A presentation given at the Networked Learning Conference, Edinburgh 2014. With details of the new MA in Higher Education at the University of Surrey. And publication of a new book on Design Patterns for Technology Enhanced Learning.
This presentation describes the research journey using as a stepping stone the historical/contextual teaching and learning practices in Art and Design – an inescapable reality. This provides for some of the reasons that sustain the resistance against implementing elearning in the sector. The presentation argues for the recognition of disciplinary differences. Subsequently, phenomenography, action research and grounded theory as suitable research methods are elaborated upon through the description of research tasks that cover social media, informal learning, the use of mobile devices (iPads) for teaching and learning, and the clash between traditional versus digital media in the context of studio-based learning. The presentation concludes with two epiphanies that help the presenter conceptualise the nature of the challenge vis-à-vis elearning in Art and Design.
A case study of the maker activity program among undergraduate students in Mexico.
Full-text https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317174794_A_Case_Study_of_the_Maker_Activity_Program_among_Undergraduate_Students_in_Mexico
This presentation describes the research journey using as a stepping stone the historical/contextual teaching and learning practices in Art and Design – an inescapable reality. This provides for some of the reasons that sustain the resistance against implementing elearning in the sector. The presentation argues for the recognition of disciplinary differences. Subsequently, phenomenography, action research and grounded theory as suitable research methods are elaborated upon through the description of research tasks that cover social media, informal learning, the use of mobile devices (iPads) for teaching and learning, and the clash between traditional versus digital media in the context of studio-based learning. The presentation concludes with two epiphanies that help the presenter conceptualise the nature of the challenge vis-à-vis elearning in Art and Design.
A case study of the maker activity program among undergraduate students in Mexico.
Full-text https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317174794_A_Case_Study_of_the_Maker_Activity_Program_among_Undergraduate_Students_in_Mexico
An Innovative Framework for Teaching/Learning Technical Courses in Architectu...ssuserd32a56
This study presents a teaching/learning framework based on parallels between problem-based learning (PBL), constructivist pedagogy, and design, which enables students to learn technical courses in a way that promotes sustainable and self-directed learning. The study used qualitative content analysis of literature surveyed from scientific databases to determine thematic codes and find the relations. The theoretical framework was implemented in a case study conducted in a second-year course in building construction technology at Tishk International University, Sulaimaniya, Iraq. The results indicate that solving ill-defined problems increased student enjoyment in learning various subjects through several teaching methods including self-directed learning. The instructor's role is to facilitate learning rather than to provide knowledge by showing the solutions. This stimulates the students' curiosity toward understanding problems and approaching solutions through a game-based scheme. The suggested framework can be a guide for instructors teaching technical courses of any kind. This method equips students with technical knowledge that benefits them in their studies and their professional lives after graduation, as they can integrate both their design and technical knowledge.
Visual data-enriched design technology for blended learningLaia Albó
Presentation at Tallinn University.
Archimedes Foundation fellow - Research visit during 3 months at TLU.
Learning analytics is the most known type of data collected from specific technological environments that allow educators to evaluate how students are learning within a learning context. However, there are more types of data available, less-explored, that may contribute to better design educational practices. These include design analytics, which are the metrics of design decisions and related aspects that inform learning designs. Laia Albó, from Universitat Pompeu Fabra, will talk about how visual representations, authoring support, and design analytics can aid teachers in designing for learning in complex scenarios that blend the use of different spaces for learning and different types of technological tools and resources, e.g. Massive Open Online Courses. This presentation is based on her PhD thesis work, defended in November 2019.
Inforgraphic on mainstreaming ICT-enabled learning innovation based on the outcomes of the JRC-IPTS SCALE CCR project http://is.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pages/EAP/SCALECCR.html
Architectural education has evolved to integrate innovative technological tools in alignment with rapidly shifting global market behaviors. The use of innovative technological tools in seminar and studio environments must encourage students to work more collaboratively yet foster autonomy. Though new media technologies may encourage students in architectural education programs to collaborate more effectively, their ability to produce sustainable outcomes depends on how strongly instructors emphasize a goal-directed problem-solving approach to produce sustainable outcomes in seminar and studio environments. Since the effects of technology on architectural education remain profound, students and instructors must work stridently towards closing theoretical and practical knowledge gaps to produce more sustainable outcomes. In sum, the effects of technology on architectural education remain profound insofar as instructors and students may emphasize the utility of ICTs integrated into seminar and studio environments. Regardless of the drive towards integrating technological innovation, the theoretical paradigms adopted by instructors and students must have direct real-world implications for informing decision-making processes, fostering improvements to problem-solving skills, and enhancing professional development. Because the effects of technology on architectural education will maintain their profundity, instructors must continue to reinforce the benefits of communication to enhance collaborative decision-making processes as well as engage in theory-building.
