The document discusses opinion leadership and the role of change agents in the diffusion of innovations. It defines opinion leadership as the degree to which individuals can informally influence others' attitudes or behaviors regarding innovations. Change agents work to facilitate the adoption of innovations by bridging the gap between change agencies and client systems. The success of change agents depends on factors like the extent of their efforts to contact clients and being oriented toward clients' needs rather than the change agency. The document also examines models of communication flow, characteristics of opinion leaders, and the roles and challenges of change agents.
1. The document discusses Everett Rogers' theory of the diffusion of innovations and the categorization of different types of adopters.
2. Rogers identified five adopter categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
3. Each category is defined by their characteristics, such as their willingness to adopt innovations, degree of opinion leadership, and social connections. Innovators are the first to adopt new ideas while laggards are the last.
This document discusses four types of innovation decisions:
1. Authority decisions are made by individuals in positions of power for an entire social system.
2. Collective decisions are made by consensus of all individuals in a social system through a process of stimulation, initiation, legitimation, and group decision.
3. Optional decisions are made independently by individuals who may be influenced by social norms and interpersonal networks.
4. Contingent decisions can only be made after a prior decision, such as obtaining permission before making an optional decision to cultivate tobacco.
Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations model outlines five factors that influence the adoption of new ideas: (1) attributes of the innovation such as its relative advantage and complexity, (2) the type of decision (individual or collective), (3) communication channels (mass media or interpersonal), (4) the social system including norms and opinion leaders, and (5) the degree of promotion by change agents. The rate of adoption depends on how an innovation is perceived along these factors within a social system over time.
1) Diffusion is defined as the process by which an innovation is communicated through channels over time among members of a social system. There are four main elements of diffusion: the innovation itself, communication channels, time, and the social system.
2) Innovations can be defined by their characteristics including relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Communication channels include mass media and interpersonal channels.
3) The innovation-decision process describes the stages individuals go through in learning about an innovation and deciding whether to adopt it: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation.
1. Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated over time among members of a social system. It involves an innovation, communication channels, time, and a social system.
2. The innovation-decision process includes knowledge of the innovation, forming an attitude, deciding to adopt or reject, implementing the innovation, and confirming the decision.
3. Innovativeness refers to how early an individual adopts innovations compared to others. Adopter categories include innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
Diffusion and adoption of important components of knowledge and adoption process which plays a significant role in dissemination and implementation of the technology
this ppt discussed five attributes of innovation i.e. relative advantage, compatability, complexity, observability, and trialability along with few cases from book "diffusion of innovations" by E.M.Rogers
Mass media incorporates all mediums through which information is distributed to the masses. It is categorized into 7 branches introduced over time - print, recorded music, films, radio, television, newspapers, and the internet and mobile. Mass media aims to attract the largest possible audience. It functions to inform, build consensus, entertain, advertise, and promote development. While it can reach many people quickly and at low cost, it also has disadvantages like being difficult to make local or lacking feedback. Mass media plays a vital role in agriculture by communicating information to farmers. It includes newspapers, magazines, television programs, films, and now increasingly the internet and mobile phones.
1. The document discusses Everett Rogers' theory of the diffusion of innovations and the categorization of different types of adopters.
2. Rogers identified five adopter categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
3. Each category is defined by their characteristics, such as their willingness to adopt innovations, degree of opinion leadership, and social connections. Innovators are the first to adopt new ideas while laggards are the last.
This document discusses four types of innovation decisions:
1. Authority decisions are made by individuals in positions of power for an entire social system.
2. Collective decisions are made by consensus of all individuals in a social system through a process of stimulation, initiation, legitimation, and group decision.
3. Optional decisions are made independently by individuals who may be influenced by social norms and interpersonal networks.
4. Contingent decisions can only be made after a prior decision, such as obtaining permission before making an optional decision to cultivate tobacco.
Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations model outlines five factors that influence the adoption of new ideas: (1) attributes of the innovation such as its relative advantage and complexity, (2) the type of decision (individual or collective), (3) communication channels (mass media or interpersonal), (4) the social system including norms and opinion leaders, and (5) the degree of promotion by change agents. The rate of adoption depends on how an innovation is perceived along these factors within a social system over time.
1) Diffusion is defined as the process by which an innovation is communicated through channels over time among members of a social system. There are four main elements of diffusion: the innovation itself, communication channels, time, and the social system.
2) Innovations can be defined by their characteristics including relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Communication channels include mass media and interpersonal channels.
3) The innovation-decision process describes the stages individuals go through in learning about an innovation and deciding whether to adopt it: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation.
1. Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated over time among members of a social system. It involves an innovation, communication channels, time, and a social system.
2. The innovation-decision process includes knowledge of the innovation, forming an attitude, deciding to adopt or reject, implementing the innovation, and confirming the decision.
3. Innovativeness refers to how early an individual adopts innovations compared to others. Adopter categories include innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
Diffusion and adoption of important components of knowledge and adoption process which plays a significant role in dissemination and implementation of the technology
this ppt discussed five attributes of innovation i.e. relative advantage, compatability, complexity, observability, and trialability along with few cases from book "diffusion of innovations" by E.M.Rogers
Mass media incorporates all mediums through which information is distributed to the masses. It is categorized into 7 branches introduced over time - print, recorded music, films, radio, television, newspapers, and the internet and mobile. Mass media aims to attract the largest possible audience. It functions to inform, build consensus, entertain, advertise, and promote development. While it can reach many people quickly and at low cost, it also has disadvantages like being difficult to make local or lacking feedback. Mass media plays a vital role in agriculture by communicating information to farmers. It includes newspapers, magazines, television programs, films, and now increasingly the internet and mobile phones.
