Unido tool kit 4-textbook

U N I D O C L E A N E R P R O D U C T I O N T O O L K I T
UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION
4
Energy analysis
Main directorym
1

Textbook 4 - Energy analysis
4- BACKGROUND MATERIAL
4 Textbook
4.1 Aims and goals of "Energy Analysis"
Aim of the
dossier
With the aid of this manual and the worksheets you will be able to create
and maintain an energy data base for your company in order to be able to
use a corporate energy management system as a tool for optimising the
overall company.
Since the oil price shock, it has become a matter of course for large
companies requiring large amounts of energy to install an energy
management system. Whereas small and medium-sized enterprises rarely
attend to these matters. The aim of this brochure is to describe the work
entailed by a corporate energy analysis that will serve as a basis for a
company’s energy management system. The following table compiles the
key aspects of a company’s energy management system.
It comprises the five areas:
1. Organisation
2. Analysis and planning
3. Monitoring
4. Consulting
5. Implementation
Area Contents
Organisation • Installation of an organisational unit focused on energy
related matters
• Clear guidelines concerning responsibilities
(organisation chart) and funds
• Integration of this unit into investment related
decisions
Analysis and
planning
• Collection and documentation of data concerning
energy supply and utilisation in the company
• Description of the energy situation (annual update)
• Survey of weaknesses and saving potentials
• Creation or commissioning of energy analyses
Measures for
achieving an
efficient
corporate
energy system
Authors:
2
Main Menu Teachers' notes

Area Contents
(measurement of individual facilities or machines)
• Elaboration and planning of energy saving measures
Monitoring • Monitoring of energy conversion equipment and energy
consumers
• Elaboration of energy benchmarks (development)
• Creation of company comparisons concerning energy
efficiency (e.g. benchmarks)
Consulting • Description of energy situation (energy report to
management)
• Consulting concerning conclusion of supply contracts
• Market observation
Implementation • Implementation of energy saving measures
• Maintenance of energy facilities
The focal points of the above areas listed as an example (see table)
provide a good insight into the steps that need to be taken to install an
energy management system.
The contents of this brochure are focused on the core areas of the energy
management system:
Analysis (including documentation) and monitoring
Major issues of
an energy
management
system
The following focal points are established:
• Collection and documentation of data concerning energy supply and
utilisation in the company
• Description of the energy situation (annual update)
• Elaboration of energy benchmarks as a monitoring and decision-making
tool
• Identification of options intended to save energy and energy costs
As mentioned above, installing organisational units focused on energy is an
important precondition for guaranteeing an efficient energy management
system. Volume 2 of this series “Team, policy, motivation” has already
dealt with the questions of staff motivation and responsibility. Please read
this textbook as well with implementation of an energy management
system in mind.
3
Main Menu Teachers notesTeachers' notes

Energy- and
Material flows "Energyflows" are more difficult to detect, but follow similar rules like
material flows, which finally lead to waste. Thus the dealing with this issue
in the work shop and in the company is quite similar:
• Because you cannot see energy you have to use measuring devices.
Sometimes they already exist or data are gathered, recorded and can
be accessed by the energy supplier.
• The energy consumption is determined from a large number of plants
and equipments. These equipments are planned, installed and
maintained from companies which can also be part of the analysis.
• A utility is obliged to provide all services which are required. Therefore
they mostly pay working costs and basic-services costs. Due to a better
allocation of demand, costs can be saved without having to limit
services.
• Every type of energy, that is converted in a company, (e.g. measured in
kilo watt hour / kWh) leaves the company in the form of heat.
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4.2 What are the main components of the corporate
energy system? What is the basic approach?
Objectives of
the corporate
energy analysis
Baiscally, a company’s energy system covers six areas. The aim of CP is not
to see energy purchase (input) as an unchanging constant, rather the idea
is to elaborate measures designed to increase efficiency in terms of
conversion, distribution and utilisation of energy and by means of heat
recovery. The prime objective is to create the company’s product or service
with a minimum energy input. Thus, this background information seeks to
focus on the energy service and not on the use of energies.
