of small scale production plants. The model employed short term production function with key independent variables of: plant operators, capital, R&D, energy and machinery maintenance expenditure. CU of small scale plant is the output and dependent variable for this study. The developed model is tested on a small scalewater production plant. The output results show that the average CU is 74% for six months of operations. The model test results revealed that all the inputs are positively correlated (R>0.893) to CU, with major inputs are significantly contributing to CU. About 80% (R2=0.797) of the inputs are consumed to achieve CU of production process. The model estimated value was found to be close to actual recorded outputs (<2% difference). The model is found to be statistically significant at 95% confidence level with p-value less than 0.05. The developed model is useful for small scale plants in evaluating the production performance to achieve technical and economical sustainability. For further research in this topic, this study suggests building a model to optimize the contribution of inputs to CU of small scale production plants.
1. What is Energy
2. Type of Energy
3. What is Energy Audit
4. Definition of Energy Audit
5. The Need for Energy Audit
6. Why Energy Audit
7. Preliminary Energy Audit
8. Targeted Energy Audit
9. Energy Pyramid
10. Energy Costs in Indian Scenario
The purpose of uploading this presentation is to share an example that how an internal energy team with basic resources can present the energy audit report to management.
Life cycle assessment of construction materials using eio lcaeSAT Journals
Abstract
As per the growing demands of wireless communication there is enormous new technologies participating to make sophisticated environment for an end user. In a recent survey of International Telecommunication Union (ITU) it was found that the number of mobile phone subscribers has exceeds seven billion subscriptions at the end of 2014 using more than 10 to 15 internet utility apps which is more than the entire population of planet. To serve this increasing number and size of wireless communication system the German physicist – Harald Haas proposed a “Li–Fi technology” which he calls “Data through illumination” or “D-Light”. Li-Fi is a new approach of VLC which has much more similar working of a OFC communication system providing data rates of ten’s of Gbps. In this technology data is interpreted by the LED’s ON/OFF concepts.
This paper gives a brief focus on Li-Fi technology, it’s working principal, some misconceptions about Li-Fi and related researches like Nobel Prize winning Blue Light emitting diode, Optoelectronic integrated circuit (OEIC) receiver, etc.
Keywords: Li- Fi, VLC, Visible light communication, photo detector, optoelectronic integrated circuit, OEIC receiver, AP.
Making Right Choices: Sustainability Assessment of TechnologiesPrasad Modak
Technology choices should be made on the basis of sustainability. This presentation describes a framework for sustainability assessment of technologies. The framework was developed for UNEP's International Environmental Technology Center and has been widely applied and tested.
An Application of Green Quality Function Deployment to Designing an Air Condi...IJERA Editor
The paper tackles a systematic and operational approach to Green Quality Function Deployment (GQFD), a customer oriented survey based quality management system with regular improvement in product development. GQFD shows balance between product development and environmental protection. GQFD is not used to determine their attributes and their levels. GQFD captures what product developers “think” would best satisfy customer needs considering Environmental factor. This research used Air Conditioner as a case study for implementation of GQFD. In the design of a new Air Conditioner, apply GQFD to find out the most important parameter and functions from customer point of view and then find out Technical Characteristics. These important parameters are then put into house of quality and make relation matrix between voice of customer and Technical Characteristics. From the result of QFD applied to Air Conditioner are short out the parameter which are require modification according to voice of customer and the result has used for new design.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Similar to Optimisation assessment model for selection of material and assembly for sustainable building projects (20)
Anti-Smog Radar Application for VehiclesIJMREMJournal
Smog is regarded as a dangerous situation for vehicles as the visibility of human fails and a person cannot
drive smoothly and safely which can lead to severe accidents and routine disturbances. Hence, “Anti-Smog
Radar Application for Vehicles” is proposed using Internet of Things technology which ensures the smooth flow
of vehicles in smog and prevents accidents in time and cost-efficient manner by detecting and displaying the
front objects with their important information (distance, position, velocity and size) on smart phone used by
authenticated drivers. The radar application controls the hardware system to be deployed on vehicles through
which the user can start, stop and set the hardware in particular direction. The hardware contains NodeMcu
(Microcontroller with built-in Wi-Fi), Ultrasonic sensor and servo motor. The servo is used to detect the
position of front objects and ultrasonic sensor is clipped on servo to detect the objects. For alerts, the objects
are drawn with different colors on application i.e. the red colored objects will be near to the vehicle, the yellow
colored objects will be at some distance from the vehicle and the green colored objects will be far from the
vehicle. Kalman algorithm is used to filter the ultrasonic readings to eliminate the noise. The proposed system
can work in every condition i.e. in day and night.
IoT based Environmental Monitoring and Control SystemIJMREMJournal
IoT plays a major role in collecting the information from the sensing unit enclosing our environment due to
alterations in the climate which led to the significance of environmental monitoring. This Paper presents a
development of real time environmental monitoring and control system by utilizing Node MCU, DHT11 sensor,
ACS712 current sensor, Thing Speak (Open IoT analytics service) and Blynk application. The main task of
monitoring parameters (Humidity, temperature and power consumption) with real time sensors is done by Thing
Speak continuously which has API (Application programming Interface) for gathering sensed data and enabling
users to observe the monitored data in graphs for an interval of every 15 seconds.
This project is also designed to control home devices sitting at any place in the world by utilizing power
efficiently through Blynk application which is used to read data from sensors located in home environment using
smart phone and to turn on/off heating and cooling appliances automatically with respect to room temperature
values.
Analysis and Implementation of Solid-State Relays in Industrial application F...IJMREMJournal
There are many applications and circumstances where switching devices are required for proper operation,
controlling and isolating the high power and low power systems. The most widely used switching devices are
electromechanical relays and solid state relays. In this work, analysis and implementation of solid state relays over
electromechanical relays with respect to instantaneous current supply inindustrial application is conducted and
compared. For this purpose, an experimental setup is arranged for switching operation of electromechanical relays
and solid-state relays.The results of voltage and the current transients are analyzed and compared. It was observed
that there are no transients occurred during switching of solid state relays where as during switching of
electromechanical relay transients observed in volatge and current waveforms. So, it is advisable to use the solid
state relays over electromagnetic relay for safe and smooth operation of the system.
MIM (Mobile Instant Messaging) Classification using Term Frequency-Inverse Do...IJMREMJournal
The focus of the study is based on binary sentiment classification on aspect level to develop a hybrid sentiment
classification framework of WhatsApp MIMs (Mobile Instant Messages). It has been carried out into two phases
i.e. training phase and testing phase. The training phase, 75% data is used for training dataset. Pre-processing
techniques like tokenization, removing stop words, case normalization, removing punctuation and stemming are
applied to acquire cleaner dataset to be used as input. The output is sent to the classifier after applying TF-IDF
for feature weighting. In the second phase, the classifier is trial with 25% testing dataset. Bernoulli’s Naïve
Bayesian classifier which is an improved form of traditional Naïve Bayesian classifier is used to classify
sentiments. There are 417 messages in total where 244 and 173 are classified as positive and negative
respectively. The proposed model has achieved satisfactory results up to 81.73% in comparison to base-line
classification model by getting 12 points higher accuracy i.e. 69.23%.
Is Lean Management applicable to the hospital and for which results?IJMREMJournal
lean management is a mode of organism inspired by Toyotism; His practice is evident throughout the world and
is one of the most affected institutions, except that the latter is a different profession. There is no shared vision
among the different actors on measuring the performance of the hospital. The activity of the hospital applies to
unique "products": each patient, with its peculiar specificity. The relationship of the workers with the patient is
radically different from the relationship of the worker with his product. That is why the practice of Lean has a
certain specificity in the health field.
Fabrication and Performance Analysis of Solar Tracking System by Using By-Pas...IJMREMJournal
Energy is a burning issue that almost every person experience now a days. Energy demand increases exponentially
since a decade. Due to the global warming and it’s threatening impacts on human life. Therefore, to overcome
such disastrous impacts on the planet, renewable energy resources play vital role now a days. Solar energy is one
of the vastest available renewable energy resources around the globe, but the main issue is its poor efficiency.