Blazenka Divjak is the Vice Rector for Students and Studies at the University of Zagreb, Croatia
This Keynote Presentation was delivered at the EDEN 2014 Annual Conference in June 2014.
http://www.eden-online.org
Developing interdisciplinary understanding and dialogie between engineering a...Jennifer Keenahan
Engineers and Architects require effective communication and
interdisciplinary team working to be successful throughout their career which, is often overlooked during formal undergraduate education. The
purpose of this paper is to disseminate the novel design and evaluation of a module on communication and interdisciplinary team working in the combined teaching of undergraduate Engineering and Architecture students. An Interdisciplinary Problem-Based Learning (IPBL) approach is used and the theoretical construct for this work is the application of dialogical theory to the shared habitus between engineers and architects. The constructivist theory of learning was employed in the design and delivery of this module. It is an action research pedagogical
intervention to support the improvement in the teaching and learning of communications and teamwork between architects and engineers. Feedback shows students identified improvement in their communication and teamwork skills at the end of the module.
An Innovative Framework for Teaching/Learning Technical Courses in Architectu...ssuserd32a56
This study presents a teaching/learning framework based on parallels between problem-based learning (PBL), constructivist pedagogy, and design, which enables students to learn technical courses in a way that promotes sustainable and self-directed learning. The study used qualitative content analysis of literature surveyed from scientific databases to determine thematic codes and find the relations. The theoretical framework was implemented in a case study conducted in a second-year course in building construction technology at Tishk International University, Sulaimaniya, Iraq. The results indicate that solving ill-defined problems increased student enjoyment in learning various subjects through several teaching methods including self-directed learning. The instructor's role is to facilitate learning rather than to provide knowledge by showing the solutions. This stimulates the students' curiosity toward understanding problems and approaching solutions through a game-based scheme. The suggested framework can be a guide for instructors teaching technical courses of any kind. This method equips students with technical knowledge that benefits them in their studies and their professional lives after graduation, as they can integrate both their design and technical knowledge.
Visual data-enriched design technology for blended learningLaia Albó
Presentation at Tallinn University.
Archimedes Foundation fellow - Research visit during 3 months at TLU.
Learning analytics is the most known type of data collected from specific technological environments that allow educators to evaluate how students are learning within a learning context. However, there are more types of data available, less-explored, that may contribute to better design educational practices. These include design analytics, which are the metrics of design decisions and related aspects that inform learning designs. Laia Albó, from Universitat Pompeu Fabra, will talk about how visual representations, authoring support, and design analytics can aid teachers in designing for learning in complex scenarios that blend the use of different spaces for learning and different types of technological tools and resources, e.g. Massive Open Online Courses. This presentation is based on her PhD thesis work, defended in November 2019.
Inforgraphic on mainstreaming ICT-enabled learning innovation based on the outcomes of the JRC-IPTS SCALE CCR project http://is.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pages/EAP/SCALECCR.html
Architectural education has evolved to integrate innovative technological tools in alignment with rapidly shifting global market behaviors. The use of innovative technological tools in seminar and studio environments must encourage students to work more collaboratively yet foster autonomy. Though new media technologies may encourage students in architectural education programs to collaborate more effectively, their ability to produce sustainable outcomes depends on how strongly instructors emphasize a goal-directed problem-solving approach to produce sustainable outcomes in seminar and studio environments. Since the effects of technology on architectural education remain profound, students and instructors must work stridently towards closing theoretical and practical knowledge gaps to produce more sustainable outcomes. In sum, the effects of technology on architectural education remain profound insofar as instructors and students may emphasize the utility of ICTs integrated into seminar and studio environments. Regardless of the drive towards integrating technological innovation, the theoretical paradigms adopted by instructors and students must have direct real-world implications for informing decision-making processes, fostering improvements to problem-solving skills, and enhancing professional development. Because the effects of technology on architectural education will maintain their profundity, instructors must continue to reinforce the benefits of communication to enhance collaborative decision-making processes as well as engage in theory-building.