Structure of
the corporate
energy system
Disposal
Heat recovery
UtilisationDistributionConversionSupply
The following steps are required:
In all six areas, data is collected on the following:
• type, number and characteristics of facilities
• type of energies and energy consumption
For energy purchase
• analysis of energy consumption in certain periods
For all areas
• interpretation of data (development, benchmarks) and
• suggestion of possible solutions to efficient energy utilisation
5

Energy units
The energy consumption is measured in Joule (J, kJ, MJ, GJ). A further
common unit is the kWh, whereas 1 kWh equals 3.600 kJ.Work J = Joule
1 kWh = 3.600 kJ
Power Watt = J/s
conversions at end
of document
Energy sources are also indicated in kg, Nm³ or l. These units can be
transferred in kJ or kWh for the respective fuels – see conversion table at
the end of this document.
Besides the energy consumption the energy power is also often very
important. It indicates which work can be done within a specific time and is
usually measured in Watt (W, kW, MW, GW).
4.3 Gathering of data and energy saving potentials
Before you start collecting data and analysing, observe the following tips:
• Find out what records on energy consumption and consumer structure
(e.g. machinery lists) are already kept at the company.Use your staff
knowledge for
the purpose of
energy saving
• Also, ask whether the company already has plans, programs,
measurements, etc., to increase efficiency.
It makes sense to check this first so as to avoid double-tracking. Also,
when talking to staff, you will often obtain important information
concerning realistic energy-saving potentials. The existing records on
energy consumption and consumer structure are required for the following
analysis.
Ongoing data
collection
The technical energy data, from purchase (input), to utilisation, and
disposal (output) are analysed in the followed chapters. In each case the
analysis will proceed from the general to the specific, indicating possible
analyses and interpretations after compilation of the data.
4.3.1 Energy data
The annual energy input and annual energy costs should be collected
separately for each type of energy.
Procedure?
Where to obtain
the data?
Aids can include e.g. bills of energy supply companies (electricity, district
heating, gas), heating oil/diesel suppliers, sales by the company’s own
petrol station, own electricity generation, log book.
Good consultation in terms of electricity, gas or regional district heat can
save significant costs. This, however, should be examined in the particular
case.
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Specific energy use - indicators
The best way to
evaluate these
data?
For development of the company in terms of efficiency and effectiveness,
above all standardised quantities will play an important role, i.e. specific
consumptions, so-called benchmarks (see also volume about indicators and
controlling): e.g., for a brewery, heating oil consumption per hectalitre of
beer. This reference quantity may differ quite substantially depending on
the particular type of energy and company. However, it should be chosen
in such a way so as to be able to track the development for the purpose of
greater efficiency. Usual reference quantities are: production volume,
turnover, number of staff, heated surface, volume transported, mileage,
etc.
Benchmarks
tell you more
The aim of any company should be to reduce specific energy consumption.
For expanding companies, benchmark trends are the only reliable indicator
of energy efficiency, while total energy consumption is not.
The characteristics of the specific consumption can already be used for the
analysis and control of the energetic situation in the company.
• Has the specific consumption changed?
Getting
Indicators
Interpretation of
indicators
• Is the allocation base for the calculation of the specific consumption well
chosen?
• If the specific consumption has increased:
− What could be the reason? Which areas expanded? Can the reason
be found there? Was there any substitution of energy sources?
• If the specific energy consumption has decreased:
− Was it a selective energy saving measure? Were the targets met? Or
was it shifting from one energy source to the other?
• Due to the characteristics of indicators the situation can be assessed,
without making a statement whether this consumption is too high or
not. Where do I get information about how good I am?
− Asking colleagues for data from the sector
− Asking plant manufacturer for data
− Literature (research, magazines)
− calculations
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Collecting of Data
Ewnergy carriers
to be traced at
the company
Data should be collected separately for the following types of energy:
electricity (energy supplier), own electricity generation (hydropower,
photovoltaics); natural gas, heating oil (heavy, light, extra light), fuels
(diesel, petrol), biomass, solar power, district heating (see also at
worksheets).
Particularly, note the fact that there are important areas such as purchased
fuels that are often not directly allocated to energy consumption. These
values should also be recorded as they are generally the most important
source of energy, for example in service companies, and fuel consumption
is already the second largest factor in per cent in Austria.
Transport is a
major energy
consumer
Annual profiles
The development of monthly consumption in the form of an annual profile
shows:Interpretation
of annual
developments
• the winter-summer ratio for the purpose of estimating heating/cooling
and process heat percentages
• if several years are taken into account, displacement of individual
energies (e.g. heating oil consumers are replaced by electricity
consumers),
• the possibility of analyzing energy carriers, e.g. for combined heat and
power generation
• Are there months with significant consumption peaks? Can they be
avoided (e.g. press, dryer, bath, air conditioning, etc)?