The document discusses new trends in agricultural extension, including a shift from top-down to bottom-up and production-led to market-led approaches. It outlines the need for market-led extension to help farmers understand market demands and consumer preferences in order to improve livelihoods. Examples of innovative market-led extension approaches provided include market intelligence, contract farming, and direct marketing. The challenges and dimensions of market-led extension are also summarized, along with some successful farmer entrepreneurs utilizing these approaches.
The document discusses the perceived attributes of innovation that influence adoption rates. It identifies six key attributes: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability, and predictability. Complexity refers to how difficult an innovation is to understand and use, which can negatively impact adoption rates unless the innovation also has significant relative advantage. Trialability means an innovation can be tested on a limited basis, increasing adoption rates. Observability is how visible the results of an innovation are to others, helping diffusion. Predictability is the certainty of receiving expected benefits from adoption. Preventive innovations aimed at reducing future risks can be difficult to adopt due to unclear benefits.
This document discusses 8 common approaches to agricultural extension:
1. The general agriculture extension approach focuses on disseminating technologies to increase production and is centralized with priorities set nationally.
2. The commodity specialized approach concentrates on increasing production of a single crop through grouping related functions and requiring farmer cooperation.
3. The training and visit approach aims to increase crop production through rigorous training of agents and scheduled farmer visits to promote recommended practices.
4. The agricultural extension participatory approach gives farmer groups and local stakeholders more control and focuses on relevant, low-cost solutions through farmer participation.
1) A combination of mass media (such as publications, radio, television) and interpersonal communication is the most effective way to disseminate new ideas and innovations to rural people.
2) Using multiple teaching methods together, such as a field trip combined with a slide show, tends to be more effective than a single method alone.
3) There is no single best extension teaching method; using different media combinations tailored to audience characteristics can maximize effectiveness.
1. Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated over time among members of a social system. It involves an innovation, communication channels, time, and a social system.
2. There are five stages in the adoption process: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. Adopter categories include innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
3. Key aspects of diffusion include the innovation's attributes, the communication channels, the adopter's innovativeness, and the social system's norms and structure. Adoption occurs after an individual passes through awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption stages.
The document summarizes India's agricultural extension systems. It discusses four major organizational streams that work for rural development: ICAR institutes and universities, state agriculture departments, rural development departments, and voluntary organizations. It then provides details on several specific extension programs established by ICAR, including National Demonstrations (1964), Operational Research Projects (1972), Krishi Vigyan Kendras (1974), Lab to Land (1979), and Frontline Demonstrations. It describes the objectives and roles of these various extension initiatives in demonstrating and disseminating new agricultural technologies to farmers.
The document provides an overview of diffusion of innovation theory, which explains how new ideas and technologies spread through cultures over time. Some key points:
- The theory looks at how innovations are communicated and adopted by different groups in a society, and the factors that influence adoption rates, such as education levels.
- There are five categories of adopters (innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards) that describe people based on how soon they adopt innovations.
- Five factors influence adoption: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability of the innovation.
- Opinion leaders and change agents play important roles in influencing others' adoption. Targeting opinion
This document discusses the role of mass communication in extension education. It defines mass communication as the process by which media organizations produce and transmit messages to large audiences. Mass media enables development agencies to reach large numbers of people directly or indirectly with a single message. The document outlines the need for mass communication in extension work to efficiently disseminate information to farmers. It describes various functions of mass communication, including improving communication capacity, integration of media, quick delivery of information, and helping fill communication gaps. The current scenario of research-extension communication in India relies mainly on face-to-face communication. The document suggests utilizing radio, television, and cyber extension through projects increasing ICT connectivity to improve agricultural extension.
B Sc Agri II Agricultural Extansion Unit 1 Introduction To Agricultural Exte...Rai University
This document provides definitions and concepts of agricultural extension and rural development. It discusses the history and evolution of extension work in India since the 1920s. It outlines key principles of extension education including cultural differences, participation, interests and needs, leadership development, and evaluation. It also discusses objectives, scope, importance and challenges of rural development programs in India. Examples of early rural development experiments conducted in India such as the Shriniketan, Marathandam and Gurgaon attempts are summarized. Gandhi's constructive program for rural development through self-sufficient village life is also outlined.
Incentives increase the rate of adoption of an innovation. Adopter incentives increase the perceived relative advantage of an innovation, while diffuser incentives increase its observability. Although incentives lead to more adoptions, the quality of adoption decisions may be low if influenced primarily by incentives rather than individual assessment of the innovation's merits. Perceived attributes such as compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability also impact an innovation's rate of adoption. The structure of social networks and intensity of promotion efforts by change agents further determine how quickly an innovation spreads.
The document discusses the concepts, philosophies, and principles of extension education. It provides several definitions of extension education from different scholars that emphasize educating adults and youth outside of formal school settings, inducing voluntary behavioral changes, and helping people solve problems. The nature of extension education is described as non-formal, two-way communication between experts and communities, voluntary participation, and respecting local culture. Mildred Harton's four principles that guide extension education philosophy are outlined, which focus on empowering individuals and families. Dahama's philosophy of extension also emphasizes self-help, people's participation, persuasion over compulsion, and voluntary behavioral changes.
Types of innovation decisions, consequences of innovation-decisionsRameshwar sahu
This document discusses three types of innovation decisions: operational, collective, and authority. It also outlines the desirable and undesirable, direct and indirect consequences of innovation decisions. The decision making process involves observing a problem, analyzing it, deciding on courses of action, choosing one, and accepting the consequences. The innovation decision process moves from knowledge to persuasion to decision to implementation to confirmation as an individual adopts a new idea. Perceived attributes like relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability influence an individual's decision. Social, personal, and situational factors also impact the decision making process.
Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural InnovationsDr- Heba Nour
Diffusion process - Adoption Process - Adopter Categories
- Characteristics of Innovation - Rate of Adoption - Variable Determining the Rate of Adoption
This document discusses the diffusion of innovation, including definitions of key concepts like new products, diffusion, adoption, and the innovation adoption process. It outlines the 5 stages of the adoption process: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption/rejection. It also describes the characteristics that influence the diffusion of innovations like relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Finally, it provides a profile of consumer innovators and compares their characteristics to non-innovators.
Participatory approaches to rural developmentSuhail Hussain
Participatory development aims to engage local populations in development projects through local decision making and utilizing local capacities. It seeks to achieve localized capital accumulation based on skills development and resource generation. The key elements of participatory development are process, empowerment, and participation. Variations include manifestations in collaborative planning tools, benefits like sustainability, and criticisms like potential slowness. Case studies show applications in areas like natural resource management, governance, and rural poverty alleviation.
Farmer Led Extension is a promising approach wherein farmer leaders were utilized as extensionists to transfer the technologies they learned with a view to boosting up production.
The FLE approach gives farmers the opportunity to share their experiences and practices through a method demonstration with fellow farmers in the area.
Reasons for Group Led Extension
1. Efficiency
2. Effectiveness
3. Collective action
4. Equity
Farm school :
“Farm school is a field where latest technology was demonstrated to progressive and interested farmers who undergo training for a certain period of time. Farm schools help in speedy dissemination and adoption of technologies through training of progressive farmers on the latest production technology.”
This document discusses the tools and techniques of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). PRA is an approach that aims to empower local people through participation. It involves using various visual and interactive methods to share information, enhance understanding, analyze problems, and plan and take action. Some key PRA tools discussed are social mapping, resource mapping, seasonal calendars, timelines, matrix ranking, and focus group discussions. The document outlines the principles and goals of PRA, as well as guidelines for effectively applying its tools and techniques in a participatory manner.
Privatization of agriculture extension involves transferring ownership of extension services from the public sector to private organizations. This began in India in the 1980s to improve access to inputs and create a more efficient system, as the public system had shortcomings like only reaching a small portion of farmers and having an ineffective top-down approach. Private extension is now provided by groups like agricultural consultants, farmers associations, input companies and NGOs. While privatization reduces the economic burden on the government and increases efficiency, it could hamper free sharing of information if farmers don't disseminate learning to others and only commercial farmers benefit.
This chapter discusses opinion leadership, communication networks, and critical mass in the diffusion of innovations. It finds that while homophily (similarity) is common in communication networks, heterophily (difference) is important for the spread of new ideas. Opinion leaders tend to be more innovative, cosmopolitan, educated, and connected to change agents and the media. The chapter also defines critical mass as the point when an innovation becomes self-sustaining through its rate of adoption within a system.
This document discusses opinion leadership and the role of opinion leaders in influencing the adoption of innovations. It covers several key points:
1) Opinion leaders are individuals who informally influence others' attitudes and behaviors regarding innovations. Their adoption behaviors help determine the rate of adoption in a social system.
2) Information flows from mass media to opinion leaders and then from opinion leaders to their followers, in a two-step process. Opinion leaders have greater exposure to new ideas than their followers.
3) Opinion leaders tend to be more innovative, cosmopolitan, and socially active than their followers. However, their level of innovativeness depends on the norms of their social system - in traditional systems, neither leaders nor followers
The document discusses new trends in agricultural extension, including a shift from top-down to bottom-up and production-led to market-led approaches. It outlines the need for market-led extension to help farmers understand market demands and consumer preferences in order to improve livelihoods. Examples of innovative market-led extension approaches provided include market intelligence, contract farming, and direct marketing. The challenges and dimensions of market-led extension are also summarized, along with some successful farmer entrepreneurs utilizing these approaches.
The document discusses the perceived attributes of innovation that influence adoption rates. It identifies six key attributes: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability, and predictability. Complexity refers to how difficult an innovation is to understand and use, which can negatively impact adoption rates unless the innovation also has significant relative advantage. Trialability means an innovation can be tested on a limited basis, increasing adoption rates. Observability is how visible the results of an innovation are to others, helping diffusion. Predictability is the certainty of receiving expected benefits from adoption. Preventive innovations aimed at reducing future risks can be difficult to adopt due to unclear benefits.
This document discusses 8 common approaches to agricultural extension:
1. The general agriculture extension approach focuses on disseminating technologies to increase production and is centralized with priorities set nationally.
2. The commodity specialized approach concentrates on increasing production of a single crop through grouping related functions and requiring farmer cooperation.
3. The training and visit approach aims to increase crop production through rigorous training of agents and scheduled farmer visits to promote recommended practices.
4. The agricultural extension participatory approach gives farmer groups and local stakeholders more control and focuses on relevant, low-cost solutions through farmer participation.
1) A combination of mass media (such as publications, radio, television) and interpersonal communication is the most effective way to disseminate new ideas and innovations to rural people.
2) Using multiple teaching methods together, such as a field trip combined with a slide show, tends to be more effective than a single method alone.
3) There is no single best extension teaching method; using different media combinations tailored to audience characteristics can maximize effectiveness.
1. Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated over time among members of a social system. It involves an innovation, communication channels, time, and a social system.
2. There are five stages in the adoption process: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. Adopter categories include innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
3. Key aspects of diffusion include the innovation's attributes, the communication channels, the adopter's innovativeness, and the social system's norms and structure. Adoption occurs after an individual passes through awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption stages.
The document summarizes India's agricultural extension systems. It discusses four major organizational streams that work for rural development: ICAR institutes and universities, state agriculture departments, rural development departments, and voluntary organizations. It then provides details on several specific extension programs established by ICAR, including National Demonstrations (1964), Operational Research Projects (1972), Krishi Vigyan Kendras (1974), Lab to Land (1979), and Frontline Demonstrations. It describes the objectives and roles of these various extension initiatives in demonstrating and disseminating new agricultural technologies to farmers.