Blazenka Divjak is the Vice Rector for Students and Studies at the University of Zagreb, Croatia
This Keynote Presentation was delivered at the EDEN 2014 Annual Conference in June 2014.
http://www.eden-online.org
Developing interdisciplinary understanding and dialogie between engineering a...Jennifer Keenahan
Engineers and Architects require effective communication and
interdisciplinary team working to be successful throughout their career which, is often overlooked during formal undergraduate education. The
purpose of this paper is to disseminate the novel design and evaluation of a module on communication and interdisciplinary team working in the combined teaching of undergraduate Engineering and Architecture students. An Interdisciplinary Problem-Based Learning (IPBL) approach is used and the theoretical construct for this work is the application of dialogical theory to the shared habitus between engineers and architects. The constructivist theory of learning was employed in the design and delivery of this module. It is an action research pedagogical
intervention to support the improvement in the teaching and learning of communications and teamwork between architects and engineers. Feedback shows students identified improvement in their communication and teamwork skills at the end of the module.
Revolutionizing School – Fablab@school dk 2016 KeynotePeter Troxler
Maker Education is a new method of learning. It promises that students not only learn to "read" technology but also become able to "write" it—an approach previously not found in the education system. The core of this method is that students themselves take ownership of their learning process by working on challenges they can solve by applying digital manufacturing technology.
An important prerequisite for "writing" technology however remains the ability to "read" it. However, technology today is often read protected—hardware has "no serviceable parts inside", the source code of software is not available to users. The remedy is open hardware and open source software; and education has equally to embrace open design principles.
Engage 2015: Emerging Technology and Online Learning TrendsMike KEPPELL
What is the context?
Learning transformations
Deconstructing blended learning
Places and spaces of blended learning
Design opportunities
Distributive leadership
Changing mindsets
Keynote talk at CollabTech2022 (November 9, 2022):
Design and orchestration of technology-enhanced collaborative learning can be very challenging for teachers or even instructional designers. This keynote presentation deals with design for effective and efficient collaborative learning, and how teachers as designers and orchestrators may be supported in complex ecosystems.
We present the main challenges and solutions regarding conceptual and technological tools which may be developed, building on, and adapting to existing design knowledge.
The talk will provide an overview of patterns, approaches, tools, and systems that should respect teachers’ agency while taking advantage of complex computational approaches, typically based on artificial intelligence.
We pay special attention to recent research on how learning analytics solutions may be designed and implemented using human-centered approaches, and how socially shared regulated learning may be better supported.
Several illustrating examples will be shown drawing on the literature and the research work of the presented during the last 25 years.
Some prominent pending issues will be posed that may guide future research in supporting teachers as designers and orchestrators.
This is a brief outline of my research journey on how to design digitally in order to empower evolving learners 2.0. They key is to build metareflective awareness about students' own learning processes in relation to both content and context. A seminar presentation for HEEL (Higher Education and E-Learning) March 2018.
Moderator: Antonella Poce, Network of Academics and Professionals (NAP) Steering Committee member and Associate Professor in Experimental Pedagogy at the University Roma Tre – Department of Education
Date: 7 December 2016
Recording of the webinar: https://eden-online.adobeconnect.com/p4hcaplald5/
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In this keynote presentation I explore the value of WIL in providing key skills for future workforce needs. Against a backdrop of significant changes in the workplace and challenges to resources and recognition within institutions, I ask whether institutions can make WIL experiences accessible, meaningful and of high quality for all our students. Newcastle University's Career-ready Placements project will provide a critical case study to better understand and address key challenges in this area.
An assessment workshop on the six critical areas that need to be addressed in developing online assessment at scale. Led by the Centre for Online and Distance Education with a delegation of VCs and senior leaders from Nigerian Universities, and senior representatives from the National Universities Commission of Nigeria. Held on 24th March 2023.
