Operator overloading is a technique by which operators used in a programming language are implemented in user-defined types with customized logic that is based on the types of arguments passed.
The document describes operator overloading in C++. It discusses how operators can be used with user-defined classes by defining operator functions as class members or non-member functions. It provides examples of overloading stream insertion and extraction operators, unary operators, and binary operators. It also presents a case study of overloading operators for an Array class to add capabilities like range checking and deep copying of arrays.
Operator overloading allows programmers to define special member functions to give class objects behaviors similar to built-in types when operators are used. There are three ways to implement operator overloading functions: member functions, non-member functions, and friend functions. Member functions are called as methods on the object while non-member functions are called independently. Friend functions have access to private members.
This document summarizes Chapter 17 of a C++ textbook, which covers advanced class concepts in C++. The chapter discusses:
1. Constant objects and constant member functions that cannot modify objects.
2. Composition, where classes can contain objects of other classes as members. Member objects are constructed before the enclosing object.
3. Friend functions and classes that have access to private and protected members of other classes.
4. Using the 'this' pointer to access members from within member functions.
5. Dynamic memory allocation using operators new and delete.
6. Static class members that are shared among all class objects.
7. Data abstraction and information hiding techniques using classes.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It lists which operators can and cannot be overloaded. It provides examples of overloading unary, binary, and subscript operators. It also covers copy constructors and how they must accept a const reference argument to avoid infinite recursion when copying an object. An Array class is implemented that overloads various operators like ==, !=, [], and = to provide functionality like element access, copying, assignment, and comparisons.
The document discusses various concepts related to functions and operator overloading in C++, including:
1. It describes how functions can be divided into smaller modules to more easily design, build, debug, extend, modify, understand, reuse, and organize large programs.
2. It explains that C++ supports defining multiple functions with the same name but different argument lists through function overloading.
3. It provides examples of overloading operators like +, -, <, <=, assignment (=), increment (++), and decrement (--) operators for user-defined classes.
Operator overloading allows programmers to define special member functions to customize the behavior of operators (like +, -, etc.) for user-defined types. It can be implemented through member functions, non-member functions, or friend functions. Inline functions replace function calls with the function code directly, which can improve performance for short functions.
Operator overloading allows user-defined types in C++ to behave similarly to built-in types when operators are used on them. It allows operators to have special meanings depending on the context. Some key points made in the document include:
- Operator overloading enhances the extensibility of C++ by allowing user-defined types to work with operators like addition, subtraction, etc.
- Common operators that can be overloaded include arithmetic operators, increment/decrement, input/output, function call, and subscript operators.
- To overload an operator, a member or friend function is declared with the same name as the operator being overloaded. This function performs the desired operation on the class type.
-
The document describes operator overloading in C++. It discusses how operators can be used with user-defined classes by defining operator functions as class members or non-member functions. It provides examples of overloading stream insertion and extraction operators, unary operators, and binary operators. It also presents a case study of overloading operators for an Array class to add capabilities like range checking and deep copying of arrays.
Operator overloading allows programmers to define special member functions to give class objects behaviors similar to built-in types when operators are used. There are three ways to implement operator overloading functions: member functions, non-member functions, and friend functions. Member functions are called as methods on the object while non-member functions are called independently. Friend functions have access to private members.
This document summarizes Chapter 17 of a C++ textbook, which covers advanced class concepts in C++. The chapter discusses:
1. Constant objects and constant member functions that cannot modify objects.
2. Composition, where classes can contain objects of other classes as members. Member objects are constructed before the enclosing object.
3. Friend functions and classes that have access to private and protected members of other classes.
4. Using the 'this' pointer to access members from within member functions.
5. Dynamic memory allocation using operators new and delete.
6. Static class members that are shared among all class objects.
7. Data abstraction and information hiding techniques using classes.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It lists which operators can and cannot be overloaded. It provides examples of overloading unary, binary, and subscript operators. It also covers copy constructors and how they must accept a const reference argument to avoid infinite recursion when copying an object. An Array class is implemented that overloads various operators like ==, !=, [], and = to provide functionality like element access, copying, assignment, and comparisons.
The document discusses various concepts related to functions and operator overloading in C++, including:
1. It describes how functions can be divided into smaller modules to more easily design, build, debug, extend, modify, understand, reuse, and organize large programs.
2. It explains that C++ supports defining multiple functions with the same name but different argument lists through function overloading.
3. It provides examples of overloading operators like +, -, <, <=, assignment (=), increment (++), and decrement (--) operators for user-defined classes.
Operator overloading allows programmers to define special member functions to customize the behavior of operators (like +, -, etc.) for user-defined types. It can be implemented through member functions, non-member functions, or friend functions. Inline functions replace function calls with the function code directly, which can improve performance for short functions.
Operator overloading allows user-defined types in C++ to behave similarly to built-in types when operators are used on them. It allows operators to have special meanings depending on the context. Some key points made in the document include:
- Operator overloading enhances the extensibility of C++ by allowing user-defined types to work with operators like addition, subtraction, etc.
- Common operators that can be overloaded include arithmetic operators, increment/decrement, input/output, function call, and subscript operators.
- To overload an operator, a member or friend function is declared with the same name as the operator being overloaded. This function performs the desired operation on the class type.
-
Operator overloading allows operators like +, -, *, etc. to be redefined to work on user-defined types like classes. This is done by defining member functions for the operators. For example, to overload + to add two Distance objects, a member function Distance operator+(Distance) would be defined. Overloading operators allows user-defined types to be used in expressions like built-in types for a more natural interface. Some common operators that can be overloaded include arithmetic, relational, logical, and assignment operators. There are some restrictions like not changing operator precedence or number of operands.
This set of slides introduces the reader to the concept of operator overloading for user-defined types in C++ (with elements of C++11 and C++14). The exemplary case of the complex class is introduced. It follows a discussion on how to implement mixed-mode arithmetic, which requires mixing member and non-member operator functions. Moreover, the technical tool of friend functions and access functions is discussed.
In computer programming, operator overloading, sometimes termed operator ad hoc polymorphism, is a specific case of polymorphism, where different operators have different implementations depending on their arguments. Operator overloading is generally defined by a programming language, a programmer, or both.
↓↓↓↓ Read More:
@ Kindly Follow my Instagram Page to discuss about your mental health problems-
-----> https://instagram.com/mentality_streak?utm_medium=copy_link
@ Appreciate my work:
-----> behance.net/burhanahmed1
Thank-you !
Operator overloading and type conversion in cpprajshreemuthiah
This document discusses operator overloading and type conversion in C++. It defines operator overloading as providing new definitions for most C++ operators in relation to a class. It covers overloading unary operators like minus and binary operators like addition. Friend functions can also be used to overload binary operators. Rules for operator overloading include only existing operators can be overloaded and some operators cannot be overloaded. Type conversion automatically converts the type on the right side of an assignment to the type on the left. Constructors can be used to convert basic types to class types.