The document provides an overview of diffusion of innovation theory, which explains how new ideas and technologies spread through cultures over time. Some key points:
- The theory looks at how innovations are communicated and adopted by different groups in a society, and the factors that influence adoption rates, such as education levels.
- There are five categories of adopters (innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards) that describe people based on how soon they adopt innovations.
- Five factors influence adoption: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability of the innovation.
- Opinion leaders and change agents play important roles in influencing others' adoption. Targeting opinion
This document discusses the role of mass communication in extension education. It defines mass communication as the process by which media organizations produce and transmit messages to large audiences. Mass media enables development agencies to reach large numbers of people directly or indirectly with a single message. The document outlines the need for mass communication in extension work to efficiently disseminate information to farmers. It describes various functions of mass communication, including improving communication capacity, integration of media, quick delivery of information, and helping fill communication gaps. The current scenario of research-extension communication in India relies mainly on face-to-face communication. The document suggests utilizing radio, television, and cyber extension through projects increasing ICT connectivity to improve agricultural extension.
B Sc Agri II Agricultural Extansion Unit 1 Introduction To Agricultural Exte...Rai University
This document provides definitions and concepts of agricultural extension and rural development. It discusses the history and evolution of extension work in India since the 1920s. It outlines key principles of extension education including cultural differences, participation, interests and needs, leadership development, and evaluation. It also discusses objectives, scope, importance and challenges of rural development programs in India. Examples of early rural development experiments conducted in India such as the Shriniketan, Marathandam and Gurgaon attempts are summarized. Gandhi's constructive program for rural development through self-sufficient village life is also outlined.
Incentives increase the rate of adoption of an innovation. Adopter incentives increase the perceived relative advantage of an innovation, while diffuser incentives increase its observability. Although incentives lead to more adoptions, the quality of adoption decisions may be low if influenced primarily by incentives rather than individual assessment of the innovation's merits. Perceived attributes such as compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability also impact an innovation's rate of adoption. The structure of social networks and intensity of promotion efforts by change agents further determine how quickly an innovation spreads.
The document discusses the concepts, philosophies, and principles of extension education. It provides several definitions of extension education from different scholars that emphasize educating adults and youth outside of formal school settings, inducing voluntary behavioral changes, and helping people solve problems. The nature of extension education is described as non-formal, two-way communication between experts and communities, voluntary participation, and respecting local culture. Mildred Harton's four principles that guide extension education philosophy are outlined, which focus on empowering individuals and families. Dahama's philosophy of extension also emphasizes self-help, people's participation, persuasion over compulsion, and voluntary behavioral changes.
Types of innovation decisions, consequences of innovation-decisionsRameshwar sahu
This document discusses three types of innovation decisions: operational, collective, and authority. It also outlines the desirable and undesirable, direct and indirect consequences of innovation decisions. The decision making process involves observing a problem, analyzing it, deciding on courses of action, choosing one, and accepting the consequences. The innovation decision process moves from knowledge to persuasion to decision to implementation to confirmation as an individual adopts a new idea. Perceived attributes like relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability influence an individual's decision. Social, personal, and situational factors also impact the decision making process.
Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural InnovationsDr- Heba Nour
Diffusion process - Adoption Process - Adopter Categories
- Characteristics of Innovation - Rate of Adoption - Variable Determining the Rate of Adoption
This document discusses the diffusion of innovation, including definitions of key concepts like new products, diffusion, adoption, and the innovation adoption process. It outlines the 5 stages of the adoption process: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption/rejection. It also describes the characteristics that influence the diffusion of innovations like relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Finally, it provides a profile of consumer innovators and compares their characteristics to non-innovators.
Participatory approaches to rural developmentSuhail Hussain
Participatory development aims to engage local populations in development projects through local decision making and utilizing local capacities. It seeks to achieve localized capital accumulation based on skills development and resource generation. The key elements of participatory development are process, empowerment, and participation. Variations include manifestations in collaborative planning tools, benefits like sustainability, and criticisms like potential slowness. Case studies show applications in areas like natural resource management, governance, and rural poverty alleviation.
Farmer Led Extension is a promising approach wherein farmer leaders were utilized as extensionists to transfer the technologies they learned with a view to boosting up production.
The FLE approach gives farmers the opportunity to share their experiences and practices through a method demonstration with fellow farmers in the area.
Reasons for Group Led Extension
1. Efficiency
2. Effectiveness
3. Collective action
4. Equity
Farm school :
“Farm school is a field where latest technology was demonstrated to progressive and interested farmers who undergo training for a certain period of time. Farm schools help in speedy dissemination and adoption of technologies through training of progressive farmers on the latest production technology.”
This document discusses the tools and techniques of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). PRA is an approach that aims to empower local people through participation. It involves using various visual and interactive methods to share information, enhance understanding, analyze problems, and plan and take action. Some key PRA tools discussed are social mapping, resource mapping, seasonal calendars, timelines, matrix ranking, and focus group discussions. The document outlines the principles and goals of PRA, as well as guidelines for effectively applying its tools and techniques in a participatory manner.
Privatization of agriculture extension involves transferring ownership of extension services from the public sector to private organizations. This began in India in the 1980s to improve access to inputs and create a more efficient system, as the public system had shortcomings like only reaching a small portion of farmers and having an ineffective top-down approach. Private extension is now provided by groups like agricultural consultants, farmers associations, input companies and NGOs. While privatization reduces the economic burden on the government and increases efficiency, it could hamper free sharing of information if farmers don't disseminate learning to others and only commercial farmers benefit.
This chapter discusses opinion leadership, communication networks, and critical mass in the diffusion of innovations. It finds that while homophily (similarity) is common in communication networks, heterophily (difference) is important for the spread of new ideas. Opinion leaders tend to be more innovative, cosmopolitan, educated, and connected to change agents and the media. The chapter also defines critical mass as the point when an innovation becomes self-sustaining through its rate of adoption within a system.