Pakistan is facing energy shortage that can be compensated through solar power and the need is to design a project
that maximizes its efficiency. So, the research is mainly focused on improving efficiency of solar panels against
shading loss by using different techniques. In this research, different results will be obtained and compared with
different techniques which are LDR based solar tracking system, by-pass diodes technology and super capacitors.
Fabrication of solar tracker is based on Microcontroller that drives L298N driver to operate stepper motor.
Reactivity Feedback Effect on the Reactor Behaviour during SBLOCA in a 4-loop...IJMREMJournal
The reactivity coefficient is a very important parameter for safety and Stability of reactors operation. To provide
the safety analysis of the reactor, the calculation of changes in reactivity caused by temperature is necessary
because it is related to the reactor operation. The objective is to study the effect of the temperature reactivity
coefficients of fuel and moderator of the PWR core, as well as the moderator density and boron concentration on
fluid density, reactivity, void fraction. peak fuel clad temperature and time to core uncover were found for two
feedback cases. This paper focuses on the effect of the Reactivity feedback, of the 6" (6-inch) Cold Leg
SBLOCA sequences in a 4-loop PWR Westinghouse nuclear power plant with a scram for various feedback,
moderator density coefficient, MDC, moderator temperature coefficient, MTC, the fuel temperature coefficient,
FTC, and boron concentrations. Dragon neutronic code is used for calculating reactivity's coefficient which is
used in RELAP5 thermal hydraulic computer code to simulate the effect of Reactivity feedback during Cold
Leg SBLOCA. The plant nodalization consists of two loops; the first one represents the broken loop and the
second one represents the other three intact loops. In the present analysis two models in RELAP5 code for
computation of the reactivity feedback, separable and tabular models are used. The 6-inch break size was chosen
because the previous work [1], showed that it was the worst size break in a 4-loop PWR Westinghouse. The
results show that the neglecting of the reactivity feed-back effect causes overheating of the clad and that the
importance of the reactivity feed-back on calculating the power (reactivity) which the key parameter that
controls the clad and fuel temperatures to maintain them below their melting point and therefore prevent core
uncover and fuel damage where the fuel temperature, clad temperature and core water level are in the range.
Lyapunov-type inequalities for a fractional q, -difference equation involvin...IJMREMJournal
In this paper, we present new Lyapunov-type inequalities for a fractional boundary value problem of
fractional
q, -difference equation with p-Laplacian operator. The obtained inequalities are used to obtain a
lower bound for the eigenvalues of corresponding equations.
The Policies of Government Intervention as Third-Party for Conflict in Bike-S...IJMREMJournal
This research accesses to the unbalance phenomenon between the rapid development of Sharing bicycle industry
and the good public order. Taking into account the inconsistent goals of bicycle companies and users, the local
government is employed as a third party to mediate the conflict. We establish the conflict model including three
decision makers - Enterprises, Citizens and Government - based on GMCR (Graph Model for Conflict Resolution)
theory, and then find out the equilibrium by means of the decision support system GMCR II. The results show that
the sustainable development of the Sharing bicycle market requires the cooperation and efforts of all the three
parties, the government plays a necessary role to guide the enterprises and the users. We also propose some
management insights on how to provide suggestions for the sharing bicycle companies to improve their
dispatching services, and how to establish and improve relevant laws and regulations to guide citizens to use
shared bicycles in order to achieve mutual benefits
Epidemiological study for Trichomonas Vaginalis for Discrete time model and C...IJMREMJournal
During the period of July until December 2017 Conduct an epidemiological study to investigate the prevalence
of Trichomonas Vaginalis among women who have been consulted for the consultation and emergency of the
maternity and child hospital in Diwaniyah city in Iraq. The number of specimens examined was 857 samples
and the ages ranged between 15-60 years. After the swabs were taken, the direct examination and coloring and
planting on the different food communities to diagnose parasitic Trichomonas vaginalis the incidence of
Trichomonas vaginalis was 129 (17%). Using the mathematical model discrete time model and continuous time
model, it was observed that the highest percentage of infection was in July and the disease began to fade until it
reached the lowest rate in December. Using the mathematical model mentioned above, it was noted that
teaching a significant role in curbing the spread of the disease.
Energy Conservation through Smart Building and Smart Lighting SystemIJMREMJournal
Energy conservation is an extensive topic due to the propagation of electricity demand and challenges globally
and is regarded as one of the most significant issues affects the power system quality, global environment and
consumers. Smart building is a technology that can connect everything to networks or systems to monitor and
control them in various areas such as offices, energy-consuming devices especially in laboratories, security
devices etc. Nevertheless, people's perception about using smart technology for energy saving is still in the mind’s
eye. This means that people discuss about environmental awareness readily. Due to the availability of electricity
and its elemental role, regulating consumers’ behaviours towards power savings can be a challenge. Remarkably,
the gap in today's smart technology design in smart buildings is the compassionate of consumers’ attitudes and
the merging of this perspective into the smart technology. Implementation of PLC based controlling system is a
convenient method to save the power and energy strategy for whole building. Furthermore, prepare a lighting
scheme can results a rapid response in energy conservation. Consequently, PLC Automatic system removes the
human intervention which makes the process smart and energy reduction will gives benefits to the consumers in
terms of reducing the cost of electricity bills. Nonetheless, contemporary buildings’ energy conservation has been
significant solution to cope with the rising electricity necessity.
The Effect of Workplace Relationship toward Job Satisfaction of Divine Word C...IJMREMJournal
The study was conducted to determine workplace relationship between employer and employees and among employees of Divine Word Colleges in Ilocos Sur, Philippines and its effect on the job satisfaction. Literatures and studies were reviewed, and questionnaires were used to gather the data related to workplace relationship and job satisfaction. The respondents of the study are employees of the colleges of Ilocos region which include Ilocos Sur and Ilocos Norte. The study is a descriptive study involving survey and fact-finding inquiry. Weighted mean and Pearson r were used to determine the workplace relationship and its correlation with job satisfaction. The study found that there is a significant correlation between workplace relationship and job satisfaction. Therefore, the study recommends that management need to monitor and improve workplace relationship between employer and employees and among employees and also improve and monitor factors that affect job satisfaction.