The appropriate data should be taken from energy supplier bills and the
company’s own records.
What special analysis of the annual profile is possible for
electricity? Development of output
Power is a
substantial cost
factor
Electricity purchases are billed on the basis of two quantities:
• Power (kW)
• Consumption = work (kWh)
These quantities can be found in electricity bills (or annual statement).
Particularly power (kW) must be divided into billed power and power
actually required.
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Use peak load
control Large companies usually have a so-called power management system that
ensures that a certain maximum power is not exceeded. If required power
is higher, consumers are shut down temporarily in order of priority.
Companies with a power management system should also check proper
functioning of their system.
Elektrische Leistung am 15.5.1998
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
70,0
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
12:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
00:00
kW
Is there a big difference between the monthly peak load and the calculated
average power? If yes: Can it be change with a different production plan
(cheapest solution)? Would demand management make sense? (obtaining
offers from companies in the sector. As a target value you can assume that
such a plant is available at a price of 3.500 € and more)
If reactive current costs are high (see electricity bill for details) it makes
sense to avoid these costs by installing a compensation device. Specialised
firms offer various designs and efficiency calculations.
Weekly/daily statistics
Record the daily statistic for at least one day. Take the day with the highest
daily consumption or the day with the highest daily peak.Identifying
power peaks
The day with the highest daily consumption need not be the day with the
highest daily peak. Peaks may be entirely independent of energy
consumption when repairs, test runs, presses, etc. require large amounts
of power.
In order to collect data on electricity, companies with an electronic 1/4-
hour meter simply have to call their energy supplier as they will provide
these data for the peak consumption days, mostly free of charge. Energy
suppliers sometimes also offer other companies (cost free) measurement of
power consumption statistics for a 7-14 day period.
How to interpret weekly/daily statistics
• Do peaks cause bottle-necks in supply?
• Particularly with regard to electricity: can these peaks (= power price)
be avoided?
• Is energy consumption necessary outside production hours? Or can this
be saved?
• Is energy consumption high at weekends? Can this be avoided? (e.g. by
switching off compressors, boilers, heating baths, night-time reduction
at weekends also during the day (however, observe the development of
outside temperature!))
• Is consumption particularly high on any particular weekday? Can this be
avoided? (This is particularly important for seemingly necessary plant
extensions that can possibly be avoided.)
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4.3.2 Conversion
So far you have only analysed energy purchase (input). Now we will
document and analyse the next area of the company’s energy system,
conversion.
Conversion equipment includes: heating boilers, steam boilers, district
heating interconnecting stations, refrigerating equipment, combined heat
and power generators (e.g.: block-type power plants), and direct fuel
consumers (e.g. gas dryers).
Practically every company has energy converters in the form of heating or
steam boilers. Thus, this area is particularly important in terms of efficient
use of energy – see also at worksheets.
What information is important with regard to heat generation in
boilers? How can the information be interpreted?
The following table lists the basic data and thus a possible interpretation.
Basic information Interpretation, measures
Rated capacity Is the boiler utilised to a good level? (e.g. for heating,
more than 1200 full-load hours)
Fuel type and consumption Is it possible to switch to a more environmentally
friendly fuel?
Flow temperature (or
pressure in steam boilers)
Are flow temperature/pressure correctly adjusted to the
consumers or could they be reduced? (The higher the
flow temperature, the greater the losses.)
Operating hours See rated capacity
Firing efficiency Is the efficiency of the boiler regularly measured
(chimney-sweep)? Does efficiency match the
manufacturer’s specifications? Is the boiler regularly
cleaned?
What information is important for central refrigeration
equipment? How can the information be interpreted?
The following table lists the basic data and thus a possible interpretation.
Basic information Interpretation, measures
Rated capacity
Annual electricity
consumption
Operating hours
Operating hours should be between 4000 and 6000 h for
well-designed equipment.
Is rated capacity adequate? Is the target refrigeration
temperature maintained on hot summer days?
Outside/condensation
temperature difference
At outside temperature > 10-15°C, condensation
temperature should not exceed 10-15°C above outside
temperature. If this is the case, check the heat
exchangers (control, design, etc.)