ASCILITE 2022 presentation on Hybrid Learning Space design outlining an approach based on a '5-piece' model that incorporates:
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2. design patterns;
3. tools to think with;
4. exploratory design method/approach;
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Background/context. While the COVID-19 pandemic has caused numerous economic, health and wellbeing issues, it has also caused significant disruption across the education sector. Universities were prompted, or forced, to transition from face-to-face teaching to fully online teaching practices in a short period of time; with many being unprepared to do so (Jung et al., 2021; Metcalfe, 2021). This presentation explores the experience of the University of New England (UNE) in transitioning its learning, teaching and assessment to fully online. In contrast to other institutions either having to shut down their learning and teaching activities or resorting to restricted forms of operations (Naidu, 2021), the experience of educators at UNE wasn’t all bad. Against this backdrop, the presentation reflects how learning, teaching and assessment practices at UNE were modified in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Adopting an optimistic stance, the presentation describes the challenges, opportunities, and the positive lessons learned, celebrating multiple successes.
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Methods of evaluative data collection and analysis. Semi-structured, conversational-style interviews were conducted with 18 academic staff at UNE about their experiences of transitioning to fully online delivery. These interviews were recorded, transcribed, coded and subjected to thematic analysis to capture key ideas and emergent themes.
Evidence of outcomes and effectiveness. Thematic analysis of interview data identified that despite the challenges, a range of positive experiences, practices and attitudes emerged from the transition to fully online delivery.
Presentation at CDE (now CODE) Webinar on 3rd March 2022. Title: 'From confidence to creativity: Emerging design opportunities for teaching and learning practice within the new hyflex educational landscape.'
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My introduction as chair to the CDE organised InFocus 2015 symposium on 'Games, gamification and game-based learning'. Held at Senate House, University of London on 4th March 2015. Co-chaired with Alex Moseley, University of Leicester.
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http://www.moocdesign.cde.london.ac.uk/
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Assessing the value of design narratives, patterns and scenarios
1. NLC 2014, EDINBURGH
Assessing the value of design narratives, patterns and
scenarios in scaffolding co-design processes in the domain
of technology enhanced learning
Steven Warburton and Yishay Mor
2. Challenges: technology enhanced learning
within the institution
• Excellence in learning and teaching
• Meeting the expectations of working in a
digital age
• Growth – the virtual versus physical estate
• Efficiency gains
• Transformative potential
3. Eriksen, T. H. (2001). Tyranny of the Moment: Fast and Slow Time in the
Information Age. Pluto Press.
The turn of the millennium is characterized by exponential
growth in everything related to communication - from the
internet and email to air traffic …
All against a background
of constant change
4. On the ground
• Pervasive technological environment -
Embedded, Embodied and Everyday (Hine, 2013)
– Electronic Assessment Management (EAM)
– Networked learning environments
• Power shifts - reflected in:
– consumerist discourse
– high stakes evaluations (MEQs; NSS)
– competiveness
• Academic identity, research <-> teaching
• Digital divisions
5. Tipping point;
Chasm; 16% rule.
Rogers, E. (2003).Diffusion of Innovations (Fifth Edition). Free Press: New York.
Driving change: feels like an uphill struggle?
6. Technology Acceptance Model
Rienties, B., Giesbers, S., Lygo-Baker, S., Ma, S., & Rees, R. (2014). Why some teachers easily
learn to use a new Virtual Learning Environment: a Technology Acceptance perspective.
Bagozzi, R. P.; Davis, F. D.; Warshaw, P. R. (1992), "Development and test of a theory of
technological learning and usage.", Human Relations, 45(7): 660–686
7. First order barriers: [incremental, institutional]
extrinsic obstacles to implementation such as access to
equipment, technical training, and support.
Second order barriers: [fundamental, personal]
intrinsic obstacles rooted in underlying beliefs about
the student teacher role and persistence in traditional
practices of teaching and assessment.
Ertmer (1999): Technology integration in education
Ertmer, P. (1999). Addressing first and second order barriers to change:
strategies for technology integration ETR&D, Vol. 47: 47-61.
8. Third order barrier: design thinking
“Be able to reorganise and create learning activities
and materials that are adapted to the instructional
needs of different contexts and learners.”
Tsai and Chai (2012):
9. Learning Design
The deliberate creative practice of
devising new practices, plans of
activity, resources and tools aimed at
achieving particular educational aims
in a given situation.
10. • Context:
– Heterogeneous communities of educational practitioners.
– Distributed expertise.
– Tacit intuitive knowledge.