Semi-automatic Picture Book Generation based on Story Model and Agent-based S...IJMREMJournal
In the fields of artificial intelligence, automatic narrative generation has attracted considerable interest. Lots of studies on narrative generation have been reported such as novel, comic, and picture book. However, most of those reuse original stories, pictures, and sentences. As a result, there is a problem that generated narratives infringe on copyright. In this paper, we focus on the picture book as the narrative because picture book is a mix of images and language. As a first step of automatic story generation without representation mediums, we propose a novel semi-automatic picture book generation method based on story model and agent-based simulation. The computational experiments are carried out to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed method
Efficiency Evaluation of Thailand Gross Domestic Product Using DEAIJMREMJournal
The goal of this research is to evaluate the efficiency of GDP in Thailand from the past years and provide suggestions for government and policy-makers on ways to manage inputs and improve outputs in the future while enhancing the GDP of Thailand. The paper analyzed the data collected from Office of the National Economic and Social Development of Thailand through a period of 25 years ranging from 1993 to 2017. The results show that the year 2017 was the worst years in terms of efficiency. In order to achieve the research goal, data envelopment analysis (DEA) was used. Theoretically, research has found that evaluation of GDP can be improved by eradicating the negative values of slack movement. In economic terms, the research proposed the promotion of export-led growth, business incubators, and entrepreneurship to boost not only the inputs but also the GPD of the country. In general, the GDP of Thailand is quite efficient. This research can provide strategic advice for Thai Government to improve the Gross Domestic Product thoroughly
Predicting Trade Conflict Outcomes using a Third-Party Intervention ModelIJMREMJournal
As anti-import sentiment and protectionism have been increasing, more papers have focused on using theories to explain or resolve them. However, most research has focused on disputes involving larger nations such that there is not much relatable information for disputes such as the one between South Africa and Zimbabwe. The aim of this paper was to bridge the knowledge gap by using the graph model for conflict resolution and the decision support software GMCRII to simulate possible responses to this regional trade conflict. This thirdparty intervention model will assist in investigating and prescribing a diplomatic solution with fair compromise to resolve the unequal trade problem between Zimbabwe and South Africa without harming the economies of both the countries. This research found that a peaceful resolution of the disagreement could be found by the addition of a third-party to help in the conflict resolution thereby ending the prolonged trade conflict. This undertaking will serve as a template for modelling and predicting an outcome in the event of third-party intervention for future trade disputes involving regional trade partners with emerging or developing economies such as those that exist in Africa
Proposed Framework for Effective Management of End-User Stakeholders’ in Publ...IJMREMJournal
Significant infrastructure such as roads, prisons, schools, rail tracks and train systems, among others are currently developed through the involvement of Public Private Partnership (PPP) arrangements which have been acknowledged internationally in recent time. The poor management of end-user stakeholder during PPP projects in developing nation like Nigeria has been established as one of the major factor affecting the successful growth and development of PPP projects. Due to the paucity in research on end-user stakeholder management on PPP projects in Nigeria, informs this study aim to expose the main strategic factors that can accommodate end-user stakeholder’s management in any PPP road project in Nigeria. The professionals that have worked on the project cum the end-user of the project area were used as targeted respondents for the adopted case study and survey strategies method approach. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the eighteen (18) interviews that were conducted having completed and analysed total number of 282 questionnaires using reliability and factor analysis approach. Seven valid underlying factors were revealed from 28 variables that were left on the questionnaire data with the aid of factor analysis which were used later as factors affecting end-user stakeholders’ management in PPP road project in Nigeria. A proposed framework was created with the seven underlying factors as a template for any successful PPP road project in developing country like Nigeria. These will quench the agitation of enduser stakeholders’ quarrels on PPP toll road projects
Fresh and Hardened Properties of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Made Co...IJMREMJournal
This research work was carried out on concrete specimens made with different proportion of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) as a cement substitution in concrete. To accomplish the goal of the research work, overall 75 cubes and 60 cylinders were made. Out of 75 cubes and 60 cylinders, 15 cubes and 12 cylinders were cast for control concrete, and 60 cubes and 48 cylinders were cast by replacing 5,10,15 and 20% of cement with GGBFS. The cubes and cylinder specimens were 100x100x100 mm and 100x200 mm respectively, and mix design was done for 28 Mpa. All specimens were tested at 3. 7, 28 and 90 days of curing ages. The fresh properties such as workability and hardened properties such as compressive and tensile strength of all mixes were determined. Tests results showed that the workability of the concrete mixes made with GGBFS was higher than control mix. As the percentage of GGBFS increased the workability also increased. Hardened properties of concrete mixes made with GGBFS was lower than control concrete at early ages of curing. At the later age, hardened properties of GGBFS made concrete was more than control concrete. Furthermore, water absorption and density of GGBFS made concrete was lower than control concrete.
Design and Evaluation of Open Graded Hot Mix Asphalt Using Cement as A Grout...IJMREMJournal
Road networks ought to be efficiently designed to be safe, speedy and loading sustaining as it has a significant importance in country’s development. For that, pavement should be designed efficiently to exhibit better strength, durability and economical at the same time. Generally, a pavement is classified as Flexible or Rigid. Flexible pavement is opened early to traffic, has good riding quality and ease of maintenance but owing to heavy loading conditions these pavements are more susceptible to wear and tear. On the contrary rigid pavement is load sustaining, durable but having higher construction cost and poor riding quality. World is heading to semirigid pavement which exhibits characteristics of both these pavements. It is the combination of cement concrete and porous asphalt concrete which is achieved by leaving 25% to 30% air voids infused by cement grouts and is known as Semi-rigid pavement.In this research, semi-rigid pavement was designed using ratio of grout of optimum mix was 1:0.55 at water cement ratio by 2% of cement dosage with SP. Study concludes that, Semirigid pavement’s Marshall stability of 7 days was almost 85% of rigid pavement and 28 days compressive strength of semi-rigid pavement was almost 30.5% that of rigid pavement. Besides, it has been ensured that 7 days strength is comparable to 28 days strength of Semi-rigid pavement.
Design of Cold Recycled Emulsified Asphalt Mixtures Using Portland Cement as ...IJMREMJournal
Cold Recycling is getting popularity in research sector and construction industries because it overcomes all the issues of Hot Mix Asphalt of more consumption of natural resources, high production energy, central plant recycling, effect of greenhouse gases and non-feasibility in colder regions. In this research study, a cold recycled mixture is designed and compared in terms of mechanical and volumetric properties with control hot mix asphalt mixture, using 60% RAP (reclaimed asphalt pavement) aggregates and 40 % virgin aggregates to fulfill gradation requirements. Asphalt emulsion for cold recycled mixtures is used as a binder with varying five contents (4.3%, 4.8%, 5.3%, 5.8% and 6.3%). Also, a modified cold recycled mixture is prepared at optimum emulsion content of control cold recycled mixture by partially replacing conventional aggregate mineral filler with three different contents of Portland cement (2%, 3% and 4%) of total dry mass of aggregates. Marshall mix design procedure was adopted to calculate the optimum (bitumen, emulsion and filler content) for control hot mix asphalt, control cold recycled mixture and modified cold recycled mixtures respectively. Mechanical properties of each of these mixtures were compared with each other and it was found that modified cold recycled mixtures were better than controlled cold recycled mixture and comparable in properties to hot mix asphalt mixtures and Optimum filler content of Portland cement for modified cold recycled mixture was found to be at 4%.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Cooling Tower with Air to Air Heat Exchanger for Re...IJMREMJournal
In this paper a thermodynamic analysis of cooling tower with air-to-air heat exchanger is presented. During manual operation of conventional cooling tower, a good quantity of water is evaporated which requires equivalent amount of makeup water for their condensers. So, in this regard, the thermodynamic model of a cooling with an air to air heat exchanger is developed using engineering equation solver (EES) software and then simulated in different climatic conditions of two major cities of Pakistan namely Karachi and Jamshoro through the period of June & December 2017. The results show a significant variation in water vapor recovery with respect to atmospheric conditions mainly humidity and ambient air temperature. Results reveal that the when a cooling tower coupled with air to air heat exchanger maximum amount of water vapors are recovered at Karachi and ranges up to 67% and 62% in Jamshoro during the month of December.
Water billing management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project entitled “Water Billing Management System” aims is to generate Water bill with all the charges and penalty. Manual system that is employed is extremely laborious and quite inadequate. It only makes the process more difficult and hard.
The aim of our project is to develop a system that is meant to partially computerize the work performed in the Water Board like generating monthly Water bill, record of consuming unit of water, store record of the customer and previous unpaid record.
We used HTML/PHP as front end and MYSQL as back end for developing our project. HTML is primarily a visual design environment. We can create a android application by designing the form and that make up the user interface. Adding android application code to the form and the objects such as buttons and text boxes on them and adding any required support code in additional modular.
MySQL is free open source database that facilitates the effective management of the databases by connecting them to the software. It is a stable ,reliable and the powerful solution with the advanced features and advantages which are as follows: Data Security.MySQL is free open source database that facilitates the effective management of the databases by connecting them to the software.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
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Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)
Optimisation assessment model for selection of material and assembly for sustainable building projects
1. International Journal of Modern Research in Engineering & Management (IJMREM)
||Volume|| 1||Issue|| 3 ||Pages|| 16-31 ||March 2018|| ISSN: 2581-4540
www.ijmrem.com IJMREM Page 16
Optimisation assessment model for selection of material and
assembly for sustainable building projects
Liman Alhaji Saba *1,2
, Mohd Hamdan Ahmad 1
, Roshida Binti Abdul Majid1
and Taki Eddine Seghier1
1
Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti of Teknologi Malaysia johor Bahru, Malaysia.
2
School of Environmental Studies, Federal Polytechnic Bida, Nigeria.