This document discusses opinion leadership and the role of opinion leaders in influencing the adoption of innovations. It covers several key points:
1) Opinion leaders are individuals who informally influence others' attitudes and behaviors regarding innovations. Their adoption behaviors help determine the rate of adoption in a social system.
2) Information flows from mass media to opinion leaders and then from opinion leaders to their followers, in a two-step process. Opinion leaders have greater exposure to new ideas than their followers.
3) Opinion leaders tend to be more innovative, cosmopolitan, and socially active than their followers. However, their level of innovativeness depends on the norms of their social system - in traditional systems, neither leaders nor followers
The document discusses three major development paradigms - modernization, dependency, and multiplicity/another development - and how they have shaped communication practices. The modernization and dependency paradigms employed top-down, one-way communication approaches like diffusion models. The multiplicity paradigm uses participatory, two-way approaches like Berrigan's methodology, which emphasizes interaction and participation of stakeholders like target audiences. The source's development concept determines the communication practices used and impacts the graphic encoder's role of mediating between the source and audience.
This document discusses several theories of media audiences:
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs explains that lower level needs must be met before focusing on higher needs.
- Early theories viewed audiences as passive and directly influenced by media messages. The hypodermic needle theory suggested media could "inject" ideas into passive audiences.
- Cultivation theory proposes that repeated exposure to media shapes audiences' attitudes and values over time.
- Two-step flow theory recognizes that some audience members are opinion leaders who filter media messages for others.
- More recent theories view audiences as active, selecting media to fulfill needs and bringing their own interpretations under uses and gratifications and reception theories.
This document discusses key concepts in communication and diffusion of innovations, including opinion leadership, models of communication flows, homophily and heterophily in communication networks, and the strength of weak ties. It defines opinion leaders as individuals who informally influence others' attitudes and behaviors. It describes the two-step flow model where ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders and then to their followers through interpersonal communication.
This document discusses the characteristics and structures of online communities. It defines online communities as groups that come together online for a specific purpose and are guided by shared policies. It describes how social networks form the underlying structure, with nodes (people/organizations) connected by relationships and experiencing interactions. Information and influences flow between these nodes. Successful online communities feature open conversations, a sense of members' presence, democratic control, agreed-upon standards of behavior, and sufficient participation levels. Ideas spread through these communities like memes transmitted from person to person. Opinion leaders influence others' attitudes, acting as influencers through their social connections and capital within the community.
Social networks play a key role in shaping human behavior and outcomes. Research shows that individuals influence and are influenced by their social networks. Networks can spread emotions and behaviors through interconnection. Understanding social networks could inform public policy by revealing how small interventions may have large effects through network transmission. Further research is needed to better understand how values interact with different types of social networks and how to effectively impact networks to drive social change.
This document discusses the characteristics and structures of online communities. It defines online communities as groups of people who come together online for a specific purpose. It describes how social networks form the underlying structure of communities, with nodes (people/organizations) connected by relationships and experiencing interactions. It outlines key characteristics of online communities like conversations, presence, democracy, standards of behavior, and levels of participation. It also discusses how ideas and memes spread through communities via opinion leaders and the two-step flow model of communication.
This document discusses online communities and social networks. It defines online communities as groups of people who come together online for a specific purpose and are supported by internet access. Examples of online communities include social media platforms like Facebook, LinkedIn, and Buzzfeed. It also discusses how social networks are structured, with nodes (people/organizations) connected by relationships, and how information and influences flow between nodes. Key characteristics of online communities include conversations between members, members' online presence, democratic control by members, standards of behavior, and varying levels of member participation. The document also covers how ideas and memes spread widely in communities through opinion leaders and networks of social ties.
Riwa Malaeb : Two Step Flow Theory powerpointriwamalaeb2
The two-step flow theory of communication proposes that influence of mass media happens in two steps - information first reaches opinion leaders who then pass on their interpretations to less active individuals. It was developed in 1944 based on research showing that interpersonal communication had a greater impact on voting behavior than direct media exposure. The theory emphasizes identifying and targeting relevant opinion leaders in strategic communication campaigns. It has been applied successfully in political and health campaigns.
Communication Process, Principles, and EthicsDaryl Casiano
Communication process, principles, and ethics defines communication and ethics, and discusses the fundamentals and principles of ethical communication. Effective communication requires identifying who needs to receive the message, when they should be told, what information they need, through what channel it will be delivered, and who will control the process. Listening is identified as equally or more important than speaking for good communication. Communication can be measured through surveys, analysis of message frequency and content, and network analysis.
The document discusses several key concepts in media theory, including:
1) Media effects theory examines how media can influence society and how society shapes media, while uses and gratification theory focuses on how audiences use media to fulfill certain needs or desires like entertainment, social connection, or emotional release.
2) Audiences can be either active, critically engaging with media messages, or passive, uncritically accepting messages as intended.
3) Psychographic profiles segment audiences based on factors like aspirations, values, and tendencies towards conformity or individualism.
4) Both uses and gratification theory and effects theory have disadvantages, such as oversimplifying audience interpretation of messages or suggesting media has too much or too little
This document discusses theories of influences on mass media content. It covers different approaches to studying media content, including looking at influences on content and effects of content. It discusses definitions of content and different theoretical perspectives on influences, such as social reality, media workers' influences, organizational routines, external social forces, and ideological positions. It also discusses building a theory of media content and why more research has focused on individual-level analyses rather than macro-level influences on content.
The document discusses several media theories:
1) Hypodermic or Bullet Theory proposed direct, powerful effects of media on passive audiences.
2) Individual Difference Theory argued people react differently to media based on their unique qualities.
3) Personal Influence Theory found opinions are influenced through interpersonal networks led by opinion leaders.