– Implicit assumptions.
• Aims:
– Enable critical collaborative reflection on design experiences
– Enable small scale risk taking
– Opportunities for co-design
– Engage with discipline (signature
pedagogies, Schulman, 2005)
12. • Design Narratives: accounts of critical events from a
personal, phenomenological perspective that focus
on design in the sense of problem solving:
– describing a problem in the chosen domain, the actions taken to
resolve it and their unfolding effects.
• Design Patterns: originated as a design language within
architecture (Alexander et al, 1977). They take the form of
a solution to a problem in a given context.
• Design scenarios: describe novel future problems.
They offer a means for validating the design claims
emerging from design narratives and encapsulated in
design patterns.
13. Participatory pattern
workshops (PPW)
Mor, Y.; Warburton, S. & Winters, N. (2012), 'Participatory Pattern
Workshops: A Methodology for Open Learning Design Inquiry', Research in
Learning Technology 20
14.
15. +ve = range of application
Domains of activity have included: feedback and assessment
processes; virtual worlds for teaching; managing digital
identity; Web 2.0 tools; computer supported collaboration.
-ve = testing solutions to novel problems
The application of design patterns to the production of
concrete design solutions (scenarios) has been consistently
difficult to achieve.
16. Learning Design
Studio (LDS)
Mor, Y. & Mogilevsky, O. (2013). 'The Learning Design Studio: Collaborative
Design Inquiry as Teachers' Professional Development', Research in Learning
Technology 21.
17.
18. +ve = adaptability
Approach has been trialled in four different course settings:
from blended to fully online.
-ve = scaffolding
Participants are presented with an unfamiliar pedagogical
process. The nature of the LDS methodology foregrounds
innovation and questioning of a problem space. Getting lost can
be a part of the journey.
21. Encapsulated in two complementary
MA Modules in Higher Education
1. Learning Design Studio
• Participants work in groups
on projects as described in
the LDS methodology and
prototype solutions in their
particular domain of
inquiry.
• Introduce the methodology
itself, through review
papers and example
projects.
• Course ends with an open
“crit”, where students
present their projects.
2. Pattern Design Workshop
• Participants use
narratives, patterns and
scenarios to collaboratively
reflect on their practical
experiences.
• They can accomplish this
either by reference to the
LDS module or to other
modules in the programme.
23. Towards a ‘Design Based Practice’?
- Empowered
- Critical and reflective
- Dynamic and iterative: responsive to
change
- Sensitive to disciplinary context
- Shared
Tyranny of the Moment: Fast and Slow Time in the Information Age. Thomas HyllandEriksen: Pluto Press 2001The turn of the millennium is characterized by exponential growth in everything related to communication - from the internet and email to air traffic. 'The Tyranny of the Moment' deals with some of the most perplexing paradoxes of this new information age. Who would have expected that apparently time-saving technology results in time being scarcer than ever? And has this seemingly limitless access to information led to confusion rather than enlightenment? Thomas Eriksen argues that slow time - private periods where we are able to think and correspond coherently without interuption - is now one of the most precious resources we have, and it is becoming a major political issue. Since we are now theoretically 'online' 24 hours a day, we must fight for the right to be unavailable - the right to live and think more slowly. It is not only that working hours have become longer - Eriksen also shows how the logic of this new information technology has, in the space of just a few years, permeated every area of our lives. This is equally true for those living in poorer parts of the globe usually depicted as outside the reaches of the information age, as well as those in the West. Exploring phenomena such as the world wide web, wap telephones, multi-channel television and email, 'The Tyranny of the Moment' examines this new, non-linear and fragmented way of communicating to reveal the effect it has on working conditions in the new economy, changes in family life and, ultimately, personal identity. Eriksen argues that a culture lacking a sense of its past, and therefore of its future, is effectively static. Although solutions are suggested, he demonstrates that there is no easy way out.