----------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------
Sustainable Selection of Material and Assembly (SMA) constitutes a importants strategy in building design and
construction. Current sustainable SMA methods fail to provide adequate solutions for finding the optimum
improvement strategies and choosing the best alternative in a decision environment. To assist the decision-making
process, this study suggests the Multi objective Optimization (MO) approach utilization. However, process
improvements cannot be based only on environmental considerations, other factors like socio-economic must be
also being considered in parallel. As well, the study indicates that MO coupled with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
provides a tool for balancing process environmental and economic performance. The value of this approach in
environmental process analysis rests in providing an optimal option for process improvements which may be
optimal and suitable for a particular situation. A decision-aid tool – optimum Life Cycle Assessment Performance
(OLCAP) – is recommended. OLCAP is tested and demonstrated by application to case studies of an existing
traditional construction method and contemporary construction method of low cost housing projects. The MO
value in process analysis lies in allowing for an alternative option for process betterments, therefore able the
selection of the Best Available Technique not Entailing Excessive Cost (BATEEC) and Best Practicable
Environmental Option (BPEO).
KEYWORDS: Selection of material and assembly; Life cycle assessment; multiobjective optimisation; process
analysis; environmental impact
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Date of Submission: Date, 19 February 2018 Date of Accepted: 25 March 2018
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I. INTRODUCTION
The construction, fit-out, operation and ultimate demolition of buildings is a huge factor of human impact on the
environment both directly (through material and energy consumption and the consequent pollution and waste) and
indirectly (through the pressures on often inefficient infrastructure). Building construction practitioners have
begun to pay attention to controlling and correcting the environmental damage due to their activities. With regard
to important influence of the building sector, the approach of sustainable building possesses a high potential to
make a worthful contribution to sustainability. The speed actions towards sustainable usage depends on decisions
taken various actors in the construction process: firms. owners, designers, managers, and so on. [1, 2]. An
significant decision is the sustainable Selection of Materials and Assemblies (SMA) to be utilized in building
construction projects. As careful selection of sustainable materials has been identified as the simplest way for
designers to start integrating the principles of sustainability in building construction projects [3]. The selection of
building materials is considered as a multi-criteria decision problem [4], which is based on believing experience
rather than utilizing numerical approach, as a result of lack of formal and measurement criteria availability [5]. It
is a design process area that takes place in the detail design stage where significant decisions are made with respect
to building assembly [6].
A lot of the evaluation methods have been faulted for overstressing the aspects of environment [7]. Some other
methods like BREEAM and other existing methods for assessing buildings that are restricted to resource
efficiency and environmental protection agenda possess small utility for assessing economic and social factors –
which are all important indicators involved to sustainability – as fought to environmental sustainability, since they
predominantly focused on environment that is one of the four (4) principles of sustainable building. Even against
this single principle, they are only able to render relative assessment as opposed to absolute [8]. Also, the
majorities of the assessment methods were designed for new construction, and focused on the design of the
constructed buildings. To be considered sustainable, the methods of assessment will have to be remodel under the
sustainability umbrella – economic, environmental, technical and social [9, 10].
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Increasing the discussion scope outside environmental responsibility as well as adopting the wider sustainability
agenda are more and more necessary requirements. In this challenges recognition, in 2011, a new standard BS
8905 was launched that was directed at products manufacturers to aid in initiation and advance their efforts of
supply chain sustainability. This standard fail to meet or come short of aligning material selection practices with
goals of sustainability at the building design phase. This is a phase where material selection and assessment
normally take place. Among the literal effort to reduce the construction impact is by taken into consideration the
embodied energy and carbon mitigation, which exist mostly in the building walls and frame as well as the recurring
embodied energy and carbon components [11-13]. They also reported that in other to achieve significant
minimization in the embodied energy and carbon intensity, replacement of conventional building materials with
durable and low energy materials like locally resourced materials as well as innovative construction methods
adoption were recommended. Therefore there is a require need for developing a holistic and systematic sustainable
material selection process, of evaluating trade-offs between economic, environmental, technical and social criteria
[14, 15].
The material selection process features as basically having many problem that will involve varied considerations,
in many cases with complex trade-offs between them, which implied suitable solution might be found amongst
the multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methods [16-18]. In this regards, more detailed systematic
interpretation of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) application to process selection and design is given [19]. This
exemplifies the usage of system analysis to environmental management problems. However, recent literature
suggests that LCA is gaining wider acceptance in many industrial sectors, particularly in the process sectors.
While the utilization of LCA has traditionally been adjusted towards bettering the products environmental
performance, various studies demonstrated the potential of LCA as a tool for process selection, process design
and optimisation. Here, the focus is on the use of LCA for process optimisation. The aim is to demonstrate how
the type of analysis adapted from welfare economics and operations systematic investigation can be combined
with system analysis in the LCA context to provide a powerful decision-making tool for sustainable performance
of process sector. The potential of this method is exemplified by the incorporation of two (2) case studies of an
traditional construction method (TCM) and contemporary construction method (CCM) of low cost housing
construction projects. Based on this information and the present study lacks, this paper suggests an optimisation
method using mathematical programming technique to evaluate building materials and assemblies founded on
their sustainability, of which Optimum Life Cycle Assessment Performance (OLCAP) was recommended. The
procedures for integrating into the process optimisation framework of the environmental criteria alongside the
economic as well as technical criteria are reviewed and discussed. It is indicated that this approach can provide a
potentially powerful decision making tool for firms, managers, designers and process engineers.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
To gain insights into how similar studies on optimisation assessment approach in Selection of Materials and
Assemblies (SMA) studies might have been conducted around the globe. A systematic search of key peer-
reviewed papers from renowned databases about SMA analysis was conducted. These searches yielded few results
with little relevance. The first overarching outcome was the general agreement among peer-reviewed literature
about the importance of optimisation method in assessment of building impacts on the environment [20]. The
second outcome was that despite acknowledgement of the need to consider building SMA impact analysis, few
quantitative studies have been conducted in this respect. These were discussed under the following sub-sections.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) : LCA is a quantitative environmental performance tool, essentially based around
mass and energy balances but applied to a complete economic system rather than a single process. While chemical
or process engineering is normally concerned with the operations within system boundary 1, LCA considers the
whole material and energy supply chains, so that the system of concern becomes everything within system
boundary 2. The material and energy flows that enter, exist in or leave the system include material and energy
resources and emissions to air, water and land, called environmental burdens and they arise from extraction and
refining of raw materials, transportation, production, use and waste disposal of a product or process. The potential
effects of the burdens on the environment, i.e. environmental impacts, normally include global warming potential
(GWP), acidification, ozone depletion (OD), eutrophication and so on. As a result, in 1990, the Society for
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) initiated activities to define LCA and develop a general
methodology for conducting the LCA studies. Soon afterwards, the International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) started similar work on developing principles and guidelines on the LCA methodology [21]. The LCA
methodology is still under development. At present, the methodological framework comprises four phases,
namely: Goal and scope definition; Inventory analysis; Impact assessment; Interpretation. However, LCA is based
on the kind of thermodynamic and system analyses which are central to process engineering [22]. Thus for these
purposes, `the environment' is defined along with the system, by exclusion. The system of interest exists because
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it produces goods and services, which are treated together as outputs. To generate these outputs, inputs of energy
and materials are required. In the LCA context, system boundaries are drawn from `cradle to grave' to include all
burdens and impacts in the life cycle of a product or a process, so that the inputs into the system become primary
resources. The objectives of LCA can be of particular importance to process designers and engineers, because it
can inform them on how to modify a system to decrease its environmental impacts. To assist in identification of
the optimal options for improved system operation from ‘cradle to grave’, LCA can be coupled with optimisation
techniques as discussed in the ensuing section.