#OOP_D_ITS - 5th - C++ Oop Operator OverloadingHadziq Fabroyir
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It explains that functions are identified by their name, parameters, and const qualifiers rather than return type. Operator overloading allows classes to define operations like + and - by overloading functions like operator+. The document provides examples of overloading operators for a Complex number class to allow mathematical operations on Complex objects. It discusses overloading operators as member and non-member functions and considerations like const-correctness and precedence when overloading operators.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and - to be used with custom class and struct types by defining them as methods. It overloads their original meaning for built-in types while retaining that functionality. Binary operators take two parameters while unary operators take one. Overloading improves code readability and makes operations on custom types look more natural. However, overloading is limited to certain predefined operators and cannot change properties like precedence.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It provides examples of overloading operators like ++, [], and == for an enumeration of months to provide more natural syntax when working with the enum. Operator overloading allows defining operators for user-defined types to provide conventional operator meanings and make code more clear and efficient. It can be used to define operations for enumerations that are less error-prone than alternative approaches like switch statements or functions.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and - to be used with user-defined types in C++. Certain operators like = and [] must be overloaded as member functions, while others like friends and non-members can also be overloaded. Unary operators operate on a single operand, while binary operators require two operands. Overloaded operators are implemented via member functions, non-member functions, or friend functions depending on whether the left operand is of the class type. Strings can also be manipulated using overloaded operators by defining a string class with a character pointer and length.
This presentation is Unary operator overloading(prefix).
Here ,I try to describe how to Unary operator overloaded and its types with example. may be you can happily read this.
Operator overloading in C++ allows operators to be redefined for user-defined types like classes. It simplifies writing expressions involving user-defined types. Operators can be overloaded as non-static member functions or global functions. Common operators like +, -, *, / can be overloaded to work with custom classes, allowing expressions like complex_number1 + complex_number2. Stream insertion and extraction operators << and >> are typically overloaded as global functions.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in C++ classes including this pointer, constant member functions, static members, friends of classes, memberwise assignment, copy constructors, operator overloading, type conversion operators, convert constructors, object composition, inheritance, protected members, constructors and destructors with inheritance, and overriding base class functions.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++, which allows existing operators like + and - to work with user-defined types by defining corresponding operator functions, and covers topics like restrictions on overloading, syntax for member and non-member operator functions, overloading unary and binary operators, and overloading stream insertion and extraction operators. Operator overloading is an important feature of C++ that implements compile-time polymorphism while preserving the meaning of operators.
This document discusses operator overloading in C++. It defines operator overloading as polymorphism that gives user-defined meaning to operators when used with custom data types. It provides examples of overloading operators like + for addition of integers and strings. It lists operators that cannot be overloaded and discusses implementing operator overloading using member, non-member, and friend functions. Finally, it provides rules for operator overloading such as preserving precedence and arity of operators.
This document discusses C++ function and operator overloading. Overloading occurs when the same name is used for functions or operators that have different signatures. Signatures are distinguished by parameter types and types are used to determine the best match. Overloading is resolved at compile-time based on arguments passed, while overriding is resolved at run-time based on object type. The document provides examples of overloading functions and operators and discusses issues like symmetry, precedence, and whether functions should be members or non-members.
C# allows operators like + and - to be overloaded for custom classes. Operator overloading is implemented by defining static operator methods that specify the behavior of operators on class instances. Operators can be overloaded to work on one or two operands, and conversion operators allow implicit or explicit conversion between types. This allows custom classes to integrate seamlessly into C# code by supporting common operators and type conversions.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. Some key points:
- Operator overloading allows operators to be redefined for user-defined types.
- Unary operators can be overloaded using non-static member functions or friend functions. Binary operators can also be overloaded using these two methods.
- Not all operators can be overloaded - operators like ., ::, sizeof cannot be overloaded. The precedence, associativity, and arity of operators also cannot be changed.
Operator overloading allows operators to work with user-defined types by defining corresponding operator functions. This unit discusses overloading unary and binary operators as member or non-member functions, restrictions on operator overloading, and how inheritance and automatic type conversion relate to operator overloading. The key topics covered include how to overload operators, which operators can and cannot be overloaded, and potential issues with type conversion.
operator overloading & type conversion in cpp over view || c++gourav kottawar
The document discusses operator overloading and type conversion in C++. It begins by defining operator overloading as giving special meanings to operators for user-defined types. It then covers overloading unary and binary operators using member functions and friend functions. Some key points include: operators can only be overloaded for user-defined types, not built-in types; overloaded operators retain precedence and number of operands; common uses of operator overloading include complex number arithmetic and string manipulation. The document also discusses type conversions between basic and user-defined types using constructors and casting operators.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and << to be used with user-defined types like classes. It is done by defining corresponding operator functions like operator+() and operator<<(). This allows objects to be used with operators in a natural way while providing custom behavior for that type. The rules for overloading include maintaining precedence and associativity of operators. Common operators like +, -, *, /, <<, >>, ==, =, [] and () can be overloaded to allow user-defined types to work with them.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and - to have different implementations depending on the types of their operands. It allows user-defined types to be manipulated using the same syntax as built-in types. The document discusses various aspects of operator overloading like overloading unary, binary, and stream insertion/extraction operators. It also covers type conversions between basic and user-defined types using constructors and conversion functions. Restrictions on which operators can be overloaded and how different conversion scenarios are handled are explained.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It explains that operators can be overloaded to work with user-defined classes by writing operator functions. It lists the operators that can and cannot be overloaded. It also describes restrictions on overloading like preserving precedence and arity. The document provides examples of overloading binary, unary, assignment and stream insertion/extraction operators and discusses their implementation as member or non-member functions. It also presents a case study of overloading operators for an Array class.
Operator overloading allows operators like +, -, *, etc. to be redefined to work on user-defined types like classes. This is done by defining member functions for the operators. For example, to overload + to add two Distance objects, a member function Distance operator+(Distance) would be defined. Overloading operators allows user-defined types to be used in expressions like built-in types for a more natural interface. Some common operators that can be overloaded include arithmetic, relational, logical, and assignment operators. There are some restrictions like not changing operator precedence or number of operands.
This set of slides introduces the reader to the concept of operator overloading for user-defined types in C++ (with elements of C++11 and C++14). The exemplary case of the complex class is introduced. It follows a discussion on how to implement mixed-mode arithmetic, which requires mixing member and non-member operator functions. Moreover, the technical tool of friend functions and access functions is discussed.
In computer programming, operator overloading, sometimes termed operator ad hoc polymorphism, is a specific case of polymorphism, where different operators have different implementations depending on their arguments. Operator overloading is generally defined by a programming language, a programmer, or both.
↓↓↓↓ Read More:
@ Kindly Follow my Instagram Page to discuss about your mental health problems-
-----> https://instagram.com/mentality_streak?utm_medium=copy_link
@ Appreciate my work:
-----> behance.net/burhanahmed1
Thank-you !
Operator overloading and type conversion in cpprajshreemuthiah
This document discusses operator overloading and type conversion in C++. It defines operator overloading as providing new definitions for most C++ operators in relation to a class. It covers overloading unary operators like minus and binary operators like addition. Friend functions can also be used to overload binary operators. Rules for operator overloading include only existing operators can be overloaded and some operators cannot be overloaded. Type conversion automatically converts the type on the right side of an assignment to the type on the left. Constructors can be used to convert basic types to class types.