Refrigerator/evaporation
temperature difference
The temperature difference between the refrigerator
and evaporation temperature should be < 10°C
(depending on the specific application up to < 4°C).
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4.3.3 Distribution
The next step after conversion of energies in the company is energy
distribution. Particularly “heat distribution” (hot water, steam) can involve
major losses.
Line Losses
Thus, check whether pipes are insulated (flow and return). The following
example is designed to show the importance of insulation. A heating
system with a flow temperature of 80°C and a return temperature of 20°C
has a heat loss of 31,2 kW or almost 20% of effective heat output in 200
metres of uninsulated piping. With a 50-mm insulation, heat loss in 200
metres of piping is 3,6 kW or 2%.
Importance of
insulation
Steam traps in steam consumers must be checked regularly, also consider
whether they should be replaced by new ones (better use of steam).
Check steam
traps
Pay special attention to fittings as they have a large surface and can thus
cause major losses.
The idea that radiated heat is not really lost is very deceptive as:
• generally pipes are located at the top and thus heat really is lost,
• heat is not delivered where and when it should be, and
• overheating can occur in individual areas (additional burden on air-
conditioning, unpleasant working climate).
4.3.4 Consumers
Worksheet 4-4 lists the most important consumers, their installed load,
operating hours and consumption. You should record a total of at least
80% of purchased power. The important thing is to divide consumers
according to their applications.
Recording
Consumers
For heat, according to:
• process heat, heating, hot water, air-conditioning
For electricity, according to:
• refrigerating equipment, other cooling equipment, electric heating, hot
water, lights, process heat, drives (mechanical work)
For central refrigeration unit, according to:
• the individual cooling points
In addition to the application, survey installed load and full-load hours. With
the aid of installed load and full-load hours (estimate for small aggregates,
large machines usually have operating hour meters), it is possible to
compute total consumption. Thus, this break-down allows you to allocate
consumption to consumer groups and specific applications. There is also a
column for “Notes”. Use this column to record details on energy saving and
any necessary renewal or maintenance work identified by the company’s
electrician, for example, and which can be collected on this form.
The aim is to
identify potential
savings
However, before collecting the data, read about the possible interpretations
so that you also collect any information that may be needed for this purpose.
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How can these data be interpreted?
General:
• An important point is to record and document equipment and
machinery.
Aim of the
survey
• The collected data form the basis for cost calculations in order to be
able to allocate energy consumption correctly to the appropriate
consumers. For example, this may induce individual departments to
realise potential savings.
• Typical energy consumptions for individual areas should be obtained
from suppliers. At all events, machines older than 5 to 10 years can
generally mean significant energy savings due to fast developments in
the field of microelectronics and sensor technology (e.g.: frequency
converters for speed control).
• With the aid of the consumer structure, it is possible to prioritise
energy-saving measures and purchasing guidelines.
• Suppliers will provide energy consumption rates for good machines
(efficiency of boilers, energy consumption of refrigerating equipment
referred to characteristic size and nominal temperature). A comparison
with these data will allow you to decide whether or not to investigate in
greater detail.
Heating/air-conditioning:
• Are heating registers regulated according to demand (thermostatic
valves) and should individual areas of the company be regulated
separately?
Starting points
for energy
saving
• Is room temperature adjusted to demand? (cooler in winter, warmer in
summer, lowered at night and at weekends, allow greater variation of
parameters, e.g. a rang of minimum +/- 10 %)
• Are inside sources of heat and humidity avoided in air-conditioned
areas?
• Do the air-conditioned areas have sunshading facilities?
• Do fans have variable speed drives in order to adjust the volume of air
to demand?
• Are gates closed automatically? Is it ensured that windows and doors
stay shut?
• Is there adequate vertical distribution of heat so as to avoid heat
accumulation near the ceiling?
• Does the company take specific measures to ensure minimum
consumption in process heat equipment? I.e. minimum volumes of air
in dryers, minimum volume of water in washing machines, bath covers,
vat insulation, ...
• Is one main objective with regard to process heat equipment a
cascaded system of heat utilisation?
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Power consumers:
• Are machines and equipment adjusted to demand? Avoid partial load
operation of machines and equipment as least loss occurs at the rated
operating point; i.e.: adjusted drives, star-delta control, V-belt pulleys
and frequency converters.