System optimisation and Life cycle assessment :In order to predict and describe the composite industrial
systems behaviour, it is absolutely essemtial to utilize detailed mathematical modelling. In the same manner, the
optimum operating conditions identification that will ensure bettered process performance normally renders the
utilization of an optimisation technique absolute necessary. Historically, system optimisation in chemical and
process engineering usages has focused on maximising the economic performance, subject to the certain
constraints in the system. Over the years, environmental performance optimisation has started to be incorporated
into system optimisation, beside traditional economic criteria. These methods have primarily been focused on
several waste minimisation techniques [23]. An efforts to incorporate environmental considerations into the
design and optimisation processes make up the starting of the paradigm shift in the process sector which are
adjusted towards the process economic performance. Thus, it is possible for waste reduction methods to minimize
the emissions from the plant but to enhance the impacts in or to another place in the life cycle, so that overall
environmental impacts are enhanced, for example Bai [24]. Consequently, the need to incorporate Life Cycle
Thinking (LCT) into optimisation and process design procedures has been accepted by researchers [25-27]. For
exemple, that which establishes a link between the process environmental and economic performance from ‘cradle
to grave’ been formulated by [28-30]. This method is known as ‘Optimum Life Cycle Assessment Performance’
(OLCAP). The OLCAP process is exemplified on low cost housing construction projects case study of TCM
using stablise clay block and CCM using sand-cement block houses in the ensuing section.
III. APPLICATION OF OPTIMUM LCA PERFORMANCE – CASE
STUDIES’
The process chosen for the exemplification of OLCAP approach is an existing traditional construction method
(TCM) using stabilise clay block and contemporary construction method (CCM) using sand-cement block of low
income house (LIH) constructed in 2016 in Abuja of Nigeria. A two bedroom apartment house of 69.0m2
floor
area with the average headroom of 3.0m was used as the model for the case study. The structural system used was
a reinforced concrete columns, beams and roof beams. The external envelope material and the internal partition
material were not rendered on both faces with sand-cement mortar, with the following specifications as indicated
in Table 1. Figure 1 shows the graphical drawings of stabilise clay block house model.
Figure 1: The graphical drawings of TCM stablise clay block house
Figure 2 showed the construction activities prominent features (extraction, processing, manufacturing and
production/construction) for the model TCM stablise clay block house.
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Figure 2: TCM construction activities prominent features
In addition, to the case study, further scenario (CCM using sand-cement block house) was a 3 bedrooms apartment
house of 92.0m2
floor area and with average headroom of also 3.0m was modeled to provide a comparison. Figure
3 shows the graphical drawings of CCM sand-cement block house model. The structural system used was a
reinforced concrete columns, beams and roof beams. The external envelope material and the internal partition
material were rendered on both faces with sand-cement mortar, with the following specifications as indicated in
Table 1.
Figure 3: The graphical drawings of CCM sand-cement block house
In addition, Figure 4 showed the construction activities prominent features (extraction, processing,
manufacturing and production/construction) for the model CCM sand-cement block house.
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Figure 4: CCM construction activities prominent features
Table 1: List of building materials and assemblies
Building Stage Component Material AMC CMC
1,0 Substructure
Strip foundation Concrete √ √
Wall in foundation 230 x 230 x 450 mm hollow sand-
cement blocks filled with light
concrete
√ √
Filling to level Laterite soil √ √
Hardcore Broken concrete/stone √ √
Ground floor slab Concrete √ √
2.0 Super structure
2.1 Walls and columns Columns Reinforced concrete √ √
Beams Reinforced concrete √ √
External walls 230 x230 x 450 mm hollow blocks x √
Partition walls 150 x 230 x 450 mm hollow blocks x √
External walls 230 x 150 x 300 mm solid blocks √ x
Internal walls 230 x 150 x 300 mm solid blocks √ x
2.2 Roof Structure and
covering
Wall plate 75 x 100mm hardwood √ √
Tie beam 50 x 150mm hardwood √ √
Rafters/struts 50 x 100mm hardwood √ √
Purlins 50 x 75mm hardwood √ √
Noggins 50 x 50 mm hardwood √ √
Fascia board 25 x 250mm hardwood √ √
Roof covering 0.55 mm long span aluminium
sheets
√ √
2.3 Finishes Ceiling PVC Tiles √ √
Internal walls Plastering and emulsion paint x √
External walls Plastering and emulsion paint x √
Floor finishes Vitrified ceramic tiles √ √
2.4 Doors/Windows/Fittings External doors Locally steel doors √ √
Internal doors Hardwood panel doors √ √
Windows Aluminium/glass casement √ √
Anti-burglary bars 20 x 20mm hollow steel pipe √ √
Key: √ = Applicable, x = Not applicable
The Methods of Assessment : In this section, the different EE and EC assessment methods are examined. The
aim is to establish which method(s) to use. In the literature, three methods of assessment are quite common: the
input-output analysis, the process analysis, and the hybrid analysis. Input-output LCA is a top-down method for
analyzing the environmental interventions of a product using a combination of national sector-by-sector economic
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interdependent data which quantifies the dependencies between sectors, with sector level environmental effects
and resource use data [31]. In process LCA, known environmental inputs and outputs are systematically modelled
through the utilisation of a process flow diagram. The process LCA is often called a bottom-up approach. This is
because the subjects of analysis in process LCA are individual processing units and the flow rate and composition
of streams entering and exiting such units. The above two (2) life cycle methods of assessment have advantages
and disadvantages which have been extensively discussed [32-34]. In order to justify the choice of the methods
used in this study, a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the preferred choice is examined. Input-
output analysis suffers from lack of representativeness being used due to over-aggregation of data. Also, national
sector-by-sector economic interdependent data or sectoral matrix is often too old and out of date in developed
countries and worse in developing countries. Process-based LCA allows for a detailed analysis of a specific
process at a point in time and space. Nonetheless, it is often criticized for its subjectivity in the definition of the
processes that should be considered and the data sources to be used, which can be complex if the building has so
many different types of materials.
Mathematical models : The main reason for using emission or impact factors is to facilitate computation of
emissions. By using emission factors, tedious tasks that would have involved chemical equations are avoided.
This is because emission factors are expressed as quantity of EE or EC per functional unit. For example, according
to Bath ICE, the emission factor of virgin aluminium is 11.46kgCO2/kg. The functional unit is the “kg” in the
denominator as it denotes quantity of virgin aluminium in 1kg. Therefore, to compute the emission from a given
quantity of virgin aluminium, a simple multiplication of the total quantity and the emission factor is conducted. If
there are several construction materials considered, then the products of the emission from different materials are
added. This is modelled mathematically as in equations (1) and (2) [13]. Further details on the research methods
are explained subsequently using equations (1) to (8) [35].
𝐸𝐸 𝑘 = ∑(1 + 𝑊𝑘) × 𝑄 𝑘 × 𝐼𝑘
𝑛
𝑘=1
(1)
𝐸𝐶 𝐾 = ∑(1 + 𝑊𝑘) × 𝑄 𝑘 × 𝐼𝑘 (2)
𝑛
𝑘=1
Where,
EEk and ECk are EE and embodied CO2 of material type k with units MJ and kgCO2 respectively;
Wk is the waste factor (dimensionless) of material type k;
Qk is the total functional quantity of material;
Ik is the EE factor or embodied CO2 factor with units’ MJ/functional unit and kgCO2/functional unit of
material respectively.
However, carbon emission for direct fuel combustion was calculated using the formula:
CEF = A x EC (3)
Where,
CEF = carbon emission from direct fuel consumption,
A = activity data (litres of fuel),
EC = emission coefficient (kgCO2/litre of fuel).
However, given the labour-intensive construction methods prevalent in the study area, manual energy
was estimated using the manual energy coefficient for the tropical region as recommended by [36, 37].
Total Embodied Energy:
EE = EEM + EET + EEC (4)
Where,
EE= total embodied energy,
EEM = embodied energy of material (cradle-to-gate),
EET = embodied energy of transportation, and
EEC = embodied energy of construction.
Material Embodied Energy (Cradle-to-Gate)
EEM = QM [EECF] (5)
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Where,
EEM = cradle-to-gate embodied energy of material,
QM = quantity of material (kg), and
EECF = embodied energy coefficient of material (MJ/kg) according to ICE database and available local
inventory data.
Transportation Energy
EET = QF [LHV] (6)
Where,
EET = embodied energy of material transportation,
QF = quantity of fuel consumed (litres), and
LHV = lower heating value of fuel.