#OOP_D_ITS - 5th - C++ Oop Operator OverloadingHadziq Fabroyir
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It explains that functions are identified by their name, parameters, and const qualifiers rather than return type. Operator overloading allows classes to define operations like + and - by overloading functions like operator+. The document provides examples of overloading operators for a Complex number class to allow mathematical operations on Complex objects. It discusses overloading operators as member and non-member functions and considerations like const-correctness and precedence when overloading operators.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and - to be used with custom class and struct types by defining them as methods. It overloads their original meaning for built-in types while retaining that functionality. Binary operators take two parameters while unary operators take one. Overloading improves code readability and makes operations on custom types look more natural. However, overloading is limited to certain predefined operators and cannot change properties like precedence.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It provides examples of overloading operators like ++, [], and == for an enumeration of months to provide more natural syntax when working with the enum. Operator overloading allows defining operators for user-defined types to provide conventional operator meanings and make code more clear and efficient. It can be used to define operations for enumerations that are less error-prone than alternative approaches like switch statements or functions.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and - to be used with user-defined types in C++. Certain operators like = and [] must be overloaded as member functions, while others like friends and non-members can also be overloaded. Unary operators operate on a single operand, while binary operators require two operands. Overloaded operators are implemented via member functions, non-member functions, or friend functions depending on whether the left operand is of the class type. Strings can also be manipulated using overloaded operators by defining a string class with a character pointer and length.
This presentation is Unary operator overloading(prefix).
Here ,I try to describe how to Unary operator overloaded and its types with example. may be you can happily read this.
Operator overloading in C++ allows operators to be redefined for user-defined types like classes. It simplifies writing expressions involving user-defined types. Operators can be overloaded as non-static member functions or global functions. Common operators like +, -, *, / can be overloaded to work with custom classes, allowing expressions like complex_number1 + complex_number2. Stream insertion and extraction operators << and >> are typically overloaded as global functions.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in C++ classes including this pointer, constant member functions, static members, friends of classes, memberwise assignment, copy constructors, operator overloading, type conversion operators, convert constructors, object composition, inheritance, protected members, constructors and destructors with inheritance, and overriding base class functions.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++, which allows existing operators like + and - to work with user-defined types by defining corresponding operator functions, and covers topics like restrictions on overloading, syntax for member and non-member operator functions, overloading unary and binary operators, and overloading stream insertion and extraction operators. Operator overloading is an important feature of C++ that implements compile-time polymorphism while preserving the meaning of operators.
This document discusses operator overloading in C++. It defines operator overloading as polymorphism that gives user-defined meaning to operators when used with custom data types. It provides examples of overloading operators like + for addition of integers and strings. It lists operators that cannot be overloaded and discusses implementing operator overloading using member, non-member, and friend functions. Finally, it provides rules for operator overloading such as preserving precedence and arity of operators.
This document discusses C++ function and operator overloading. Overloading occurs when the same name is used for functions or operators that have different signatures. Signatures are distinguished by parameter types and types are used to determine the best match. Overloading is resolved at compile-time based on arguments passed, while overriding is resolved at run-time based on object type. The document provides examples of overloading functions and operators and discusses issues like symmetry, precedence, and whether functions should be members or non-members.
C# allows operators like + and - to be overloaded for custom classes. Operator overloading is implemented by defining static operator methods that specify the behavior of operators on class instances. Operators can be overloaded to work on one or two operands, and conversion operators allow implicit or explicit conversion between types. This allows custom classes to integrate seamlessly into C# code by supporting common operators and type conversions.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. Some key points:
- Operator overloading allows operators to be redefined for user-defined types.
- Unary operators can be overloaded using non-static member functions or friend functions. Binary operators can also be overloaded using these two methods.
- Not all operators can be overloaded - operators like ., ::, sizeof cannot be overloaded. The precedence, associativity, and arity of operators also cannot be changed.
Operator overloading allows operators to work with user-defined types by defining corresponding operator functions. This unit discusses overloading unary and binary operators as member or non-member functions, restrictions on operator overloading, and how inheritance and automatic type conversion relate to operator overloading. The key topics covered include how to overload operators, which operators can and cannot be overloaded, and potential issues with type conversion.
operator overloading & type conversion in cpp over view || c++gourav kottawar
The document discusses operator overloading and type conversion in C++. It begins by defining operator overloading as giving special meanings to operators for user-defined types. It then covers overloading unary and binary operators using member functions and friend functions. Some key points include: operators can only be overloaded for user-defined types, not built-in types; overloaded operators retain precedence and number of operands; common uses of operator overloading include complex number arithmetic and string manipulation. The document also discusses type conversions between basic and user-defined types using constructors and casting operators.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and << to be used with user-defined types like classes. It is done by defining corresponding operator functions like operator+() and operator<<(). This allows objects to be used with operators in a natural way while providing custom behavior for that type. The rules for overloading include maintaining precedence and associativity of operators. Common operators like +, -, *, /, <<, >>, ==, =, [] and () can be overloaded to allow user-defined types to work with them.
Operator overloading allows operators like + and - to have different implementations depending on the types of their operands. It allows user-defined types to be manipulated using the same syntax as built-in types. The document discusses various aspects of operator overloading like overloading unary, binary, and stream insertion/extraction operators. It also covers type conversions between basic and user-defined types using constructors and conversion functions. Restrictions on which operators can be overloaded and how different conversion scenarios are handled are explained.
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It explains that operators can be overloaded to work with user-defined classes by writing operator functions. It lists the operators that can and cannot be overloaded. It also describes restrictions on overloading like preserving precedence and arity. The document provides examples of overloading binary, unary, assignment and stream insertion/extraction operators and discusses their implementation as member or non-member functions. It also presents a case study of overloading operators for an Array class.
C++ Nested loops, matrix and fuctions.pdfyamew16788
Nested loops allow executing a set of statements multiple times in a loop within another loop. This can be used to iterate over multidimensional data structures. The outer loop completes one full iteration for each iteration of the inner loop, nesting the loops within each other. Functions allow breaking programs into reusable blocks of code to perform specific tasks, with declarations informing the compiler of functions' names, return types, and parameters, while definitions contain the function body.
Synapse india complain sharing info on chapter 8 operator overloadingSynapseindiaComplaints
The document discusses operator overloading in C++. It covers the fundamentals of operator overloading including which operators can be overloaded and restrictions. It provides examples of overloading unary, binary, and assignment operators. It also discusses overloading stream insertion and extraction operators and includes a case study overloading operators for an Array class. The case study demonstrates overloading operators like ==, !=, [], and << to provide functionality like array comparisons and outputting entire arrays. The document also discusses converting between types using cast operators.
In programming, operator overloading, sometimes termed operator ad hoc polymorphism, is a specific case of polymorphism, where different operators have different implementations depending on their arguments. Operator overloading is generally defined by a programming language, a programmer, or both.
This document discusses references and dynamic memory allocation in C++. It covers passing references as function parameters, returning references from functions, and advantages over pointers. It also explains static versus dynamic memory allocation, allocating and deallocating single and multi-dimensional dynamic arrays, and avoiding memory leaks when using dynamic allocation.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in C++ programming including program structure, variables, data types, operators, input/output, control structures, and functions. It discusses the basic building blocks of a C++ program including comments, header files, declaring variables, reading/writing data, and program flow. Control structures like if/else, switch, while, for, break and continue are explained. The document also covers fundamental C++ concepts such as variables, data types, operators, and basic input/output.