Starting points
for energy
saving
• Is consumption regulated to demand e.g. for fans (half speed equals a
75% reduction of power)?
• Is the compressed-air compressor located in a cool room? Is the
pressure level kept as low as possible? If possible, is compressed air
avoided (most expensive form of energy!)?
• Are intake grids and nozzles regularly cleaned in order to reduce
pressure loss?
• Are lights adjusted to demands in terms of times and sites? Are light
casings and reflectors regularly serviced and cleaned?
• If lights are old (older than 5 to 10 years) it generally pays off to install
a more efficient lighting system. Analysis services are offered free of
charge by firms in this line of business.
4.3.4.1 Division of consumption according to applications and
energies
With the aid of annual energy data and consumer data, it is possible to
allocate energies to the following applications
• process heat
• heating
• hot water
• refrigeration
• lights
• other power consumers
• transport
This provides a good overview of the company’s energy system. Once you
have identified the energy consumption of the individual areas, you can
proceed to set priorities for the further analysis. What is more, these
records are essential for ECO-auditing.
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4.3.5 Disposal of Energy
The term disposal used in the context of energy does not match the usual
meaning of the word, but is intended to illustrate the fact that for example
equipment is also required to dispose of waste heat. However, this
equipment is not only a source of loss but also causes costs and is time-
consuming which is why it should be separately analysed. Investing in
energy-saving technologies can reduce the amount of time and costs
required for disposal (from the symptom to the cause: for example, waste
heat from computers has to be removed by the air-conditioning system, i.e.
low-loss computers can pay off as a result of lower costs of air-
conditioning).
Waste heat needs
to be disposed of
Thus, briefly describe the way the energy used leaves the company. Pay
particular attention to the utilisable temperature level. Use worksheet 4-5
for this task.
Essentially, we will look at the following areas:
• exhaust gases (e.g. boiler, drier)
• waste water (before mixing, i.e. straight from each system)
• refrigerating equipment (e.g. waste heat from condenser, product
cooling)
• other losses (e.g. outgoing factory air)
This allows us to identify avoidable energy consumption and, if necessary,
exploit it in the form of a heat recovery system.
4.3.6 Heat Recovery
Worksheet 9 will indicate
• possibilities of cascaded utilisation of heat,
• connecting flows by means of heat exchangers,
• current waste heat utilisation,
• possibilities of improving waste heat utilisation
Utilisation of waste heat from equipment, better still in the aggregates
themselves (e.g. air preheating, counter-flow water preheating), is of great
importance for a high level of efficiency.
The so-called pinch technology is one way to link heat flows in process
aggregates. This also allows you to plan effective deployment of heat
pumps. If required, consulting firms in this area will provide the necessary
information.
Also the waste water often contains enough heat. Even at low
temperatures heat recovery mostly pays off.
Waste water and
exhaust air
contain heat Example: At a cooling down of 1 m³ waste water and simultaneous pre-
heating of fresh water of 10 °C gives you a saving of approx. 1,5l heating
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oil. For strongly polluted or solid containing waste water, a special heat
exchanger is recommended.
A frequent waste heat source are air compressors. In this case the cooling
should occur with oil or water instead of air. The oil or water can then be
used to pre-heat fresh water.
4.4 Typical energy applications with optimising potentials
In this chapter typical question for 4 common energy applications are
discussed - boiler/steam system, cooling/freezing, air pressure and
illumination – which will give a possible optimisation potential. The
questions as well as the mentioned energy application represent just a
small selection. A detailed description would go beyond the scope of this
volume.
4.4.1 Boiler, steam system
• Is the condensate returned? (contains up to 12% of the energy)?
• Is the combustion air pre-heated?
• Is the fresh water pre-heated through a heat recovery?
• Is the proportion of air set correctly? (no air surplus, no leak air, but
still complete combustion)? Does the air amount controller work?
• Are the heat surfaces maintained and cleaned sufficiently (1 mm fouling
increases the exhaust air loss and thus the energy consumption of
approx. 5%)?
• Are steam losses avoided? Does the condensate discharge work?
• Is vapour pressure in the system adjusted to the temperature
applications (unnecessary high pressure and thus high temperature
means losses)?
• Is the boiler insulated sufficiently (especially the front)?