The study assumed that all building materials were locally produced. Hence local transportation of materials was
accounted for. Road haulage is the main mode of material transportation in the study area and the fuel type was
found to be predominantly diesel. The quantity of diesel was estimated using 35litres per 100kilometers for heavy
duty trucks and 20litres per 100kilometers for light duty trucks [38].
Site Construction Energy
This is divided into two parts namely: energy used by site equipment and site installations as well as manual
energy. All fabrications were assumed to be carried out on the construction site. Energy and fuel use data were
obtained from the records of the contractor that built the reference building. Where electricity is used for site
construction activities, the primary energy content of grid electricity was estimated using the formula:
E = 3.6[GE] PEF (7)
Where,
E = primary energy content of electricity use,
GE = grid electricity use in kWh,
PEF = primary energy factor of grid electricity, and
3.6 = conversion factor from kWh to MJ.
The PEF for electricity in the study area was estimated to be 2.83 [39]. Also, if direct fuel combustion is
used in the site construction, the primary energy content of direct fuel combustion is estimated using equation (6).
Manual Energy
ME = 0.75LT (8)
Where,
ME = manual energy,
0.75MJ/hour = human energy coefficient,
L = number of labour workers, and
T = number of hours of work.
Equation (7) above was derived from earlier work by [40] on agricultural productivity and used in a
recent work by [41] on energy assessment of cement production in Nigeria. Because of lack of information about
waste data in Nigeria, the waste factor was considered to be zero.
Aggregation of Data
Aggregation is a straight forward task. First, the emissions from a category are added independently. In
other words, emissions from all the different construction materials, equipment, and personnel transport types
used are independently computed. Then, the emissions from the three different categories are summed up to obtain
a total. These steps were implemented in assessing EE and EC of the two case studies considered.
Application of optimum LCA performance framework to the problem : The Optimum Life Cycle Assessment
Performance (OLCAP) methodological framework consists of four (4) steps:
1. LCA completion study;
2. Optimisation problem formulation;
3. Multiobjective optimisation (MO); and
4. Selection of the best compromise solution.
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However, there is an important gaps between the theory and practice of sustainability and Sustainable
Development (SD) at the project level [42]. The foundations for SD are already encapsulated in the definition
given in the seminal Brundtland report [43]. This most quoted definition states that it is, “development that meets
the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
However, [42] stated that the all-inclusive definition sounds abstract, and requires hierarchical transformation to
operational decision-making variables. There is now wide recognition of the requirement for quantitative
transformations, counterpart incorporated holistic approaches in evaluating the sustainability of building material
and assembly, as a part of wider SD agenda. Researchers working on the evolving discipline of Sustainability
Science presently acknowledge that the implementation success at the project levels depends on various
contributors. These include:
1. the criteria development that transform macro-level policies and national sustainability goals to project level
decision-making variables;
2. the decision models development, computational frameworks, and assessment methods for building material
and assembly sustainability assessment; and
3. the development and incorporated decision support tools implementation to facilitate decision making by
various stakeholders.
Such a crisp value index would facilitate dissimilar material and assembly alternatives comparison along diverse
sustainability envelope dimensions: economy, environment, resource efficiency, performance, waste
minimization, and socio benefit. A mathematical model is therefore an essential requirement of the optimisation
problem. Such a model is needed for sustainability quantification in decision-making. The detail description of
the steps contained in the model formulation is described below and the OLCAP approach represented by diagram
as indicated in Figure 5 [30].
Step 1.
LCA
Step 2.
Optimisation Model
Step 3.
Multiobjective
Optimisation (MO)
Step 4.
Optimisation
Method
Improved Process
Performance of
“Upstream”
Manual Computation
Process-based LCA
(PBLCA)
BIM generator
Mathematical
Programming
Linear Programming
(LP)
REVIT
Decision- makers
Socio-economic, technical,
legislative and other
constraints
Burdens Impacts
Environmental criteriaEconomic criteria
Optimum solutions
Best compromise solution
Figure 5: Optimum LCA performance (OLCAP) methodological framework
Step1: LCA Completion study – It involves conducting a system LCA study, in an accordance to [44]
methodology, as showed in Figure 8. An appropriate software of LCA, for example PEMS [19], TEAM [45] or
BIM [13], can be utilized to conduct energy and material balances, as well as to quantify the impacts it has
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throughout the life cycle. Because of lack of database and tools, a process-based LCA analysis technique was
adopted for this purpose.
Step 2: Optimisation problem formulation - Because of LCA nature, with distinct environmental impacts to be
taken into consideration, the problems of optimisation is multiobjective. Thus, the problems of conventional
single-optimisation involving economic objective function are translated into problems of multiobjective, to
consider the environmental objectives. The problem of Multi-Objective (MO) in LCA context can be in this form:
Min f(x, y) = [f1 f2 ……… fp] (1)
s. t.
h(x, y) = 0
g(x, y) ≤ 0
x ∈ X 𝜌 Rn
y ∈ Y 𝜌 Zq
(2)
Where,
f is a vector of economic and environmental objective functions;
h(x, y) = 0 and g(x, y) ≤ 0 are equality and inequality constraints; and
x and y are the vectors of continuous and integer (discrete) variables.
For example, the equivalence physical constrained may be defined by energy and material balances; this may
depict the material availabilities, capacities, heat requirements and so on. A n vector continuous variables is the
energy flows and material, compositions, pressures, units sizes and so on, while a q vector integer variables is
option materials or system’s processing paths. If the Z integer is null set and the physical constrained as well as
impacts are linear, then Equations (1) and (2) is the problem of Linear Programming (LP); while if the integer
variables is not null set and nonlinear terms present in the impacts and physical-constrain, Equations (1) and (2)
will be problem of Mixed-Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP). The problems of Mixed Integer Linear
Programming (MILP) incorporate only linear and integer variables.
Typically, an economic objective involves a cost or profit function, which is defined by:
F = CT
y + f(x) (3)
Where,
c is a cost or profit coefficients vector for integer variables and
f(x) is a linear or nonlinear function depicted by continuous variables.
In this context, the environmental objectives is the burdens Bj or impacts Ek:
𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝑗 = ∑ 𝑏𝑗,𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑁
𝑛=1
(4)
𝐸 𝑘 = ∑ 𝑒 𝑘,𝑗 𝐵𝑗 (5)
𝐽
𝑗=1
Where,
𝑏𝑗,𝑛 is emission coefficients associated with continuous variables 𝑥 𝑛 xn.
In equation (5), 𝑒 𝑘,𝑗 is the relative contribution of burden Bj to impact Ek, as defined by the ‘problem
oriented’ technique to impact assessment [46].
In this approach, for example, GWP factors, 𝑒 𝑘,𝑗 , for dissimilar greenhouse gases (GHGs) are showed relative to
the global warming potential (GWP) of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is thus determined to be unity. In the event
of utilization of different impact assessment technique, subsequently equation (5) is given a new definition
accordingly. But, presently, it was noted that the LCA technique assumes that environmental impacts as well as
burdens functions are linear, that is, are directly proportional to the functional output unit(s) and no synergetic or
antagonistic effects. BIM tool – REVIT was adopted for this purpose.
Step 3: Multiobjective optimisation - The system is then optimised at the same time on environmental and
economic impacts to discover the several aspects or multidimensional noninferior or Pareto surface that maps
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optimal solutions. The choice of environmental objectives for optimisation is contingent upon the Scope and Goal
of the study. Therefore, optimisation can be at the impact assessment or inventory levels, in which the
environmental objectives are defined as burdens or impacts [28, 30]. One possible approach to optimisation in the
context of LCA would be to combine environmental and economic objectives into one function so that the problem
may be minimize to one objective optimisation. The significance is on the choices from the noninferior solutions,
rather than preferences before analysing all the trade-offs among objectives. The trade-offs amongst the
noninferior solutions indicate the gained and lost by selecting the option. The decision makers who know and
comprehend the options and trade-offs are potential to understand other parties’ interests and make a compromise.