The document describes a C program that implements various operations on arrays, strings, and stacks. It includes functions to create, display, insert, and delete elements from an array. For strings, it includes functions to read main, pattern, and replace strings, find occurrences of a pattern, and replace the pattern with the given string. For stacks, it includes functions to push and pop elements, check if a number is a palindrome, and display stack elements. The program uses menus to select these different operations and test cases are provided to demonstrate the output.
This document provides information about an intro to Java programming course including loops, arrays, and good programming style. It discusses calculating employee pay using loops and conditional logic. It also covers frequent programming issues like invalid method signatures and variable scopes. The document then explains loops, arrays, and combining them. It provides examples of using while, for, and nested loops. It also demonstrates declaring, initializing, and accessing array elements as well as looping through arrays. Finally, it discusses programming style guidelines and provides an assignment on analyzing marathon race results.
- Arrays allow storing multiple values of the same type sequentially in memory. They have a fixed size or dimension.
- To declare an integer array of size 4, we write "int arr[4]". Individual elements can be accessed using indexes from 0 to dimension-1.
- Strings in C++ are arrays of characters that end with a null character. Common string functions like strcpy(), strcat(), strlen() allow manipulating strings.
This document discusses operator overloading in C++. It begins by defining operator overloading as giving special meanings to operators for user-defined data types. It then covers overloading unary and binary operators using member functions and friend functions. Some key points include: only existing operators can be overloaded, binary operators take operands as arguments, and type conversions between basic and user-defined types require custom conversion routines like constructors or casting functions. The document also provides examples of overloading operators for complex numbers and strings.
This document provides information about loops, arrays, and good programming style from a course on introductory Java programming. It discusses the following key points:
1. Loops like while and for can be used to repeat blocks of code. Common loop issues like infinite loops and off-by-one errors are addressed.
2. Arrays provide a way to store and access multiple values of the same type. Arrays have a length property and values can be accessed using indexes.
3. Good programming style makes code more readable through use of indentation, whitespace, and meaningful names. Duplicated checks should be avoided.
The document concludes with an assignment to find the best and second best performers from
Arrry structure Stacks in data structurelodhran-hayat
There are two types of arrays in C++: single dimensional and multidimensional arrays. The document then provides examples of using single dimensional arrays, traversing arrays using for loops and foreach loops, using structs with constructors and methods, pointers including declaring, assigning, and dereferencing pointers, and dynamic memory allocation using new and delete operators for built-in types, arrays, objects, and multidimensional arrays.
The document discusses arrays, strings, and functions in C programming. It begins by explaining how to initialize and access 2D arrays, including examples of declaring and initializing a 2D integer array and adding elements of two 2D arrays. It also covers initializing and accessing multidimensional arrays. The document then discusses string basics like declaration and initialization of character arrays that represent strings. It explains various string functions like strlen(), strcat(), strcmp(). Finally, it covers functions in C including declaration, definition, call by value vs reference, and passing arrays to functions.
The document discusses arrays in C programming. Some key points include:
- An array is a collection of variables of the same type referred to by a common name. Each element has an index and arrays use contiguous memory locations.
- Arrays are declared with the type, name, and size. The first element is at index 0.
- One-dimensional arrays can be initialized, accessed, input from and output to the user. Multidimensional arrays like 2D arrays represent tables with rows and columns.
- Arrays can be passed to functions by passing the entire array or individual elements. Operations like searching, sorting and merging can be performed on arrays.
The document discusses friend functions and classes, which can access private and protected members of another class. It provides examples of declaring friend functions and classes, and demonstrates how friend functions can modify private variables, while non-friend functions cannot. The document also covers static class members, which are shared by all objects of a class, and proxy classes, which hide the implementation of another class through a public interface.
Write a program that obtains the execution time of selection sort, bu.pdfarri2009av
Write a java program called Question39 that does the following: Gets input for temperature
Utilizing a branching statement: If temperature is 76-100, call method outputHot passing the
temperature input as an argument. If temperature is 0-39, call method outputCold passing the
temperature input as an argument. If temperature is 40 to 75, call method outputJustRight
passing the temperature input as an argument. If temperature is outside these ranges, output
“Temperature outside range” to the screen. Be precise, import modules, include comments,
prologue, etc. as needed.
Solution
Question39.java
import java.util.Scanner;
public class Question39 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println(\"Enter temperature: \");
int temp = scan.nextInt();
if(temp >=76 && temp <=100){
outputHot(temp);
}
else if(temp >=0 && temp <=39){
outputCold(temp);
}
else if(temp >=40 && temp <=75){
outputJustRight(temp);
}
else{
System.out.println(\"Temperature outside range\");
}
}
public static void outputHot(int temp){
System.out.println(\"Temperature \"+temp+\" Hot \");
}
public static void outputCold(int temp){
System.out.println(\"Temperature \"+temp+\" Cold \");
}
public static void outputJustRight(int temp){
System.out.println(\"Temperature \"+temp+\" Just Right \");
}
}
Output:
Enter temperature:
45
Temperature 45 Just Right.
The purpose of this C++ programming project is to allow the student .pdfRahul04August
The purpose of this C++ programming project is to allow the student to perform parallel array
and multidimensional array processing. The logic for string and Cstring has already been
completed, so the assignment can be started before we actually cover string and Cstring in detail.
This program has the following three menu options:
Solution
/*
This program uses simple arrays, multidimensional arrays, cstrings, strings, and files.
It allows a payroll clerk to choose an option from a menu. The choices are:
A: List the Payroll Information by Employee Name
B: Search Payroll Information by Employee Name
X: Exit the Payroll Information Module
The following items for each employee are saved in the file p10.txt:
Employee ID (1000 - 9999)
Last Name (15 characters)
First Name (15 characters)
Rate (5.00 - 10.00)
Hours W1,W2,W3,W4 (0-60)
*/
#include // file processing
#include // cin and cout
#include // toupper
#include // setw
#include // cstring functions strlen, strcmp, strcpy stored in string.h
#include // string class
#define stricmp strcasecmp
#define strnicmp strncasecmp
using namespace std;
//Disable warning messages C4267 C4996.
//To see the warnings, comment out the following line.
//#pragma warning( disable : 4267 4996)
//Warning C4267: coversion from size_t to int, possible lost of data
//size_t is a data type defined in and is an unsigned integer.
//The function strlen returns a value of the type size_t, but in
//searchByName we assign the returned value to an int.
//We could also declare the variable as size_t instead of int.
// size_t stringLength;
//Warning C4996: strnicmp strcpy, stricmp was declared deprecated, means
//the compiler encountered a function that was marked with deprecated.
//The deprecated function may no longer be supported in a future release.
//Global Constants
//When using to declare arrays, must be defined with const modifier
const int ARRAY_SIZE = 20, HOURS_SIZE = 4, NAME_SIZE = 16;
//Declare arrays as global so we don\'t have to pass the arrays to each function.