4) Cultivation Theory proposed long-term exposure to media shapes common beliefs about the real world.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a five-tier model that categorizes basic human needs into deficiency and growth needs. Deficiency needs include physiological needs, safety, love and belonging, and esteem. Growth needs refer to self-actualization. There are three theories of audiences: passive audiences who consume media, active audiences who make choices, and interactive audiences influenced by new media. The hypodermic needle model views audiences as passive and vulnerable to direct media messaging. Cultivation theory suggests television shapes viewers' worldviews over time, with heavy viewers more susceptible to influence. The two-step flow theory and uses and gratifications model view audiences as more active in selecting media to fulfill needs.
The document discusses several key theories related to social networking and media effects. It summarizes:
1) Three commonly used media effects theories in political communication: framing theory, agenda-setting theory, and priming theory.
2) Four narrative persuasion theories: social judgement theory, elaboration likelihood model, cognitive dissonance theory, and narrative paradigm.
3) A brief history of major social networking sites from their inception in the 1970s to modern platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat.
This chapter introduces two approaches to studying mass communication - the functional approach and the critical/cultural approach. The functional approach examines how media fulfill needs for both society and individuals, such as providing news, interpretation, social connections, entertainment and more. The critical/cultural approach views media through social and political lenses, analyzing how media content reflects and perpetuates dominant ideologies and power structures. Both approaches have value in analyzing the mass communication process, though they employ different methods and focus on different aspects.
The document discusses several theories related to how consumers engage with media:
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2. Opinion Leadership
• Men are generally incredulous, never really
trusting new things unless they have tested
them by experience.
Niccolo Machiavelli
• Every herd of wild cattle has its leaders, its
influential heads.
Gabriel Tarde
3. Opinion leadership, the degree to which an
individual is able informally to influence other
individuals' attitudes or overt behavior in a
desired way with relative frequency
Opinion leaders are individuals who lead in
influencing others' opinions about innovations.
The behavior of opinion leaders is important in
determining the rate of adoption of an innovation
in a social system;
The diffusion curve has its usual s-shape because
of the time at which the opinion leaders adopt
and owing to their ability to activate diffusion
networks in a social system.
4. Content:
Various models of mass communication flow,
Homophily-heterophily
Measures of opinion leadership,
Characeristics of opinion leaders
5. Models of Mass Communication Flows
• Hypodermic Needle Model:
The hypodermic needle model postulated that
the mass media had direct, immediate, and
powerful effects on a mass audience.
The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s were
perceived as an all powerful influence on human
behavior.
The omnipotent media were pictured as
conveying messages to atomized masses waiting
to receive them, with nothing intervening
(Katz and Lazarfeld, 1955, p. 16)
6. Considerable doubt was cast on the
hypodermic needle model
Based primarily on intuitive theorizing about
historical events and was too simple,
Too mechanistic, and
Too gross to give an accurate account of mass
media effects
Proposed The Two-Step Flow Model
7. The Two-Step Flow Model
• The first step, from sources to opinion leaders, is
mainly a transfer of information, whereas the second
step, from opinion leaders to their followers, also
involves the spread of influence.
• This two-step flow hypothesis has since been tested in
a variety of communication situations and found
generally to provide a usable conceptual framework for
examining the flow of mass communication
• One may be exposed to a new idea either through
mass media or interpersonal channels, and then
engage in communication exchanges about the
message with one's peers
8. • Mass-media channels are primarily knowledge creators,
whereas interpersonal networks are more important at
persuading individuals to adopt or reject.
• This notion was masked in the original statement of the
two-step model because the time sequence involved in
the decision- making process was ignored.
• Source/channel differences at the knowledge versus the
persuasion stages exist for both opinion leaders and
followers.
• The opinion leaders are not the only ones to use mass-
media channels, as the original statement of the two-step
flow model seemed to suggest
• Two intellectual benefits from the two-step flow
hypothesis are
(1) a focus upon opinion leadership, and
(2) several revisions of the two-step flow
9. Homophily Heterophily and
Flow of Communication
• Communication flows through interpersonal
networks can be enhanced by the concepts of
homophily and heterophily (Lazarsfeld and Merton ).
• The nature of who relays messages to whom is
brought out in such network analysis
• A fundamental principle of human communication is
that the transfer of ideas occurs most frequently
between individuals who are alike, or homophilous.
• Homophily is the degree to which pairs of individuals
who interact are similar in certain attributes, such as
beliefs, education, social status, and the like.
10. • Heterophilous communication may cause cognitive
dissonance because an individual is exposed to
messages that are inconsistent with existing
beliefs, causing an uncomfortable psychological
state.
• The more communication there is between
members of a dyad, the more likely they are to
become homophilous ;
• The more homophilous they are, the more likely it
is that their communication will be effective.
• Individuals who break the homophily boundary
and attempt to communicate with others who are
different from themselves face the frustration of
ineffective communication.
11. • Heterophilous communication has a special
informational potential, even though it may be
realized only rarely.
• Heterophilous network links often connect two
cliques, spanning two sets of socially dissimilar
individuals.
• Interpersonal links are especially important in
carrying information about innovations, as is
implied in Granovetter's theory of "the-strength-
of-weak-ties,"
• homophilous communication may be frequent
and easy but may not be so crucial as the less
frequent heterophilous communication in
diffusing innovations.
12. Homophily as a Barrier to
Diffusion:
• Homophily can act as an invisible barrier to the flow of
innovations within a system.
• New ideas usually enter a system through higher status
and more innovative members.
• A high degree of homophily means that these elite
individuals interact mainly with each other, and the
innovation does not "trickle down" to non-elites.
• Homophilous diffusion patterns cause new ideas to
spread horizontally, rather than vertically, within a
system.