Furthermore, by trade-off incommensurable objectives such as economic requirements and environmental
impacts, this technique avoids the well-known problems that may be encountered, e.g., in cost – benefit analysis
[47], that is minimizing individual preferences to the value of market or trying to express the environmental quality
in financial terms. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is maximum net gain idea: this minimizes the combine social
welfare to the net economic benefit monetary unit. In the recent past, CBA has been used in environmental
decision-making. The widely used technique is known as ‘contingent valuation’ (CV). Its difficulties and
limitations have been recognised. The latter [48, 49] have pointed out that CBA has serious difficulties in dealing
with intergenerational equity and sustainability problems as well as in valuing the natural environment.
Summarily, CBA and related economic techniques to decision-making faced three (3) problems: the individual
preferences measurement, the comparison of these preferences, and their combination into a social preference
function. But these cannot provide information for decision-making on a ‘local’ level: for example, they cannot
advise engineers on how to modify a process to better its environmental performance. Multiobjective optimisation
(MO), on the other hand, does exactly this: it can optimize the system operation with environmental, economic
technical and other aspects taken into consideration. If used in the context of LCA can be able to optimize the
product or process whole life cycle and so provide a more effective approach to environmental management of a
system. Linear programming (LP) was adopted for this purpose.
Step 4: Selection of the best compromise solution - To choose the best compromise solution from optimum
alternatives, preferences articulation is essential. One of the possible ways to choose the ‘best’ solution is to
consider a graphical representation of the noninferior and then choose the best compromise solution on the basis
of the trade-offs. However, this technique is limited to two (2) or three (3) objective functions at most; more than
this, graphical representation becomes complex. If all objectives are considered importance, than the best
compromise solution might be that which equalises the percentage by which all objectives differ from their
optimum values. However, should any of the objectives be considered more important than the others, then other
methods that allow preferences ordering and quantification is known as multicriteria decision-making (MCDM)
techniques, can be used to identify the best compromise solution. MCDM techniques provide a structured
approach to a decision making process. Extensive reviews of MCDM techniques can be found in [50] and [51].
User friendly software with various MCDM methods to aid the decision making process are also available [24].
They enable systematic analysis and modelling of preferences with the aim of providing help and guidance to
decision-makers in identifying their most desired solution. The major advantages of these techniques like BIM
tool - REVIT is transparent, non-ambiguous and easy to use by non-experts. It is important to note that the
attributes and the preferences are always identified on a case by case basis within a bounded decision space, and
that they only apply in that particular decision-making context. This avoids the criticism often voiced, in both
LCA and CBA, of trying to use general weights or costs to indicate the importance of distinct criteria in different
decision-making situations. Optimisation method was adopted using mathematical programming (MP).
In sum, the first step in this procedure involves carrying out an LCA study of the process, by following the [44]
methodology. As indicated in Figure 8 [30], BIM software can be used to carry out material and energy balances
and to quantify the burdens and impacts along the life cycle. The material and energy balances for the process
itself (boundary 1 in Figure 7) can also be carried out within existing design operation software and these data can
then be fed into the BIM software. The data for the other parts of the system (boundary 2 in Fig. 1) can be sourced
from a database which is normally an integral part of the BIM software. A more detailed exposition of the LCA
methodology is given elsewhere [44] and is not discussed further here.
Instead, the focus of this paper is on steps 2 – 4 of the OLCAP procedure. The environmental burdens and impacts
quantified in step 1 represent an input into the optimisation model, which is formulated in step 2. In addition to
environmental criteria, the model includes economic, technical, legislative and other constraints within which the
system must operate. In step 3, the system is optimised on environmental and socio–economic objectives of
interest to the decision-makers, to yield a number of optimum solutions. A suitable optimisation technique and
software must be used to generate and solve the optimisation problem. A more detailed account of these two steps
of OLCAP is given in step 2 and 3. Finally, step 4 enables the decision-makers to choose the best compromise
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alternative from a range of optimum solutions. Thus, BIM tool – REVIT can be used to facilitate the decision-
making process. This is discussed in step 4.
IV. THE TECHNIQUE ADOPTED FOR VALIDATING THE SMA MODEL
According to [52], “the suitable technique for validating a model mainly depend on the real world distinct element
and characteristic in a problem being analysed as well as the type of model utilized”. Nevertheless, the various
techniques consideration suggests degenerate tests as the only suitable techniques for validating the developed
SMA model, mainly because no real-system database available. Also, the aim of this study to validate the model
for sector-wide usage also makes this approach more suitable than the others. The objective of degenerated tests
validation was to see if it degenerates as expected by modeling such situations in the model using suitable values
selection of the input and internal parameters. Therefore, BIM tool - REVIT was adopted for the validation. The
ensuing sections describe the detailed procedure of the validation exercise and the findings.
Results validation using BIM tool – REVIT : Based on the Embodied Energy (EE) and Embodied Carbon (EC)
computation, the challenges encountered in performing the same for the whole building systems cannot be
underestimated. This is manual computation fundamental weakness, where everyday computational tasks are
repeated for each building material identified. Moreover, the manual process is allergic to errors and the
probabilities of naming the errors are lose weight. The come out of BIM can be utilized to increase the process-
based approach acuracy in the EE and EC computation. Also, BIM act to fulfill an option to validate the obtained
manual computational results. The previous studies such as [53], many BIM software exist and are presently being
used to model buildings. Example of such is Revit, which is regarded with great favour in the BIM software
market. A main merit of Revit is that its building models can be converted into practical or readily communicated
formats without much difficulty that can be processed by other software [54]. However, comma-separated value
(CSV) is a comparatively simple file format supported by Microsoft Excel and Revit. Excel can the information
in CSV format. Producing or making up building model data in CSV can be interpret by MS Excel or Revit. The
MS Excel computational power provide a particular quality of great choice in modelling equations 1 and 2, which
are utilized in EE and EC calculation. In addition, MS Excel can be utilized to show calculation results in an
accordance to standard formats like the Cahier des Prescriptions Techniques in France and the New Rules of
Measurements (NRM) in the United Kingdom (UK), which are These are principles or conditions of output
presentation and construction quantity measurements. This was adopted for this study. Since it is usually used in
developing countries like Cameroon as well as in developed countries like Singapore. Based on the 2D drawings
and Architects specification stabilise clay block house and sand-cement block house were modelled in Revit. The
3D equivalents are presented in Figure 6 and 7.
Figure 6: 3D TCM of stabilise clay house Revit model
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Figure 7: 3D CMC of sand-cement block house Revit model
Furthermore, the schedules as well as quantities are generated from these models by utilizing the “Modify
Schedules/Quantities” function under the “View” tab in Revit 2014. The output is converted to CSV format using
the “Export” function in Revit 2014. The CSV format is stored in any preferred location on the computer and read
with “MS Excel”. Equations 1 and 2 are modeled in Excel and calculation are conducted in this environment. First
results obtained differ slightly from those obtained by utilizing manual calculations. The manual process is
reaffirmed to name and also correct the errors. In addition, BIM model is reaffirmed to name the missing
components. These exercises were performed several times until common results were obtained, and this results
are presented in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2: Cradle-to-gate performance (TCM of stablise clay block house)
Building component EE emissions
MJ/kg
Percentage
(%)
EC emissions
(kgCO2)
Percentage
(%)
Site installation No data
Substructure 70,154.17 54.0 10,001.89 64.0
Walls and frames 10,255.38 8.0 810.35 5.0
Roof structure and covering 32,298.00 24.0 1,804.56 11.5
Finishes 1,217.14 0.4 76.89 0.5
Doors/windows/fixture/fittings 16,010.23 12.1 1,127.86 7.0
Plumbing installations 610.96 0.5 980.37 4.0
Electrical installations 1,257.19 1.0 1,615.51 8.0
Waste No data
Total 129,953.82 100.0 15,689.70 100.0
Table 3: Cradle-to-gate performance (CCM of sand-cement block house)
Building component EE emissions
MJ/kg
Percentage
(%)
EC emissions
(kgCO2)
Percentage
(%)
Site installation No data
Substructure 97,114.99 33.2 13,861.97 33.3
Walls and frames 129,434.25 44.0 19,991.51 48.0
Roof structure and covering 43,052.68 14.2 2,408.00 5.8
Finishes 2,290.04 0.8 145,41 0.6
Doors/windows/fixture/fittings 20,434.85 7.0 1,422.31 3.4
Plumbing installations 980.37 0.3 1,222.00 2.9
Electrical installations 1615.51 0.5 2,514.37 6.0
Waste No data
Total 294,194.96 100.0 41,565.57 100.0
V. DISCUSSION
After clearly identifying the performance of various materials and component elements assemblies, decision-
makers are more knowledgeable in selecting weights that reflect their personal reliability on each analysis.