//Normally we wouldn\'t declare variables that change values a global.
int employeeId[ARRAY_SIZE];
string firstName[ARRAY_SIZE];
char lastName[ARRAY_SIZE][NAME_SIZE];
double rate[ARRAY_SIZE];
int hours[ARRAY_SIZE][HOURS_SIZE];
int numberOfEmps; //count of how many employees were loaded into arrays
int sumHours[ARRAY_SIZE] = {0}; //initialize arrays to zero by providing a
double avgHours[ARRAY_SIZE] = {0}; //value for the first element in the array
//Function Prototypes
void loadArray( );
void sumAndComputeAvgHours( );
void listByName( );
void searchByName( );
void sortByName( );
void swapValues(int i, int minIndex);
void listEmployees( );
void listEmployeesHeadings( );
void listEmployeesDetails(int i);
void listEmployeesTotals( );
void displayContinuePrompt( );
//Program starts here
int main()
{
//Declare and initialize local main variables
char choice; //menu option
//Load the arrays with data
loadArray();
//Sum and compute the average hours
sumAndComputeAv.
Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides systems the ability to automatically learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed.
The document discusses key concepts of supply and demand, including:
1) The supply curve slopes upward as producers are willing to produce more at higher prices, while the demand curve slopes downward as consumers are willing to buy more at lower prices.
2) The price reaches equilibrium at the intersection point of the supply and demand curves.
3) Shifts in the supply and demand curves can change the equilibrium price, such as a supply curve shifting right if production costs decrease.
The C programming language was designed in the early 1970s and influenced by other languages. It is traditionally used for systems programming but is also used for other applications. The document provides an introduction to C including its standardization, differences between C and C++, elements of a C program including main functions and return values, and use of header files. It also discusses pointers, arrays, preprocessor directives, and macros.
This document provides an introduction to big data and basic data analysis techniques. It discusses how large amounts of data are being collected from various sources and the need to analyze this data. It then covers common data analysis and mining techniques like aggregation, statistics, clustering, classification, and association rule mining. It also discusses challenges in analyzing data streams and algorithms for finding frequent items in data streams. The document aims to give the reader an overview of big data and basic analytical methods.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
› ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
An improved modulation technique suitable for a three level flying capacitor ...IJECEIAES
This research paper introduces an innovative modulation technique for controlling a 3-level flying capacitor multilevel inverter (FCMLI), aiming to streamline the modulation process in contrast to conventional methods. The proposed
simplified modulation technique paves the way for more straightforward and
efficient control of multilevel inverters, enabling their widespread adoption and
integration into modern power electronic systems. Through the amalgamation of
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) with a high-frequency square wave
pulse, this controlling technique attains energy equilibrium across the coupling
capacitor. The modulation scheme incorporates a simplified switching pattern
and a decreased count of voltage references, thereby simplifying the control
algorithm.
2. Operator overloading
Enabling C++’s operators to work with class objects
Using traditional operators with user-defined objects
Requires great care; when overloading is misused,
program difficult to understand
Examples of already overloaded operators
Operator << is both the stream-insertion operator and the
bitwise left-shift operator
+ and -, perform arithmetic on multiple types
Compiler generates the appropriate code based on the
manner in which the operator is used
Piyush kumar 2
3. Overloading an operator
Write function definition as normal
Function name is keyword operator followed by
the symbol for the operator being overloaded
operator+ used to overload the addition operator
(+)
Using operators
To use an operator on a class object it must be
overloaded unless the assignment operator(=)or
the address operator(&)
Assignment operator by default performs memberwise
assignment
Address operator (&) by default returns the address of an
object
Piyush kumar 3
4. C++ operators that can be overloaded
C++ Operators that cannot be overloaded
Operators that cannot be overloaded
. .* :: ?: sizeof
Operators that can be overloaded
+ - * / % ^ & |
~ ! = < > += -= *=
/= %= ^= &= |= << >> >>=
<<= == != <= >= && || ++
-- ->* , -> [] () new delete
new[] delete[]
Piyush kumar 4
5. Overloading restrictions
Precedence of an operator cannot be changed
Associativity of an operator cannot be changed
Arity (number of operands) cannot be changed
Unary operators remain unary, and binary operators remain
binary
Operators &, *, + and - each have unary and binary versions
Unary and binary versions can be overloaded separately
No new operators can be created
Use only existing operators
No overloading operators for built-in types
Cannot change how two integers are added
Produces a syntax error
Piyush kumar 5
6. Member vs non-member
Operator functions can be member or non-member
functions
When overloading ( ), [ ], -> or any of the assignment
operators, must use a member function
Operator functions as member functions
Leftmost operand must be an object (or reference to an
object) of the class
If left operand of a different type, operator function must be a
non-member function
Operator functions as non-member functions
Must be friends if needs to access private or protected
members
Enable the operator to be commutative
Piyush kumar 6
7. Overloaded << and >> operators
Overloaded to perform input/output for user-
defined types
Left operand of types ostream & and istream &
Must be a non-member function because left
operand is not an object of the class
Must be a friend function to access private data
members
Piyush kumar 7
8. 1 // Fig. 8.3: fig08_03.cpp
2 // Overloading the stream-insertion and
3 // stream-extraction operators.
4 #include <iostream>
5
6 using std::cout;
7 using std::cin;
8 using std::endl;
9 using std::ostream;
10 using std::istream;
11
12 #include <iomanip>
13
14 using std::setw;
15
16 class PhoneNumber {
17 friend ostream &operator<<( ostream&, const PhoneNumber & );
18 friend istream &operator>>( istream&, PhoneNumber & );
19
20 private:
21 char areaCode[ 4 ]; // 3-digit area code and null
22 char exchange[ 4 ]; // 3-digit exchange and null
23 char line[ 5 ]; // 4-digit line and null
24 };
25
26 // Overloaded stream-insertion operator (cannot be
27 // a member function if we would like to invoke it with
28 // cout << somePhoneNumber;).
29 ostream &operator<<( ostream &output, const PhoneNumber &num )
30 {
9. 31 output << "(" << num.areaCode << ") "
32 << num.exchange << "-" << num.line;
33 return output; // enables cout << a << b << c;
34 }
35
36 istream &operator>>( istream &input, PhoneNumber &num )
37 {
38 input.ignore(); // skip (
39 input >> setw( 4 ) >> num.areaCode; // input area code
40 input.ignore( 2 ); // skip ) and space
41 input >> setw( 4 ) >> num.exchange; // input exchange
42 input.ignore(); // skip dash (-)
43 input >> setw( 5 ) >> num.line; // input line
44 return input; // enables cin >> a >> b >> c;
45 }
46
47 int main()
48 {
49 PhoneNumber phone; // create object phone
50
51 cout << "Enter phone number in the form (123) 456-7890:n";
52
53 // cin >> phone invokes operator>> function by
54 // issuing the call operator>>( cin, phone ).
55 cin >> phone;
56
57 // cout << phone invokes operator<< function by
58 // issuing the call operator<<( cout, phone ).
59 cout << "The phone number entered was: " << phone << endl;
60 return 0;
61 }
10. Program Output
Enter phone number in the form (123) 456-7890:
(800) 555-1212
The phone number entered was: (800) 555-1212
11. Overloading unary operators
Can be overloaded with no arguments or one
argument
Should usually be implemented as member functions
Avoid friend functions and classes because they violate the
encapsulation of a class
Example declaration as a member function:
class String {
public:
bool operator!() const;
...