• Is the size of the boiler correctly designed (unnecessary high power
causes unnecessary start up-, shut down- and operation losses)?
• Is the condensate container insulated?
• Are the steam-/warm water pipes insulated? Also shifter, valves, flange
and distributor (are there unlockable clamp insulators)?
• Can modern, high efficient boilers be installed?
• ...
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4.4.2 Cooling
• Is the illumination reduced or switched off automatically in the cooling
rooms?
• Is it assured that no warm products are stored (at first they should be
cooled down to room temperature if possible)?
• Is it assured that the defrosting cycle is operated sufficiently but not
too often (check the setting)? Is it assured that there is not ice on the
vaporiser?
• Are plastic curtains or rapid closing doors used to lower losses?
• Is the required temperature in the cooling room recorded and adjusted
to the need (1 °C can save up to 4 % electricity)?
• Covering of open cooling devices?
• Are the door seals ok?
• Are the opening times minimised?Cooling energy is
expensive and
requires energy
consumption
• Are the cooling devices maintained and cleaned constantly?
• Is the temperature in the condenser as deep as possible?
• Is it checked whether the discharged air in the condenser can be
reused?
• ...
4.4.3 Compressed air
• Are the compressors and dryers switched off after closing hour?
• Can the pressure be maintained after closing the valves?
• Are the pipes and plants checked in terms of leaks (constant check
after closing hour or at the weekends)?
• Have you done a compressor measuring – delivery amount and
pressure (that is offered by many compressor manufacturers)?
• Is the pressure reduced to the required minimum?
• Is it assured that there is no higher pressure just for a single consumer
(an additional pressure net for this consumer)?
• Is the intake air temperature held as low as possible (the colder the
higher the efficiency? Outdoor intake)?
• Do you avoid to use compressed air for cleaning?
• Are the air intake filters cleaned regularly (avoiding of a too large
pressure loss)?
Compressed air is
one of the most
expensive energy • Is it possible to separate areas in the compressed air net?
• Is it possible to cool the compressor with oil or water so that the heat
could be reused?
• Is the waste heat from the air-cooled compressors reused in the winter
(e.g. in the working halls)?
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• Is it possible to use electronic tools instead of pneumatic ones.?
• ...
4.4.4 Illumination
• Is it assured that just necessary illumination is on?
•• Is the outdoor- and display-window illumination controlled (motion
detector, timer)? Is daylight used as much as possible?
• Are lamps/lights and windows maintained and cleaned constantly?
• Are the rooms arranged wisely in terms of illumination?
• Are energy saving lamps used (normal bulbs have a low efficiency; just
1-2%, halogen lamps 1,3-3% fluorescent or energy saving lamp10-
15%) ?
• Are electronic power starter units used for fluorescent lamps?
• Are lights sufficiently equipped with reflectors?
• Have you ever measured the illumination intensity at your work
stations?
• Are there enough switches?
• Can you switch the different working stations separately?
• ...
4.5 Utilising renewable energies
With regard to the stabilisation of greenhouse gases, in addition to
increasing efficiency, many countries start striving to switch to renewable
energies. Individual cities and regions have even undertaken to halve CO2
emissions by 2010. In the spirit of an offensive environmental policy,
companies are called upon to declare their own activities in this area.
Renewable
energies and
climate policy
For this reason, the analysis should document what renewable energies are
used for what purpose and what percentage they account for in total
energy consumption. Examples include: own electricity generation from
hydropower or photovoltaics, heat generation from biomass or solar
collectors. Other renewable energies are wind power or the use biogas and
biofuels. Also heat pumps are using renewable energy, if they work an
ambient heat sources.
17

4.6 Traffic
Traffic is already a major energy consumer in many countries. In future,
this sector is expected to display the greatest growth, which makes traffic
the most significant quantity in terms of energy policy. For service
companies, traffic is even today the largest energy consumer in and by the
company. It includes four areas:
• goods and services supplied by the company (outgoing delivery and
business trips)
Types of traffic
• internal company traffic at the particular location and between plants
• goods and services purchased by the company (ingoing delivery)
• staff traffic to and from work
Particularly staff traffic to and from work (home-work journeys) will be
difficult to survey in the initial stages. Knowledge of staff traffic to work
allows us to create incentives for using bicycles, public transport (rail,
combined means of transport) or car pools. Information concerning staff
travel to and from work should be collected in advance. A minimisation of
costs and the duration of travel to and from work is of great interest to the
company in order to increase staff satisfaction.