The first is that the Internet is embedded. Miller and Slater, for example, went to Trinidad to see how the Internet made sense in this setting. They showed that it meant different things to different people, that it showed ways of realizing particular cultural interests and biases. They studied an Internet that gained meaning through being embedded in a specific culture. This is just one possible aspect of embedding that an ethnographer might be interested in: there are many different notions of embedding within the media, social networks, situations like family life, how organisations and institutions make the Internet their own.The second is that the Internet is embodied. Ethnographers should try to interrogate not just where we are in our heads, but also the material circumstances that are shaping the experience of the Internet and also the emotions that ensue. One way to do this is to play off the idea of autoethnography. Autoethnography is often underemphasised because we’re so busy trying to legitimize what constitutes ethnography but it can be a valuable way of showing how bodies inhabit the ethnographic experience and thinking about the specificity of a particular person’s engagement with the Internet.The third concept is that the Internet is everyday. A lot of Internet use today has become quite unremarkable – we use it as a way of making sense of what we do. It has become an infrastructure to do other things and so the sociology of infrastructure is useful for thinking about what invisible work is going on when we take things for granted. A useful strategy here is to take the familiar things about the Internet and make them strange again, to get at thinking how everyday practice shapes certain things as sensible and marginalises others. At the same time, we also have to deal with a topical, hyped, newsworthy Internet – an Internet that the press are continually making strange when they blame it for changing our lives etc. The challenge is to remain symmetrical about these two concepts. Both are constructions; our challenge is to understand how others work with those constructions.
History and Orientation: Diffusion research goes one step further than two-step flow theory. The original diffusion research was done as early as 1903 by the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde who plotted the original S-shaped diffusion curve. Tardes' 1903 S-shaped curve is of current importance because "most innovations have an S-shaped rate of adoption" (Rogers, 1995).
•Rienties, B., Giesbers, S., Lygo-Baker, S., Ma, S., & Rees, R. (2014). Why some teachers easily learn to use a new Virtual Learning Environment: a Technology Acceptance perspective. Interactive Learning Environments. DOI: 10.1080/10494820.2014.881394.After a decade of virtual learning environments (VLEs) in higher education, many teachers still use only a minimum of its affordances. This study looked at how academic staff interacted with a new and unknown VLE in order to understand how technology acceptance and support materials influence (perceived and actual) task performance. In an experimental design, 36 participants were split into a control (online help) and experimental (instructor video) condition and completed five common teaching tasks in a new VLE. In contrast to most technology acceptance model research, this study found that perceived usefulness of the VLE was not related to (perceived) task performance. Perceived ease of use was related to intentions and actual behaviour in the VLE. Furthermore, no significant difference was found between the two conditions, although the experimental condition led to a (marginal) increase in time to complete the tasks.
Barriers to implementation:Give more moneyProvide more pedagogical technology training
if you wish to understand why professions develop as they do, study their nurseries, in this case,their forms of professional preparation. When you do, you will generally detect the characteristic forms of teaching and learning that I have come to call signature pedagogies . These are types of teaching that organize the fundamental ways in which future practitioners are educated for their new professions. In these signature pedagogies, the novices are instructed in critical aspects of the three fundamental dimensions of professional work to think, to perform , and to act with integrity.
Goldilocks and TPACK: Is the Construct ‘Just Right?’Journal of Research on Technology in Education; Volume 46, Issue 2, 2013DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2013.10782615Laurie Brantley-Diasa & Peggy A. Ertmer; pages 103-128AbstractIn the education community, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework has become a popular construct for examining the types of teacher knowledge needed to achieve technology integration. In accordance with Katz and Raths’s ’Goldilocks Principle’ (cited in Kagan, 1990), TPACK, with its seven knowledge domains, may be too large (vague or ambiguous) of a construct to enable reasonable application. In this article, we provide a critical review of the TPACK construct and address the development, verification, usefulness, application, and appropriateness of TPACK as a way to explain the teacher cognition needed for effective technology integration. We make suggestions for returning to a simpler conceptualization to refocus our efforts on what teachers need to achieve meaningful technology-enabled learning.
AbstractEvidence-based practice (EBP) has emerged as an alternative to traditional social work practice and has ignited a new round in the decades-old debate about the relationship between knowledge and practice in the field. This article identifies several limitations inherent in the EBP perspective and argues that it would be unfortunate if EBP were to become the new paradigm for social work practice and education. It also presents a new perspective for social work called design-based practice (DBP), which is based on the work of Herbert Simon and Mary Parker Follett, and compares this perspective with EBP and authority-based practice. DBP rests on the belief that knowledge is derived from experience and interactions between practitioners and clients and that professional practice should be primarily concerned with "how things ought to be."