};
Piyush kumar 11
12. Example declaration as a non-member function
class String {
friend bool operator!( const String
& )
...
}
Piyush kumar 12
13. Overloaded Binary operators
Non-static member function, one argument
Example:
class String {
public:
const String &operator+=(
const String & );
...
};
y += z is equivalent to y.operator+=( z )
Piyush kumar 13
14. Non-member function, two arguments
Example:
class String {
friend const String &operator+=(
String &, const String & );
...
};
y += z is equivalent to operator+=( y, z )
Piyush kumar 14
15. Implement an Array class with
Range checking
Array assignment
Arrays that know their size
Outputting/inputting entire arrays with << and >>
Array comparisons with == and !=
Piyush kumar 15
16. 1 // Fig. 8.4: array1.h
2 // Simple class Array (for integers)
3 #ifndef ARRAY1_H
4 #define ARRAY1_H
5
6 #include <iostream>
7
8 using std::ostream;
9 using std::istream;
10
11 class Array {
12 friend ostream &operator<<( ostream &, const Array & );
13 friend istream &operator>>( istream &, Array & );
14 public:
15 Array( int = 10 ); // default constructor
16 Array( const Array & ); // copy constructor
17 ~Array(); // destructor
18 int getSize() const; // return size
19 const Array &operator=( const Array & ); // assign arrays
20 bool operator==( const Array & ) const; // compare equal
21
22 // Determine if two arrays are not equal and
23 // return true, otherwise return false (uses operator==).
24 bool operator!=( const Array &right ) const
25 { return ! ( *this == right ); }
26
27 int &operator[]( int ); // subscript operator
28 const int &operator[]( int ) const; // subscript operator
29 static int getArrayCount(); // Return count of
30 // arrays instantiated.
31 private:
32 int size; // size of the array
33 int *ptr; // pointer to first element of array
34 static int arrayCount; // # of Arrays instantiated
17. 35 };
36
37 #endif
38 // Fig 8.4: array1.cpp
39 // Member function definitions for class Array
40 #include <iostream>
41
42 using std::cout;
43 using std::cin;
44 using std::endl;
45
46 #include <iomanip>
47
48 using std::setw;
49
50 #include <cstdlib>
51 #include <cassert>
52 #include "array1.h"
53
54 // Initialize static data member at file scope
55 int Array::arrayCount = 0; // no objects yet
56
57 // Default constructor for class Array (default size 10)
58 Array::Array( int arraySize )
59 {
60 size = ( arraySize > 0 ? arraySize : 10 );
61 ptr = new int[ size ]; // create space for array
62 assert( ptr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated
63 ++arrayCount; // count one more object
64
65 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ )
66 ptr[ i ] = 0; // initialize array
18. 67 }
68
69 // Copy constructor for class Array
70 // must receive a reference to prevent infinite recursion
71 Array::Array( const Array &init ) : size( init.size )
72 {
73 ptr = new int[ size ]; // create space for array
74 assert( ptr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated
75 ++arrayCount; // count one more object
76
77 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ )
78 ptr[ i ] = init.ptr[ i ]; // copy init into object
79 }
80
81 // Destructor for class Array
82 Array::~Array()
83 {
84 delete [] ptr; // reclaim space for array
85 --arrayCount; // one fewer object
86 }
87
88 // Get the size of the array
89 int Array::getSize() const { return size; }
90
91 // Overloaded assignment operator
92 // const return avoids: ( a1 = a2 ) = a3
93 const Array &Array::operator=( const Array &right )
94 {
95 if ( &right != this ) { // check for self-assignment
96
97 // for arrays of different sizes, deallocate original
98 // left side array, then allocate new left side array.
99 if ( size != right.size ) {
100 delete [] ptr; // reclaim space
19. 101 size = right.size; // resize this object
102 ptr = new int[ size ]; // create space for array copy
103 assert( ptr != 0 ); // terminate if not allocated
104 }
105
106 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ )
107 ptr[ i ] = right.ptr[ i ]; // copy array into object
108 }
109
110 return *this; // enables x = y = z;
111}
112
113// Determine if two arrays are equal and
114// return true, otherwise return false.
115bool Array::operator==( const Array &right ) const
116{
117 if ( size != right.size )
118 return false; // arrays of different sizes
119
120 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ )
121 if ( ptr[ i ] != right.ptr[ i ] )
122 return false; // arrays are not equal
123
124 return true; // arrays are equal
125}
126
127// Overloaded subscript operator for non-const Arrays
128// reference return creates an lvalue
129int &Array::operator[]( int subscript )
130{
131 // check for subscript out of range error
132 assert( 0 <= subscript && subscript < size );
20. 133
134 return ptr[ subscript ]; // reference return
135}
136
137// Overloaded subscript operator for const Arrays
138// const reference return creates an rvalue
139const int &Array::operator[]( int subscript ) const
140{
141 // check for subscript out of range error
142 assert( 0 <= subscript && subscript < size );
143
144 return ptr[ subscript ]; // const reference return
145}
146
147// Return the number of Array objects instantiated
148// static functions cannot be const
149int Array::getArrayCount() { return arrayCount; }
150
151// Overloaded input operator for class Array;
152// inputs values for entire array.