Reduction
of traffic volume
Generally, it will not be possible to obtain the same data for deliveries to
the company as for deliveries made by the company. However, the analysis
of the available data should at least encourage the company to have local
carrier services, for example, done by bicycle and to transport larger
amounts of goods by rail.
4.7 Contracting
Many companies neglect energy aspects. Investments and planning are
often not carried out until they have become unavoidable. However, as a
result many potential savings and system renewals are not realised. A new
instrument to solve this problem is contracting.
Use energy as a
potential area
of saving
4.7.1 What is contracting?
Outside/
contractor
financing
Contracting - or outside financing - means outsourcing energy supply or
efficient energy utilisation measures to outside firms (contractors).
The user (=company) does not have any investment costs. Investments
are funded by the difference between previous energy costs and new
reduced energy costs. The contractor provides funding and takes care of
handling.
18

We distinguish between two types of contracting:
1. In plant contracting, the contractor pre-funds the plant and calculates
his remuneration on the basis of the amounts of energy supplied to the
user.
New plants or
energy reduction
measures
2. In energy-saving contracting, the outside firm (=contractor)
implements measures aimed to reduce energy requirements. His
remuneration is geared to the level of energy savings. (See diagram;
source: Grazer Energieagentur)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Costofenergyservice[%]
EnergiekosteEnergy costs
ContractinContracting -Raterate
(Rückzahlung
)
(repayment)
Energy costs w/o measures
EinsparungSavings on
Energiekosteenergy costs
Investment
Years
Contracting, then, allows a company to renew a piece of equipment (e.g. a
heating system) and to implement energy-saving measures (e.g. building
insulation or thermostatic valves) without the company having to put up
the necessary funds by itself. In addition, the company receives
professional support and service during the full duration of the contract.
Financing,
support and
service on the
basis of
contracting
Difference between contracting and leasing:
The last point mentioned also illustrates the fact that contracting is by no
means equal to leasing. Unlike contracting, under a leasing contract a
customer has to operate, maintain, insure and repair the machinery
himself. He bears the full economic and technical risk of his investment.
4.7.2 When does contracting make sense?
Technical,
organisational
and financial
reasons
• The existing energy supply system (e.g. heating system) is not state of
the art.
• The company does not want to operate the machinery itself but rather
wishes to outsource energy supply to an expert.
• The customer does not have a budget for the new heating system and
other energy-saving measures.
• He wishes to cut energy costs and reduce pollution.
• There is a mutual willingness to collaborate as partners for a longer
period.
19

4.8 Drawing up an energy concept
Energy concept=
current situation
+
any
measurements +
derivation of
measures +
evaluation and
summary of
measures
This information of recording the data forms the basis of and is also an
integral part of any energy concept.
Only by evaluating the possible measures and assembling a set of
measures it is possible to create a meaningful energy concept.
Often, it turns out while recording the energy situation that some essential
data are missing. Then it is necessary for the company to either carry out
detailed measurements or to have a service provider draw up an energy
concept.
However, the more lucidly you have identified your energy situation
yourself - and can thus estimate the basic possibilities - the better you will
be able to adopt an external service or draw up the energy concept
yourself.
The VDI (German Engineering Association) has drawn up a guideline (VDI
3922) for energy consulting in trade and industry and thus presented a
possibility of creating an energy concept.
The following items must be observed:
1. Initial contact with consultantSteps in drawing
up an energy
concept
(external
consultants)
2. Quotation and commission (clarification of scope of services)
3. Identification of current situation
4. Performance of additional measurements (if data is inadequate)
5. Description and evaluation of current situation
6. Suggestions for rational use of energy
7. Development of an overall concept
8. Assessment and selection measures
9. Presentation and consultation report
10.Implementation and efficiency review
Current situation The description and evaluation of the current situation has been described
previously. Once you have filled in all worksheets carefully, you will have a
sound basis and good overall view of the energy situation in your company.
For the energy concept, it makes sense to sum up the key items.
An investment decision often requires further detailed data and usually
further measurements. With regard to electricity, for instance, such data
are provided by the energy provider in the form of load development
measurements. For questions of heat and refrigeration loss, thermography
can be very helpful as an instrument of analysis. If such measurements
need to be performed, it is usually necessary to consult professionals.