• Homophily therefore acts to slow down the rate of
diffusion
13. Implication of homophily as a
barrier
• Change agents should work with different sets
of opinion leaders throughout the social
structure.
• If a system were characterized by extreme
heterophily, a change agent could concentrate
his or her efforts on only one or a few opinion
leaders near the top in social status and
innovativeness.
14. Generalizations
• Interpersonal diffusion networks are mostly
homophilous
• When interpersonal diffusion networks are
heterophilous, followers seek opinion leaders
a) of higher socioeconomic status
b) with more education
c) with greater mass media exposure
d) who are more cosmopolite
e) with greater change agent contact
f) who are more innovative
15. • Highest status in a system seldom interact directly with those of
lowest status and Innovators seldom converse with laggards
• A high-status opinion leader might be an inappropriate role
model for someone of lower status, so interaction between
them might not be beneficial to the latter.
• The wisest farm management decision for the large farmers is to
purchase mechanized farm equipment, such as tractors and
milking machines, as a substitute for hired labor.
• The best economic choice for those on the smaller farms,
however, was to ignore the expensive equipment and
concentrate on horticultural farming.
• However, the small farmers were following the example of the
opinion leaders on the large farms,
• In high degree of homophily, small farmers would interact
mainly with opinion leaders who were themselves small
farmers, would probably be beneficial.
16. • Followers seek information and advice from opinion
leaders who are perceived as more technically
competent than themselves.
• When heterophily occurs, it is usually in the direction of
greater competency, but not too much greater.
• General pattern in interpersonal diffusion is homophily
• Homophily means that the dyadic followers of opinion
leaders usually learn appropriate lessons about
innovations through their ties with their near-peer
opinion leaders.
• But homophilous diffusion networks slow the
percolation of an innovation through the structure of a
social system.
17. Measuring Opinion Leadership
and Network Links
• Four main methods
• (1) sociometric,
• (2) informants' ratings,
• (3) self-designating techniques, and
• (4) observations
18. Measureme
nt Method
Description Question
asked
Advantages Limitations
1. Sociom
etric
Metho
d
Ask system
members to
whom they go
for advice and
information
about an idea
Who is
your
teacher?
Sociometric
questions are
easy to
administer and
are adaptable to
different types
of setting and
issues, highest
Validity
Analysis of sociometric
data is often complex.
Requires a large number
of respondents to locate
a small number of
opinion leaders
Not applicable to sample
designs where only a
portion of the social
system is interviewed
2.Informa
nts
Rating
Subjectively
selected key
informants in a
social system
are asked to
designate
opinion leaders
Who are
the leaders
in this
social
system?
A cost saving
and time saving
method as
compared to the
sociometric
method
Each informants must be
thoroughly familiar with
the system
19. Measurement
Method
Description Question
asked
Advantages Limitations
3. Self
Designatin
g Method
Ask each
respondents a
series of
questions to
determine the
degree to
which he/she
perceives
himself/hersel
f to be an
opinion leader
Are you a
leader in
this social
system?
Measures the
individuals
perception of
his opinion
leadership,
which
influence his
behaviour
Dependent upon
the accuracy with
which respondents
can identify and
report their self
images
4. Observation Identify and
record
communicatin
network link
as they occur
None Unquestioned Obtrusive, works
best in a very
small system, and
may require much
patience by the
observer
20.
21. Characteristics of Opinion Leaders
• have greater exposure to mass media than
their followers
• are more cosmopolite than their followers
• have greater change agent contact than their
followers
• have greater social participation than their
followers
• have higher socioeconomic status than their
followers
• Are early adopters than their followers
22. • must have interpersonal networks with their followers
• must be accessible
• face-to-face communication about new ideas occurs at
meetings of formal organizations and through informal
discussions
• Invention can start from the lowest ranks of the people,
but its extension depends upon the existence of some
lofty social elevation
• If an opinion leader becomes too innovative, or adopts a
new idea too quickly, his or her followers may begin to
doubt the opinion leaders' judgment
• opinion leader in a social system is to help/reduce the
uncertainty about an innovation for his or her followers
23. Monomorphic and Polymorphic
Opinion Leadership
• Polymorphism is the degree to which an
individual acts as an opinion leader for a
variety of topics
• Monomorphism, is the tendency for an
individual to act as an opinion leader for only
a single topic
• The interconnectedness of an individual in a
social system is positively related to the
individual's innovativeness
24.
25. Diffusion Networks
• The heart of the diffusion process is the modeling and
imitation by potential adopters of their near-peers who have
previously adopted a new idea
• In deciding whether or not to adopt an innovation, we all
depend mainly on the communicated experience of others
much like ourselves who have already adopted.
• These subjective evaluations of an innovation mainly flow
through interpersonal networks.
• For this reason, we must understand the nature of networks
if we are to comprehend the diffusion of innovations fully
• Networks can serve as important connections to information
resources
• networks are the invisible routes through which individuals
make things happen
26. • Communication network analysis is a method
of research for identifying the communication
structure in a system, in which relational data
about communication flows are analyzed by
using some type of interpersonal relationships
as the units of analysis.
27. Communication network:
• consists of interconnected individuals who are linked
by patterned flows of information.
• Network has certain degree of structure of stability.
• Patterned aspect of networks provides predictability
to human behavior.
• Study of networks helps to illuminate communication
structure.
• Communication structure consists of cliques and
their interconnections through liaisons and bridges.
Communication structure is very complex.
28. Methods of network analysis
• put individuals in cliques on the basis of their proximity in network
links, so that individuals who are closer are assigned to the same
clique.