153istream &operator>>( istream &input, Array &a )
154{
155 for ( int i = 0; i < a.size; i++ )
156 input >> a.ptr[ i ];
157
158 return input; // enables cin >> x >> y;
159}
160
161// Overloaded output operator for class Array
162ostream &operator<<( ostream &output, const Array &a )
163{
21. 164 int i;
165
166 for ( i = 0; i < a.size; i++ ) {
167 output << setw( 12 ) << a.ptr[ i ];
168
169 if ( ( i + 1 ) % 4 == 0 ) // 4 numbers per row of output
170 output << endl;
171 }
172
173 if ( i % 4 != 0 )
174 output << endl;
175
176 return output; // enables cout << x << y;
177}
178// Fig. 8.4: fig08_04.cpp
179// Driver for simple class Array
180#include <iostream>
181
182using std::cout;
183using std::cin;
184using std::endl;
185
186#include "array1.h"
187
188int main()
189{
190 // no objects yet
191 cout << "# of arrays instantiated = "
192 << Array::getArrayCount() << 'n';
193
# of arrays instantiated = 0
22. 194 // create two arrays and print Array count
195 Array integers1( 7 ), integers2;
196 cout << "# of arrays instantiated = "
197 << Array::getArrayCount() << "nn";
198
199 // print integers1 size and contents
200 cout << "Size of array integers1 is "
201 << integers1.getSize()
202 << "nArray after initialization:n"
203 << integers1 << 'n';
204
205 // print integers2 size and contents
206 cout << "Size of array integers2 is "
207 << integers2.getSize()
208 << "nArray after initialization:n"
209 << integers2 << 'n';
210
211 // input and print integers1 and integers2
212 cout << "Input 17 integers:n";
213 cin >> integers1 >> integers2;
214 cout << "After input, the arrays contain:n"
215 << "integers1:n" << integers1
216 << "integers2:n" << integers2 << 'n';
217
218 // use overloaded inequality (!=) operator
219 cout << "Evaluating: integers1 != integers2n";
220 if ( integers1 != integers2 )
221 cout << "They are not equaln";
222
223 // create array integers3 using integers1 as an
224 // initializer; print size and contents
225 Array integers3( integers1 );
226
23. 227 cout << "nSize of array integers3 is "
228 << integers3.getSize()
229 << "nArray after initialization:n"
230 << integers3 << 'n';
231
232 // use overloaded assignment (=) operator
233 cout << "Assigning integers2 to integers1:n";
234 integers1 = integers2;
235 cout << "integers1:n" << integers1
236 << "integers2:n" << integers2 << 'n';
237
238 // use overloaded equality (==) operator
239 cout << "Evaluating: integers1 == integers2n";
240 if ( integers1 == integers2 )
241 cout << "They are equalnn";
242
243 // use overloaded subscript operator to create rvalue
244 cout << "integers1[5] is " << integers1[ 5 ] << 'n';
245
246 // use overloaded subscript operator to create lvalue
247 cout << "Assigning 1000 to integers1[5]n";
248 integers1[ 5 ] = 1000;
249 cout << "integers1:n" << integers1 << 'n';
250
251 // attempt to use out of range subscript
252 cout << "Attempt to assign 1000 to integers1[15]" << endl;
253 integers1[ 15 ] = 1000; // ERROR: out of range
254
255 return 0;
256}
24. # of arrays instantiated = 0
# of arrays instantiated = 2
Size of array integers1 is 7
Array after initialization:
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
Size of array integers2 is 10
Array after initialization:
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
Input 17 integers:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
After input, the arrays contain:
integers1:
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
integers2:
8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15
16 17
Evaluating: integers1 != integers2
They are not equal
Size of array integers3 is 7
Array after initialization:
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
25. Evaluating: integers1 == integers2
They are equal
integers1[5] is 13
Assigning 1000 to integers1[5]
integers1:
8 9 10 11
12 1000 14 15
16 17
Attempt to assign 1000 to integers1[15]
Assertion failed: 0 <= subscript && subscript < size, file Array1.cpp,
line 95 abnormal program termination
Assigning integers2 to integers1:
integers1:
8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15
16 17
integers2:
8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15
16 17
26. Cast operator
Forces conversions among built-in types
Specifies conversions between user defined and
built-in types
Conversion operator must be a non-static
member function
Cannot be a friend function
Do not specify return type
Return type is the type to which the object is being
converted
For user-defined class A
A::operator char *() const;
Declares an overloaded cast operator function for creating a
char * out of an A object
Piyush kumar 26
27. A::operator int() const;
Declares an overloaded cast operator function for
converting an object of A into an integer
A::operator otherClass() const;
Declares an overloaded cast operator function for
converting an object of A into an object of otherClass
Compiler and casting
Casting can prevent the need for overloading
If an object s of user-defined class String appears in
a program where an ordinary char * is expected,
such as
cout << s;
The compiler calls the overloaded cast operator function
operator char * to convert the object into a char *
and uses the resulting char * in the expression
Piyush kumar 27
28. Build a class to handle strings
Class string in standard library
Conversion constructor
Single-argument constructors that turn objects of
other types into class objects
Piyush kumar 28
32. 96 delete [] sPtr; // prevents memory leak
97 length = right.length; // new String length
98 setString( right.sPtr ); // call utility function
99 }
100 else
101 cout << "Attempted assignment of a String to itselfn";
102
103 return *this; // enables cascaded assignments
104}
105
106// Concatenate right operand to this object and
107// store in this object.
108const String &String::operator+=( const String &right )
109{
110 char *tempPtr = sPtr; // hold to be able to delete
111 length += right.length; // new String length
112 sPtr = new char[ length + 1 ]; // create space
113 assert( sPtr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated
114 strcpy( sPtr, tempPtr ); // left part of new String
115 strcat( sPtr, right.sPtr ); // right part of new String
116 delete [] tempPtr; // reclaim old space
117 return *this; // enables cascaded calls
118}
119
120// Is this String empty?
121bool String::operator!() const { return length == 0; }
122
123// Is this String equal to right String?
124bool String::operator==( const String &right ) const
125 { return strcmp( sPtr, right.sPtr ) == 0; }
126
127// Is this String less than right String?
33. 128bool String::operator<( const String &right ) const
129 { return strcmp( sPtr, right.sPtr ) < 0; }
130
131// Return a reference to a character in a String as an lvalue.
132char &String::operator[]( int subscript )
133{
134 // First test for subscript out of range
135 assert( subscript >= 0 && subscript < length );
136
137 return sPtr[ subscript ]; // creates lvalue
138}
139
140// Return a reference to a character in a String as an rvalue.
141const char &String::operator[]( int subscript ) const
142{
143 // First test for subscript out of range
144 assert( subscript >= 0 && subscript < length );
145
146 return sPtr[ subscript ]; // creates rvalue
147}
148
149// Return a substring beginning at index and
150// of length subLength
151String String::operator()( int index, int subLength )
152{
153 // ensure index is in range and substring length >= 0
154 assert( index >= 0 && index < length && subLength >= 0 );
155
156 // determine length of substring
157 int len;
158
Notice the overloaded
function call operator.
34. 159 if ( ( subLength == 0 ) || ( index + subLength > length ) )
160 len = length - index;
161 else
162 len = subLength;
163
164 // allocate temporary array for substring and
165 // terminating null character
166 char *tempPtr = new char[ len + 1 ];
167 assert( tempPtr != 0 ); // ensure space allocated
168
169 // copy substring into char array and terminate string
170 strncpy( tempPtr, &sPtr[ index ], len );
171 tempPtr[ len ] = '0';
172
173 // Create temporary String object containing the substring
174 String tempString( tempPtr );
175 delete [] tempPtr; // delete the temporary array
176
177 return tempString; // return copy of the temporary String
178}
179
180// Return string length
181int String::getLength() const { return length; }
182
183// Utility function to be called by constructors and
184// assignment operator.