Additional
measurements
20

Suitable suggestions should be made on the basis of existing data and
detailed measurements. Possible measures should consider:
Making
suggestions
• Developing improvement strategies
• Identification of unnecessary energy consumption (distribution,
consumers: e.g. buildings, idling times, steam consumers, ...)
• Reducing specific energy consumption (benchmarks)
• Optimising efficiency and utilisation rates (boiler optimisation,
frequency converters, ....)
• Energy recovery
• Use of renewable energies
Above all with detailed measurements that are normally outsourced care
should be taken that effective suggestions are drawn up and can be drawn
up within the scope of an overall energy concept.
These numerous, diverse possibilities now have to be combined under an
overall concept in the form of a report dealing with the key energy
problems. The following should be particularly taken into account:
g and h:
Conditions and
criteria for a
successful
energy concept
• The preventive idea of CP must be observed. Production-integrated
solutions and their extensive benefits must be described and not
investments in end-of-pipe solutions
• Impact of measures on production (how does a measure influence
energy, e.g. quality or sick leave) must be noted
• Observe combination of measures (e.g. water and energy consumption
combined in process water, heat and electricity consumption on air-
conditioning system)
• Payback periods of measures in the above sense must be detailed
exhaustively (energy-saving investments often do not pay off if only
energy is considered; however, energy does have a great influence on
other areas. In addition, energy-saving measures are often
infrastructural measures and thus often long-term)
Only when these points have been observed will detailed calls for tender
make sense. Only in this way can you ensure that an investment will
produce the desired benefit. When drawing up the concept, it should also
be noted that the decision is generally taken by people with little
knowledge of energy issues. By describing the overall benefit it is also more
realistic that effective measures will be implemented.
Considering
overall
benefit
Finally, it should be mentioned that the worksheets in this dossier will be a
great help when you review efficiency. By drawing up benchmarks and
continuing to collect data through several years, you can monitor success
by comparing data.
Efficiency review
21

This collection of data will provide you with a good tool when you are
dealing with suppliers. If a supplier is aware that you have detailed records
and evaluations of energy-related data, he will be more careful and clearer
in his quotations.
A successful energy concept is reflected in its implementation and balance
(identification of all key energy aspects) By carefully filling in the
worksheets you should be able to identify the key problems of your energy
situation.
4.8.1 Thermography as an instrument of analysis
Measuring heat
and refrigeration
losses
Thermography is an instrument for evaluating heat and refrigeration losses.
Depending on the design of the measuring apparatus you can measure
surface temperatures* at specific points (with so-called infra-red
thermometers) or visualise these temperatures with the aid of a thermal
video camera.
* Strictly speaking, thermography does not measure temperatures but
rather object radiation. However, due to reflections and different
emission behaviours, non-experts should be very careful when
interpreting absolute temperatures.
0,0
100,0
200,0
Thermal cameras
for visualisation
of the energy
situation (colour
coding)
In order to demonstrate the possibilities of thermographic measurements,
we will give two examples: The first image shows a faulty pusher furnace.
The temperature scale is indicated on the left of the picture. The
colours/shades of grey on this scale correspond to the colours/shades of
grey in the picture. The picture shows insulation faults (light patch on the
right) and areas of poor door sealing (left of picture). Particularly, it is not
possible to perceive the faults in the insulation (right) with the naked eye -
i.e. on site - without the aid of thermography.
22

The second picture also shows a thermal fault, this time in a prefab
concrete element for a building facade. Of course, this fault cannot be
detected with the naked eye either.
Min Max
8,7 11,5
Min Max
8,7 11,5
*<4,6°C
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
9,0
10,0
11,0
12,0
13,0
*>13,4°C
The temperature scale has been indicated in both images so that this
measurement allows at least a rough calculation of the losses involved.
IR thermometers are also particularly useful when you wish to check
temperature problems quickly. Although this only allows you to measure
temperatures at specific points and does not provide any illustrative images
to be saved for later use, this method is very inexpensive and is adequate
for engineers.
A major advantage of this method of camera analysis is, however, the
“motivation thrust” given by this colourful visualisation of the company’s
own energy situation. Particularly seen from this viewpoint, thermographic
analysis is an ideal aid for conveying the CP idea and convincing staff of
the necessity of measures.
23

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