• Communication proximity is the degree to which two linked
individuals in a network have personal communication networks
that overlap
• A personal communication network consists of those
interconnected individuals who are linked by patterned
communication flows to a given individual
• One can think of each individual possessing such a personal
network, consisting of the set of other individuals to whom the
focal individual is linked in network relationships
• The focal individual's behavior is determined, in part, by
information and influence that is communicated through the
individual's personal network
29. • Interlocking personal networks: a set of
individuals who interact with each other
• Radial personal networks consist of a set of
individuals who do not interact with each
other
• radial personal networks are more open, and
thus allow the focal individual to exchange
information with a wider environment
30. Both pairs of individuals A-B and C-D have direct communication, but C-D are
more proximate because they are also connected by four indirect links.
This means that C-D are more likely to exchange information than are A-B.
31. The information-exchange potential of communication network links is
negatively related to their degree of
(1) communication proximity, and
(2) homophily.
While rare but Heterophilous links of low proximity (Granovetter's "weak ties"),
seem to play a crucial role in the flow of information about an innovation
32. • Individuals tend to be linked to others who are close
to them in physical distance and who are relatively
homophilous in social characteristics
• Communication network links with neighboring and
homophilous partners are relatively easy and require
less effort.
• But such low-effort network links are usually of
limited value for obtaining information
• In contrast, heterophilous links with socially and
spatially distant others are usually stronger in
carrying useful information to an individual. Easy
networks, thus, are least valuable informationally.
33. Change agent
• A change agent is an individual who influences clients'
innovation decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a
change agency
• In most cases a change agent seeks to secure the adoption of
new ideas, but he or she may also attempt to slow the
diffusion process and prevent the adoption of certain
innovations.
• In decentralized diffusion systems, the potential adopters
may control their change agents; in some cases, certain of
the "clients" serve as their own change agents
• Even in relatively centralized diffusion systems, the long-
range goal of many change agents is to create conditions in
which clients can help themselves, and thus work the change
agent out of a job.
34. • communication as a process in which the participants create and share
information with one another in order to reach a mutual
understanding, is appropriate to describe the contact between a
change agent and his or her clients
• change agent: Eg: teachers, consultants, public health workers,
agricultural extension agents, development workers, salespeople, and
many others
• roles of a change agent is to facilitate the flow of innovations from a
change agency to an audience of clients, but the innovations must be
selected to match the clients' needs and problems
• feedback from the client system must flow through the change agent to
the change agency
• Change agents would not be needed in the diffusion of innovations
were there no social and technical chasm between the change agency
and the client system.
• The change agency system is usually composed of individuals who
possess a high degree of expertise regarding the innovations that are
being diffused
35. Change agent face two problems between the change agency and the client
system: social marginality and information overload.
36. • Heterophily in technical competence is heterophily in
subcultural language differences, socioeconomic status,
beliefs and attitudes
• Change agents, even though link the two social systems,
may also be quite heterophilous in relation to their
clients and to their superiors in the change agency.
• Heterophily gap on both sides of the change agent
creates role conflicts and problems in communication.
• As a bridge between two differing systems, the change
agent is necessarily a marginal figure with one foot in
each of two worlds.
• His or her success in linking the change agency with his
or her client system often lies at the heart of the
Social Marginality
37. Information overload
• State of an individual or a system in which excessive
communication inputs cannot be processed and
utilized, leading to breakdown.
• Large volume of information about innovations
flowing from the change agency often threatens to
overcome the change agent's capacity to screen and
select the most relevant messages for the client
system
• By understanding the needs and problems of his or
her clients, a change agent can selectively transmit to
them only information that is relevant.
38. Seven roles of the change agent are
• to develop a need for change on the part of
clients
• to establish an information-exchange relationship
• to diagnose their problems
• to create intent to change in the clients
• to translate this intent into action
• to stabilize adoption and prevent
discontinuances, and
• to achieve a terminal relationship with the clients
39. Factors in Change Agent Success
A. Change agent success is positively related to
the extent of change agent effort in contacting clients
a client orientation, rather than to a change agency orientation
the degree to which the diffusion program is compatible with clients'
needs
Empathy and homophily with clients
higher social status among clients
greater social participation among clients
higher education among clients
credibility in the clients' eyes
cosmopoliteness among clients
B. Earlier knowers of an innovation have greater change agent contact
than later knowers
C. Earlier adopters of in- novations have more change agent contact than
later adopters
D. Opinion leaders have greater change agent contact than their followers
40. Change Agent Contact with Lower-Status Clients
• There can be little doubt that less-educated, lower-income clients need
the assistance of change agents more than do more elite clients.
• Then why don't change agents concentrate their efforts on their most
disadvantaged clients?
• More elite clients are homophilous with the change agent, and so
communication between the two is easier and more effective.
• Lower-status clients are socioeconomically different from the change
agent, and this heterophily gap impedes effective communication.
• If the change agent is an employee of a government agency or some other
establishment institution, the lower-status client may distrust the change
agent
• less-privileged clients often lack the necessary re- sources to adopt the
innovations that the change agent is promoting
• The change agents think that their lower-status clients are not responsive
to the change agents' efforts at diffusion; this stereotype in the change
agents' minds then serves to discourage them from initiating contact with
these less-advantaged clients.
41. Paraprofessional Aides
• An aide is a less than fully professional change agent who intensively contacts
clients to influence their innovation decisions
• A wide variety of paraprofessional aides function as change agents, ranging from
"barefoot doctors" in China, to paralawyers in U.S. poverty programs, to teachers'
aides.
• One of the important advantages of aides is that there is much lower cost per
client contacted
• Unfortunately, the budgets of most change agencies cannot be expanded to
provide a more reasonable change agent-client ratio, if only professional change
agents are employed.
• Anyway, not enough professionals exist in many fields in developing nations, and
it would take years to train them with university degrees, even if funds to hire
them were available
• main advantage of paraprofessionals over professional field workers is that the
aides are socially closer to the lower-status members of the user system that they
serve
• One of the particular problems often encountered with aides is inauthentic
professionalism, the process through which an aide takes on the dress, speech, or
other identifying marks of a professional in his or her field.