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This research discovered that a house built using sand-cement block house, produced a building with a
294,194.96MJ of EE and 41,565.57kgCO2 EC emission, with 126% EE and 165% embodied carbon more when
compared with stabilise clay block masonry wall for a residential building. However, the minimization in the
usage of materials with comparatively high EC, in this case sand blocks, with materials with lower EC, in this
case clay, in the wall component was the fundamental reasons or logic behind factor in the difference found. A
distinctive for the Nigeria, clay was not only utilized as the principal structural material but also not needing
mortar wall finishes, rather than the more traditional mortar for wall plastering finishes (as found in the TCM of
stablise clay block house). The mortar displacement for wall plastering finishes gave rise to a carbon saving of
27%. The further factor leading to the low EC of the study case is the efficiency of volume production that is
related with stabilise clay block. In spite of ratio of the output to the input in the manufacturing of the TCM of
stabilise clay block, onsite waste production in this case study was still an important factor in the overall EC, 5%
of the total. However the clay manufacturing does not add to the overall waste associated CO2 produced; barely
about 6% of transport associated EC. In addition, this proposes decreases in EC can be made by increasing the
quantities of off-site manufacturing and minimization of on-site waste. Because no waste data collected, for both
process, was not of sufficient quality to make a robust EE and EC emissions quantification. Thus further study is
required so as to quantify the resource efficiency claims from stabilise clay block house processes in comparison
with that from onsite construction.
In spite of the high clay ratio throughout the structure half of the materials associated embodied carbon was
discovered to be related with the foundation, substructure as well as floor slab construction. Hence the comparative
importance of these sub structural elements minimizes with the materials CO2 intensive gain in other elements.
This proposes that these sub structural components and materials utilized would be appropriate objectives for
minimizing the EC further in such stabilize clay house. The sub structural elements were consisted of having the
properties of cement rich materials and blocks. The cement in concrete and mortars can possess a high energy
input during production as well as relatively high EC, in addition to the already CO2 release during the chemical
changes of manufacture. The embodied carbon quantity that is related with cement manufacturing depends on the
primary materials as well as the source of energy utilized in its output. The emissions that are linked with the
production of cement can be minimized by the fossil fuels uniform movement with both waste materials and
renewable energy as the source of energy. Therefore, any sensible or fair EE minimization should aim the
application of steel, cement-based products as well as cement. The policy direction in this regard should be
towards replacement of energy-intensive materials with low energy materials.
A number of research works on alternative building materials in Nigeria exist, but there is need for proper
documentation and a set of rules, principles or laws, especially written ones (or codification) to help and make
easier the informed use. In this regard, study on the utilization of more alternative envelope material to sand-
cement blocks (like recycle and reuse) and the utilization of cement replacement (for example lime, fly ash) is
crucial to sustainable materials selection in achieving sustainable development. In addition, since the continue
application of cement play significant function in building construction in the study area, uninterrupted change
for the better or progress in the production process is suggested. The materials replacement is not the only
alternative for sustainable building construction. Efficient as well as effective construction processes also help or
make use of sustainability in building construction. Minimizing the environmental loads from stabilise clay block
to a more advance stage which could be achieved in two (2) ways [55]. Firstly, by minimize the cement usage by
replacing with lower embodied carbon alternatives such as ground granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash and other
pozzolanic materials or lime based materials as mentioned in foregoing paragraph. Secondly, which is not
associated with this study case is by utilizing the design strategies so as to minimize the cement volumes needed,
for example, removing the oversite concrete ‘raft’, utilizing isolated point foundations instead of strip foundations
or utilizing steel helical screw piles. Although a relatively high embodied energy product steel helical screw piles
are both reusable and recyclable. Therefore, both the two strategies would minimize the application of carbon
intensive materials where no additional benefit to the application is possible in lightweight construction.
Nevertheless, in the study case, distinctive of majority clay construction, the most of its practicable mass is
separated or detached within the building structure or under other material finishes and, accordingly, not available
for the practicable thermal storage that could compensate for or counterbalance the environmental loads of its
extraction and production.
The full lifecycle, be made up of occupation, maintenance and demolition as well as disposal requires to be
considered. EC consideration requires to be incorporated at the earliest stage of design. If environmental loads are
to be reduced reasonably even though reducing further benefits there requires being general well-informed thought
in design of building.
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The above scenario for building construction materials emphasizes the significant function built environment
practitioners participated in building construction materials selection or specification as well as in the process of
construction. Frequently, selection of alternative building construction materials has been hindered by the
deficiency of adequate technical information concerning the materials which makes built environment
practitioners bind to conventional building construction materials with widely known technical information. This
entails that cooperative attempts should be made to identify, codify as well as integrate into option or alternative,
low energy material and building codes that are dependent on context applicable to the area of study. In this regard,
the applicable government agencies together with the built environment stakeholders as well as professionals
should make cooperative attempts to address the challenge. With the performance scores of each assembly type,
the present study is not aiming at normalizing and ranking the different combinations. This study attempts to
incorporate the whole building system, in order to begin setting benchmarks for the industry. This would transform
the way the sector performs environmental assessment on building SMA and perhaps enhance research in more
simplified tools and methods to conduct LCA. It is interesting to note that there is no support on the effect of EE
and CO2. When observed, it can be found that sand-cement block house is responsible for a difference about
1256MJ/m2
of EE and 217.37kgCO2/m2
of EC.
V. CONCLUSION
MO process can be combined with LCA successfully as an aid in building construction process environmental
management. The results exposes that the process can be simultaneously optimised on an environmental objective
functions to identify the best compromise solution for bettering the performance of a process. The results indicate
that the process environmental performance can be improved by up to 26% EE and 65% EC emissions in
comparison with the existing contemporary construction method process. Since process improvements cannot be
carried out on the basis of environmental LCA only, it is also shown in this study that the compromise between
environmental and economic performance can be found on the TCM obtained by process optimisation. The merit
of MO in environmental process management in the context of LCA lies in offering alternative options for process
improvements that enables the choice of the BATNEEC and BPEO. Furthermore, multiobjective process
optimisation can successfully be combined with LCA as an aid in environmental management of a building
construction process. The process is simultaneously optimized on a number of environmental objective functions
to identify the best compromise solution for bettering the performance of the process. MO utilized in this approach
provides a more effective approach to environmental management process by offering alternative optimal
solutions and enabling decision-makers to identify and choose the BIM tool - REVIT. The process-based approach
was manual and because of susceptibility of such an approach to errors, BIM software was used to validate the
computational results. It is important to note that this is an emerging field and knowledge in this field is gradually
being explored. Hence, emissions from whole process construction were assessed but emissions from site
installation and was waste are not included, due to lack of data. The results obtained were converted to per unit
m2
so as to ease the comparison. Furthermore, when compared to other studies, the calculational results were in
the same range, although significantly lower than values obtained in the developed countries. The comparison
revealed sand-cement block house consumed more embodied energy and carbon than stablise clay house. The
approach suggested in this research can allow for assessment of the other civil infrastructures. The authors are
convinced that this research can assist building stakeholders in making critical decisions during the selection of
sustainable material and assembly alternatives.
Novelty : The mathematical methodology could also be extended with the other optimisationn techniques in
solving material and assembly selection problems. Finally, the evaluation model and results can provide a valuable
reference for building professionals seeking to enhance the sustainability of construction projects.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and Federal Polytechnic Bida, Nigeria
for their facilities, conducive-environment and support for the study as well as the project manager of MS
Cornerstone Engineering Construction and Company Limited in Nigeria who contributed to this study.
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