185void String::setString( const char *string2 )
186{
187 sPtr = new char[ length + 1 ]; // allocate storage
188 assert( sPtr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated
189 strcpy( sPtr, string2 ); // copy literal to object
190}
37. 254 cout << "s1 = " << s1 << "nn";
255
256 // test overloaded function call operator () for substring
257 cout << "The substring of s1 starting atn"
258 << "location 0 for 14 characters, s1(0, 14), is:n"
259 << s1( 0, 14 ) << "nn";
260
261 // test substring "to-end-of-String" option
262 cout << "The substring of s1 starting atn"
263 << "location 15, s1(15, 0), is: "
264 << s1( 15, 0 ) << "nn"; // 0 is "to end of string"
265
266 // test copy constructor
267 String *s4Ptr = new String( s1 );
268 cout << "*s4Ptr = " << *s4Ptr << "nn";
269
270 // test assignment (=) operator with self-assignment
271 cout << "assigning *s4Ptr to *s4Ptrn";
272 *s4Ptr = *s4Ptr; // test overloaded assignment
273 cout << "*s4Ptr = " << *s4Ptr << 'n';
274
275 // test destructor
276 delete s4Ptr;
277
278 // test using subscript operator to create lvalue
279 s1[ 0 ] = 'H';
280 s1[ 6 ] = 'B';
281 cout << "ns1 after s1[0] = 'H' and s1[6] = 'B' is: "
282 << s1 << "nn";
283
s1 = happy birthday to you
38. 284 // test subscript out of range
285 cout << "Attempt to assign 'd' to s1[30] yields:" << endl;
286 s1[ 30 ] = 'd'; // ERROR: subscript out of range
287
288 return 0;
289}
Conversion constructor: happy
Conversion constructor: birthday
Conversion constructor:
s1 is "happy"; s2 is " birthday"; s3 is ""
The results of comparing s2 and s1:
s2 == s1 yields false
s2 != s1 yields true
s2 > s1 yields false
s2 < s1 yields true
s2 >= s1 yields false
s2 <= s1 yields true
Testing !s3:
s3 is empty; assigning s1 to s3;
operator= called
s3 is "happy"
s1 += s2 yields s1 = happy birthday
s1 += " to you" yields
Conversion constructor: to you
Destructor: to you
s1 = happy birthday to you
Attempt to assign 'd' to s1[30] yields:
Assertion failed: subscript >= 0 && subscript <
length, file string1.cpp, line 82
Abnormal program termination
39. Program Output
Conversion constructor: happy birthday
Copy constructor: happy birthday
Destructor: happy birthday
The substring of s1 starting at
location 0 for 14 characters, s1(0, 14), is:
happy birthday
Destructor: happy birthday
Conversion constructor: to you
Copy constructor: to you
Destructor: to you
The substring of s1 starting at
location 15, s1(15, 0), is: to you
Destructor: to you
Copy constructor: happy birthday to you
*s4Ptr = happy birthday to you
assigning *s4Ptr to *s4Ptr
operator= called
Attempted assignment of a String to itself
*s4Ptr = happy birthday to you
Destructor: happy birthday to you
s1 after s1[0] = 'H' and s1[6] = 'B' is: Happy Birthday to you
Attempt to assign 'd' to s1[30] yields:
Assertion failed: subscript >= 0 && subscript < length, file
string1.cpp, line 82
Abnormal program termination
40. Pre/post incrementing/decrementing operators
Allowed to be overloaded
Distinguishing between pre and post operators
prefix versions are overloaded the same as other prefix
unary operators
d1.operator++(); // for ++d1
convention adopted that when compiler sees
postincrementing expression, it will generate the
member-function call
d1.operator++( 0 ); // for d1++
0 is a dummy value to make the argument list of
operator++ distinguishable from the argument list for
++operator
Piyush kumar 40
41. The following example creates a Date class
with
An overloaded increment operator to change the
day, month and year
An overloaded += operator
A function to test for leap years
A function to determine if a day is last day of a
month
Piyush kumar 41
42. 1 // Fig. 8.6: date1.h
2 // Definition of class Date
3 #ifndef DATE1_H
4 #define DATE1_H
5 #include <iostream>
6
7 using std::ostream;
8
9 class Date {
10 friend ostream &operator<<( ostream &, const Date & );
11
12 public:
13 Date( int m = 1, int d = 1, int y = 1900 ); // constructor
14 void setDate( int, int, int ); // set the date
15 Date &operator++(); // preincrement operator
16 Date operator++( int ); // postincrement operator
17 const Date &operator+=( int ); // add days, modify object
18 bool leapYear( int ) const; // is this a leap year?
19 bool endOfMonth( int ) const; // is this end of month?
20
21 private:
22 int month;
23 int day;
24 int year;
25
26 static const int days[]; // array of days per month
27 void helpIncrement(); // utility function
28 };
29
30 #endif
43. 31 // Fig. 8.6: date1.cpp
32 // Member function definitions for Date class
33 #include <iostream>
34 #include "date1.h"
35
36 // Initialize static member at file scope;
37 // one class-wide copy.
38 const int Date::days[] = { 0, 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30,
39 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 };
40
41 // Date constructor
42 Date::Date( int m, int d, int y ) { setDate( m, d, y ); }
43
44 // Set the date
45 void Date::setDate( int mm, int dd, int yy )
46 {
47 month = ( mm >= 1 && mm <= 12 ) ? mm : 1;
48 year = ( yy >= 1900 && yy <= 2100 ) ? yy : 1900;
49
50 // test for a leap year
51 if ( month == 2 && leapYear( year ) )
52 day = ( dd >= 1 && dd <= 29 ) ? dd : 1;
53 else
54 day = ( dd >= 1 && dd <= days[ month ] ) ? dd : 1;
55 }
56
57 // Preincrement operator overloaded as a member function.
58 Date &Date::operator++()
59 {
60 helpIncrement();
61 return *this; // reference return to create an lvalue
62 }
63
44. 64 // Postincrement operator overloaded as a member function.
65 // Note that the dummy integer parameter does not have a
66 // parameter name.
67 Date Date::operator++( int )
68 {
69 Date temp = *this;
70 helpIncrement();
71
72 // return non-incremented, saved, temporary object
73 return temp; // value return; not a reference return
74 }
75
76 // Add a specific number of days to a date
77 const Date &Date::operator+=( int additionalDays )
78 {
79 for ( int i = 0; i < additionalDays; i++ )
80 helpIncrement();
81
82 return *this; // enables cascading
83 }
84
85 // If the year is a leap year, return true;
86 // otherwise, return false
87 bool Date::leapYear( int y ) const
88 {
89 if ( y % 400 == 0 || ( y % 100 != 0 && y % 4 == 0 ) )
90 return true; // a leap year
91 else
92 return false; // not a leap year
93 }
94
95 // Determine if the day is the end of the month
96 bool Date::endOfMonth( int d ) const
97 {
postincrement operator
has a dummy int value.
45. 98 if ( month == 2 && leapYear( year ) )
99 return d == 29; // last day of Feb. in leap year
100 else
101 return d == days[ month ];
102}
103
104// Function to help increment the date
105void Date::helpIncrement()
106{
107 if ( endOfMonth( day ) && month == 12 ) { // end year
108 day = 1;
109 month = 1;
110 ++year;
111 }
112 else if ( endOfMonth( day ) ) { // end month
113 day = 1;
114 ++month;
115 }
116 else // not end of month or year; increment day
117 ++day;
118}
119
120// Overloaded output operator
121ostream &operator<<( ostream &output, const Date &d )
122{
123 static char *monthName[ 13 ] = { "", "January",
124 "February", "March", "April", "May", "June",
125 "July", "August", "September", "October",
126 "November", "December" };
127
128 output << monthName[ d.month ] << ' '
129 << d.day << ", " << d.year;
130
131 return output; // enables cascading
47. d1 is January 1, 1900
d2 is December 27, 1992
d3 is January 1, 1900
d2 += 7 is January 3, 1993
d3 is February 28, 1992
++d3 is February 29, 1992
Testing the preincrement operator:
d4 is March 18, 1969
++d4 is March 19, 1969
d4 is March 19, 1969
Testing the postincrement operator:
d4 is March 19, 1969
d4++ is March 19, 1969
d4 is March 20, 1969